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Binary function

In mathematics, a binary function is a function of arity two, meaning it accepts exactly two input arguments from specified sets and maps them to an output in a target set.^[1] Formally, such a function is denoted as f: X \times Y \to Z, where X, Y, and Z are sets, and the Cartesian product X \times Y consists of all ordered pairs (x, y) with x \in X and y \in Y.^[2] This general structure allows binary functions to model relationships between pairs of elements across diverse mathematical domains, such as real numbers or abstract sets.^[3] Binary functions are also commonly referred to as functions of two variables, particularly in analysis and calculus, where they form the basis for studying multivariable phenomena.^[3] For example, the function f(x, y) = x^2 + y^2 takes two real numbers x and y as inputs and outputs their squared sum, representing the equation of a paraboloid in three-dimensional space.^[3] Another illustration is the modulus operation, \mod(a, b), which takes an integer a and a positive integer b to return the remainder of a divided by b.^[4] A special case of binary functions arises in abstract algebra, where the domain and codomain coincide as the same set S, yielding a binary operation on S: a function *: S \times S \to S that combines two elements to produce a third within the set, ensuring closure.^[5] Examples include addition and multiplication on the integers \mathbb{Z}, which satisfy a + b \in \mathbb{Z} and a \cdot b \in \mathbb{Z} for all a, b \in \mathbb{Z}.^[5] These operations underpin algebraic structures like groups, rings, and fields, enabling the study of symmetries and computational rules.^[5] Beyond algebra, binary functions play key roles in logic, where binary function symbols denote operations of arity two in formal languages, and in computer science, where they support pairwise computations in algorithms and data processing.^[1]

Definitions and Notations

Standard Set-Theoretic Definition

In set theory, a binary function is defined as a mapping f: X \times Y \to Z, where X, Y, and Z are sets, and the domain X \times Y consists of all ordered pairs (x, y) with x \in X and y \in Y.^[6] This formulation captures the essence of functions that depend on two inputs, generalizing the idea of associating an output in Z to each possible combination of elements from the input sets. The ordered pair (x, y) is itself a fundamental construct, typically defined via the Kuratowski construction as \{\{x\}, \{x, y\}\} to ensure uniqueness within axiomatic set theory. The Cartesian product X \times Y, which serves as the domain for binary functions, is formally the set \{(x, y) \mid x \in X, \, y \in Y\}, comprising all possible ordered pairs from the two sets.^[7] This product preserves the distinction between elements of X and Y through the ordering in each pair, distinguishing it from unordered pairs or other set combinations. For finite sets, the cardinality of the Cartesian product satisfies |X \times Y| = |X| \cdot |Y|, reflecting the exhaustive pairing of elements and providing a measure of the domain's size.^[7] Unlike a unary function, which maps from a single set to another (i.e., g: W \to V), a binary function inherently involves two arguments drawn from potentially distinct sets, enabling more complex dependencies in the mapping.^[6] This distinction underscores the arity of functions in set-theoretic terms, where the number of input sets determines the function's classification. The concept of binary functions originated within the foundational developments of set theory by Georg Cantor and contemporaries in the late 19th century, as part of broader efforts to formalize infinite sets and their products.^[8] Binary operations form a special case of binary functions, where X = Y = Z and the mapping returns an element within the same set, often emphasizing closure properties.^[9]

Alternative Formulations

In mathematical practice, binary functions are often expressed using the informal notation f(x, y) = z, where x \in X, y \in Y, and z \in Z represents the unique output for the ordered pair of inputs, emphasizing the sequential listing of arguments without explicit reference to the domain as a Cartesian product.^[5] An equivalent logical formulation views a binary function f: X \times Y \to Z as a ternary relation R \subseteq X \times Y \times Z, such that (x, y, z) \in R if and only if f(x, y) = z, with the key functional property that for every (x, y) \in X \times Y, there exists exactly one z \in Z satisfying this condition, ensuring totality and uniqueness.^[4]^[10] In contexts where binary functions act as operations, they are commonly denoted using operator notation, such as infix symbols (e.g., x \oplus y) to indicate the combination of inputs, where precedence rules and potential associativity must be considered for unambiguous evaluation in expressions.^[5] Unlike general binary relations, which are arbitrary subsets of X \times Y and may associate multiple or no outputs with an input, binary functions are total over their domain and single-valued, mapping each input pair to precisely one output, thereby imposing stricter structural constraints.^[4]^[10]

Examples

Arithmetic and Algebraic Examples

In arithmetic, a fundamental example of a binary function is addition on the integers, defined as f: \mathbb{Z} \times \mathbb{Z} \to \mathbb{Z} where f(m, n) = m + n. This operation maps pairs of integers to their sum and exhibits commutativity, satisfying f(m, n) = f(n, m) for all m, n \in \mathbb{Z}. Multiplication provides another arithmetic binary function, given by g: \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{R} such that g(a, b) = a \times b. In the context of rings, this operation can yield zero divisors, where nonzero elements a and b satisfy g(a, b) = 0, as seen in structures like the ring of integers modulo 6, where $2 \times 3 \equiv 0 \pmod{6}./08%3A_An_Introduction_to_Rings/8.01%3A_Definitions_and_Examples)^[11] Subtraction serves as a binary function on integers, h: \mathbb{Z} \times \mathbb{Z} \to \mathbb{Z} defined by h(a, b) = a - b, which produces the difference of the inputs. Unlike addition, subtraction lacks commutativity, as h(a, b) \neq h(b, a) in general, for instance h(3, 1) = 2 while h(1, 3) = -2. Division operates as a partial binary function due to domain restrictions, specified as k: \mathbb{R} \times (\mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\}) \to \mathbb{R} with k(a, b) = a / b. This excludes division by zero to ensure the output remains in the reals, making it undefined for inputs where the second argument is zero. In algebraic settings like vector spaces, scalar multiplication exemplifies a binary function f: \mathbb{F} \times V \to V, where \mathbb{F} is a field and V is the vector space, defined by f(\alpha, v) = \alpha v. This operation scales vectors by field elements and is essential for the vector space axioms, preserving the structure under addition and further scalings.^[12]

Analytic Examples

In analytic contexts, binary functions often arise in the study of vector spaces, metric structures, and integral transforms, providing tools for measuring similarity, distance, and superposition in continuous settings. These functions typically map pairs of elements from spaces like vector fields or function spaces to scalars or other functions, incorporating properties from calculus such as linearity and integrability. Key examples illustrate how binary functions underpin foundational concepts in functional analysis and geometry. The inner product, denoted ⟨·, ·⟩, is a binary function on an inner product space (V, ⟨·, ·⟩), where V is a vector space over the real or complex numbers 𝔽, mapping V × V to 𝔽. It satisfies three axioms: linearity in the first argument (⟨αu + βv, w⟩ = α⟨u, w⟩ + β⟨v, w⟩ for α, β ∈ 𝔽 and u, v, w ∈ V), conjugate symmetry (⟨u, v⟩ = \overline{⟨v, u⟩}), and positive-definiteness (⟨u, u⟩ ≥ 0 with equality if and only if u = 0). A canonical example is the dot product on ℝⁿ, defined by

\langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y} \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^n x_i y_i,

which induces a norm and geometry on the space, enabling notions of orthogonality and angles. This structure generalizes the Euclidean dot product to abstract settings, forming the basis for Hilbert spaces in functional analysis. In metric spaces, the distance function d serves as a binary function d: M × M → [0, ∞), where M is a set equipped with this metric, quantifying separation between points. It obeys non-negativity (d(x, y) ≥ 0), identity of indiscernibles (d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y), symmetry (d(x, y) = d(y, x)), and the triangle inequality (d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z ∈ M). For instance, in ℝⁿ with the Euclidean metric, d(x, y) = √(∑(x_i - y_i)²), which models physical distances and supports topological properties like completeness and compactness. This binary function is fundamental to analysis, defining convergence and continuity in non-vector spaces. Convolution provides another analytic binary operation, defined for integrable functions f, g: ℝ → ℝ as (f * g): ℝ → ℝ, where

(f * g)(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(\tau) g(t - \tau) \, d\tau.

This maps the product of function spaces to another function space, capturing overlap or superposition, and is associative and commutative under suitable conditions like integrability. In signal processing and partial differential equations, convolution combines inputs linearly, as seen in the response of linear time-invariant systems, and its Fourier transform simplifies to pointwise multiplication, highlighting its role in harmonic analysis. Bilinear forms represent a class of binary functions B: V × W → 𝔽, where V and W are vector spaces over 𝔽, that are linear in each argument separately: B(αu + βv, w) = αB(u, w) + βB(v, w) and B(u, αw + βz) = αB(u, w) + βB(u, z). When V = W, symmetric bilinear forms induce quadratic forms via Q(v) = B(v, v), with applications in optimization and physics. A notable example is the determinant as a bilinear form on ℝ² × ℝ², given by B(x, y) = det([x y]), where [x y] is the matrix with columns x and y; this alternates (B(y, x) = -B(x, y)) and measures oriented area, extending to multilinear forms in higher dimensions for volume computations.

Specific Contexts

Functions of Two Real Variables

Binary functions of two real variables, often denoted as f: \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{R}, take pairs (x, y) from the domain \mathbb{R}^2 to real numbers, enabling graphical representation as surfaces in three-dimensional space where z = f(x, y). These surfaces illustrate the function's behavior, with level curves—sets where f(x, y) = c for constant c—projecting contours onto the xy-plane to reveal gradients and critical points. Partial derivatives, such as \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} and \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}, measure rates of change along the x- and y-axes, respectively, fixing the other variable, and are fundamental for analyzing slopes on these surfaces.^[13]^[14] Continuity for such functions is defined pointwise: f is continuous at (a, b) if \lim_{(x,y) \to (a,b)} f(x,y) = f(a,b), requiring the limit to exist independently of the approach path in \mathbb{R}^2. On compact subsets of \mathbb{R}^2, continuous functions achieve uniform continuity, ensuring small domain perturbations yield small function value changes uniformly. A classic counterexample of discontinuity at the origin is f(x, y) = \frac{xy}{x^2 + y^2} for (x, y) \neq (0,0), with f(0,0) = 0; limits along lines y = mx yield \frac{m}{1 + m^2}, varying by direction, so the limit fails to exist.^[15]/Chapter_04._Continuity/4.03._Uniform_Continuity) Differentiability at a point (a, b) requires the function to be approximated linearly by its total derivative, represented as the Jacobian matrix \begin{pmatrix} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x}(a,b) & \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}(a,b) \end{pmatrix} for scalar-valued f, capturing the best linear approximation via the differential df = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} dx + \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} dy. For twice continuously differentiable (C^2) functions, Clairaut's theorem (also known as Schwarz's theorem) guarantees equality of mixed partial derivatives: \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial x \partial y} = \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial y \partial x}, provided the partials are continuous, allowing symmetric Hessian matrices for second-order analysis. This theorem underpins optimization and stability assessments in multivariable calculus. Representative examples highlight geometric properties: the function f(x, y) = x^2 + y^2 graphs as an elliptic paraboloid opening upward from the origin, with level curves as concentric circles and partial derivatives \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} = 2x, \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} = 2y indicating radial increase. In contrast, f(x, y) = x^2 - y^2 forms a hyperbolic paraboloid or saddle surface, where level curves are hyperbolas, partials \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} = 2x, \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} = -2y reveal opposing curvatures along axes, and the origin acts as a saddle point with zero gradient. These quadratic forms exemplify how binary functions over reals encode curvature and extrema visually in \mathbb{R}^3.^[16]^[17]

Binary Operations

A binary operation on a set S is a function f: S \times S \to S that assigns to each ordered pair (x, y) with x, y \in S a unique element z \in S, ensuring closure under the operation.^[18] This distinguishes binary operations from general binary functions, as the codomain coincides with the domain to maintain the set's integrity.^[19] For instance, matrix multiplication serves as a binary operation on the set of all n \times n matrices over the real numbers, where the product of two such matrices yields another in the set.^[20] Key properties of binary operations include associativity, commutativity, the existence of an identity element, and the presence of inverses. A binary operation f is associative if f(f(x,y),z) = f(x,f(y,z)) for all x, y, z \in S.^[21] It is commutative if f(x,y) = f(y,x) for all x, y \in S.^[22] An identity element e \in S satisfies f(e,x) = f(x,e) = x for all x \in S, and an inverse for x \in S is an element x^{-1} \in S such that f(x, x^{-1}) = f(x^{-1}, x) = e.^[23] These properties underpin algebraic structures built on binary operations. A semigroup is a set S equipped with an associative binary operation.^[24] A monoid extends a semigroup by including an identity element.^[25] A group is a monoid where every element has an inverse, and if the operation is also commutative, the group is abelian.^[23] The integers \mathbb{Z} under addition form an abelian group, with 0 as the identity and -x as the inverse of x.^[26] Arithmetic operations like addition exemplify these structures in a concrete manner.^[27] Subtraction on the positive integers, however, fails to qualify as a binary operation, as results like $1 - 2 = -1 lie outside the set, violating closure.^[28]

Properties and Restrictions

Injectivity, Surjectivity, and Partial Functions

A binary function f: X \times Y \to Z is injective if distinct elements in the domain map to distinct elements in the codomain, formally: whenever f(x_1, y_1) = f(x_2, y_2), it follows that (x_1, y_1) = (x_2, y_2).^[29] This property ensures no two different input pairs produce the same output, generalizing the one-to-one condition from unary functions to the Cartesian product domain. For instance, the addition function f(x, y) = x + y from \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R} to \mathbb{R} is not injective, as f(1, 2) = 3 = f(2, 1) but (1, 2) \neq (2, 1). Surjectivity for a binary function f: X \times Y \to Z requires that every element in the codomain is attained, meaning for every z \in Z, there exists at least one pair (x, y) \in X \times Y such that f(x, y) = z.^[29] This onto property guarantees the function covers the entire codomain using pairs from the product space. A classic example is the projection function \pi_x: \mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{R} defined by \pi_x(x, y) = x, which is surjective because for any z \in \mathbb{R}, the pair (z, a) for arbitrary a \in \mathbb{R} satisfies \pi_x(z, a) = z. A binary function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective, establishing a one-to-one correspondence between the domain X \times Y and codomain Z, which admits an inverse function.^[29] Bijectivity for binary functions is uncommon when the cardinality of Z differs from that of X \times Y, as the latter typically has cardinality |X| \cdot |Y| for finite sets, precluding a bijection unless sizes match; however, for infinite sets like the reals where |\mathbb{R} \times \mathbb{R}| = |\mathbb{R}|, bijections exist.^[29] Partial binary functions extend the concept by being defined only on a proper subset of X \times Y, rather than the full Cartesian product, with the domain serving as a binary relation specifying where the function is total.^[30] The domain of definition is thus the set of pairs for which the output is specified, allowing modeling of operations undefined in certain cases. For example, the division function f(x, y) = x / y on \mathbb{R} \times (\mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\}) is partial, as it excludes pairs where y = 0 to avoid undefined behavior.

Currying to Unary Functions

In mathematics, currying transforms a binary function f: X \times Y \to Z into a unary function \hat{f}: X \to (Y \to Z), defined such that \hat{f}(x)(y) = f(x, y) for all x \in X and y \in Y.^[31] This process relies on the universal property of the function set Z^Y, establishing a natural bijection between morphisms X \times Y \to Z and X \to Z^Y.^[31] Equivalently, one may fix an argument to obtain a restricted unary function, such as f_x: Y \to Z where f_x(y) = f(x, y) for a fixed x \in X.^[31] This transformation allows a binary function to be viewed as a family of unary functions parameterized by the fixed argument, facilitating analysis in contexts like multivariable calculus.^[32] For instance, consider a differentiable binary function f(x, y); fixing x = a yields the unary function h(y) = f(a, y), whose derivative h'(y) computes the partial derivative \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}(a, y).^[33] Such restrictions enable the application of single-variable techniques to study joint behaviors incrementally.^[32] In lambda calculus and functional programming, currying expresses binary functions through nested abstractions, enabling higher-order functions that operate on other functions.^[34] A canonical example is addition, represented as \lambda x. \lambda y. (x + y), where applying the first argument x returns the unary function \lambda y. (x + y).^[34] This form, originating from Moses Schönfinkel's work on combinatory logic and popularized by Haskell Curry, underpins the treatment of multi-argument functions as compositions of unary ones in computational models.^[34] However, currying discards direct access to joint dependencies between arguments, requiring reconstruction of the original binary function from the family of unary ones to recover full interaction information.^[31] Additionally, the process assumes well-defined function spaces Y \to Z; if Y lacks a suitable structure for forming such functions (e.g., in non-cartesian settings), currying may not apply straightforwardly.^[31]

Generalizations

To n-ary Functions

An n-ary function, also known as a function of arity n, is a mapping from the Cartesian product of n sets to a codomain, denoted as f: X_1 \times \cdots \times X_n \to Z, where each X_i is the domain for the i-th argument and Z is the codomain.^[35] This generalizes the binary function, which corresponds to the case n=2, where f: X_1 \times X_2 \to Z.^[36] When all input sets are identical, say X, the domain is the Cartesian power X^n = X \times \cdots \times X (n times), consisting of all ordered n-tuples from X.^[37] For finite sets, the cardinality of the Cartesian power satisfies |X^n| = |X|^n, reflecting the exponential growth in the number of possible inputs as arity increases.^[37] The case n=0 defines a nullary or 0-ary function, which maps from the empty product—effectively the singleton set containing the empty tuple, {()}—to Z, yielding a constant value in Z without inputs; such functions are precisely the constants in a structure.^[36] The unary case n=1 serves as a bridge, reducing to standard functions f: X \to Z, while higher arities extend this framework. Examples of ternary functions (n=3) include the scalar triple product in vector algebra, [ \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w} ] = \mathbf{u} \cdot (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{w}), which maps three vectors in \mathbb{R}^3 to a scalar representing the signed volume of the parallelepiped they form.^[38] Binary functions can simulate higher-arity ones through iteration or composition; for instance, repeated application of binary addition yields n-ary summation, \sum_{i=1}^n x_i = ((x_1 + x_2) + \cdots ) + x_n.^[39] More generally, every n-ary operation on a set is a finite composition of binary operations, a result established by Sierpiński in the context of functional completeness.^[39]

Bilinear and Multilinear Forms

A bilinear form on vector spaces V and W over a field \mathbb{F} is a function B: V \times W \to \mathbb{F} that is linear in each argument separately.^[40] Specifically, for all scalars \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{F} and vectors u, v \in V, w \in W, it satisfies B(\alpha u + \beta v, w) = \alpha B(u, w) + \beta B(v, w), and analogously for the second argument.^[41] This structure generalizes binary functions by imposing linearity, making bilinear forms fundamental in linear algebra for capturing interactions between vectors while preserving additivity and homogeneity.^[42] Representative examples include matrix multiplication viewed as a bilinear map from row vectors to column vectors: for an m \times n matrix A, the map (u, v) \mapsto u^T A v is bilinear, where u \in \mathbb{F}^n and v \in \mathbb{F}^m.^[42] Another is the Gram matrix associated with a bilinear form B on a vector space with basis \{e_i\}, given by the matrix entries A_{ij} = B(e_i, e_j), which represents B in coordinates and is symmetric if B is.^[43] Inner products provide a symmetric bilinear example, where B(u, v) = \langle u, v \rangle satisfies B(u, v) = B(v, u).^[40] Multilinear forms extend this to n arguments, defining an n-linear map f: V_1 \times \cdots \times V_n \to \mathbb{F} that is linear in each V_i separately, with bilinear forms corresponding to the case n=2.^[44] The tensor product V_1 \otimes \cdots \otimes V_n serves as the universal multilinear object, providing a codomain such that every multilinear map factors uniquely through it.^[41] In applications, such as differential geometry, the Lie bracket [\cdot, \cdot]: \mathfrak{g} \times \mathfrak{g} \to \mathfrak{g} on a Lie algebra \mathfrak{g} is a bilinear map satisfying additional skew-symmetry and Jacobi identity properties.^[45] A bilinear form B is non-degenerate if, for every nonzero w \in W, the kernel of the map v \mapsto B(v, w) is trivial (i.e., \ker(B(\cdot, w)) = \{0\}), and symmetrically for the other argument.^[46]

Abstract Frameworks

Category Theory Perspective

In category theory, binary functions are abstracted as morphisms f: X \times Y \to Z in categories possessing binary products, where the product X \times Y is characterized by its universal property: for any object W and morphisms g: W \to X, h: W \to Y, there exists a unique morphism \langle g, h \rangle: W \to X \times Y such that the projections compose appropriately. This construction allows binary functions to be treated uniformly as arrows from a structured domain, emphasizing relational and compositional aspects over concrete computations.^[47] Multicategories provide a framework for generalizing binary functions to n-ary operations, where morphisms have a finite sequence of input objects and a single output object; the binary case corresponds to morphisms with exactly two inputs. This structure captures operations that are not necessarily associative or unital in a simple way, and operads emerge as multicategories with a single object, modeling symmetric or plain algebraic theories such as those for monoids or Lie algebras.^[48] Monoidal categories formalize binary operations through a tensor product \otimes: \mathcal{C} \times \mathcal{C} \to \mathcal{C} equipped with natural associators and unit isomorphisms, enabling the composition of objects and morphisms in a non-cartesian manner. In the category of vector spaces over a field, denoted Vect, bilinear maps—binary functions linear in each variable—are precisely the natural transformations arising from the tensor-hom adjunction, highlighting how monoidal structure preserves linearity.^[49] Enriched categories over the category of sets recover ordinary categories, where the hom-objects are sets (hom-sets) upon which binary functions from the enriching monoidal structure—such as the cartesian product or disjoint union—act to define composition and identities. This enrichment perspective underscores how binary operations on the hom-sets enforce the category's axioms, like associativity of composition.^[50] The functoriality of binary functions is exemplified by the adjunction between the product functor and the internal hom-functor in cartesian closed categories, yielding the currying isomorphism \Hom(X \times Y, Z) \cong \Hom(X, \Hom(Y, Z)), which translates binary morphisms into unary ones preserving structure.^[47]

Universal Algebra Perspective

In universal algebra, binary functions arise as the interpretations of operation symbols of arity 2 within a signature, which is a collection of operation symbols each equipped with a specified arity, including constants (arity 0), unary operations (arity 1), and higher-arity operations. For instance, the signature for groups includes a binary operation symbol, often denoted by multiplication \cdot : 2, alongside a unary inverse operation and a constant identity element.^[51] This framework abstracts algebraic structures by focusing on their operational signatures rather than specific carrier sets, allowing binary functions to define the core interactions in diverse systems like magmas or semigroups.^[52] An algebra over such a signature consists of a nonempty set (the universe) together with interpretations of each operation symbol as functions on that set, where binary symbols are interpreted as binary functions. Rings, for example, are algebras over a signature featuring two binary operations—addition + : 2 and multiplication \times : 2—along with a unary additive inverse and a constant zero, satisfying axioms like distributivity.^[52] Varieties of algebras are equationally defined classes closed under the formation of subalgebras, homomorphic images, and arbitrary products; binary operations enable the specification of identities such as x + y = y + x for abelian groups or associativity (x \cdot y) \cdot z = x \cdot (y \cdot z) for semigroups, ensuring the class remains structurally consistent.^[53] Free algebras in a variety generated by binary operations provide the universal models for those structures, constructed as the term algebra on a set of generators where elements are equivalence classes of terms built by applying the operations, modulo the variety's equations. A canonical example is the free monoid on a set of generators under binary concatenation, which freely generates all finite words without imposing relations beyond the signature.^[54] Homomorphisms between algebras of the same signature are functions f: A \to B that preserve all operations, meaning f(a \cdot b) = f(a) \cdot f(b) for binary symbols \cdot, thereby maintaining the algebraic structure across mappings.^[55]

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[PDF] Chapter 4: Binary Operations and Relations
DEFINITION 1. A binary operation ∗ on a nonempty set A is a function from A × A to A. Addition, subtraction, multiplication are binary operations on ...
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https://people.tamu.edu/~shatalov68//220_Chapter_4.pdf
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[PDF] groups.pdf
A group is a set with a binary operation that is associative, has an identity element, and has inverses for each element.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Section I.1. Semigroups, Monoids, and Groups
Feb 5, 2022 · The order of a semigroup/monoid/group is the cardinality of set G, denoted |G|. If |G| < ∞, then the semigroup/monoid/group is said to be finite ...
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[PDF] Semigroups, monoids, groups and rings (Optional reading)
3 Groups. A group is a monoid (or semigroup with an identity element) in which every element has an inverse. A group is commutative if the multiplication is ...
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[PDF] Definition and Examples of Groups
A group G is said to be abelian (or commutative) if a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G. Examples: 1. Z is an abelian group under addition. 2. R −0 is an abelian ...
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[PDF] Binary Operations, Monoids, and Groups - CSUSM
Definition 1. Let S be a set. A binary operation on S is just a function S×S → S. Example 1. Let S = R.
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[PDF] Math 120A — Introduction to Group Theory - UCI Mathematics
Subtraction (−) is not a binary operation on the positive integers N = {1 ... On the integers, however, subtraction is a binary operation: Z is closed under −.
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[PDF] Functions, Sets, and Relations
Conceptually, this means that every element from A corresponds to exactly one element in B, and vice versa. Indeed, the name makes sense: remember that a binary ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
[PDF] PROCEEDINGS 1996 ANNUAL MEETING Mount Saint Vincent ...
) is not isomorphic because addition is not injective. f(2,4) = 6 f(1,5) = 6 andf(2,4) 1tf(I,5). (R,+,.) is not isomorphic because addition is not injective.
[30]
[PDF] Math 35300: Section 002. Linear algebra II Fall 2012 ... - OSU Math
(a) surjective. (b) bijective. (c) constant. Exercise 5. Let A, B be sets and A × B the Cartesian product. By projection onto the second factor, one ...
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Functions and Relations - CSC 208: Discrete Structures
Definition (surjectivity): A relation is a surjective function if it is a function (right-unique and left-total) as well as right-total. Definition (bijection).
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[PDF] CDM [2ex]Semigroups and Groups
Groups. 53. At last, here is the kind of structure that guarantees existence and uniqueness of solutions of linear equations. Definition. A group is a monoid G ...
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currying in nLab
Jan 7, 2023 · Currying is a process of transforming an operation on two variables into an operation on one variable that returns a function taking the second variable as an ...
[34]
[PDF] Functional Differential Geometry - MIT
partial derivative in that direction. Here ui is a constant function. Like b ... is called currying the function, in honor of the logician Haskell Curry (1900–.
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Calculus III - Partial Derivatives - Pauls Online Math Notes
Nov 16, 2022 · In this section we are going to concentrate exclusively on only changing one of the variables at a time, while the remaining variable(s) are held fixed.
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The Lambda Calculus - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 12, 2012 · The main ideas are applying a function to an argument and forming functions by abstraction. The syntax of basic $\lambda$-calculus is quite ...
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https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combinatorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/Applied_Discrete_Structures_(Doerr_and_Levasseur)/01%3A_Set_Theory/1.03%3A_Cartesian_Products_and_Power_Sets
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Definition: Function, Arity and Constant - BookOfProofs
... 0 of arguments of the function is called its arity. Special cases of arities are: n=0: Nullary functions (or operations) are usually called constants; n=1 ...
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[PDF] Multiplayer rock-paper-scissors
Jan 19, 2021 · This will be a ternary RPS magma (A,f:A3 → A). Since n = 3 in this case and we require that n < ϖ(m) we must have that |A| ≥ 5. Our ...
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[PDF] functional completeness of algebras
Theorem of Sierpinski: Every operation can be composed from (at most) binary op- erations. In our terminology this means: if O2 stands for the set of all ...
[41]
Bilinear Form -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A bilinear form on a real vector space is a function b:V×V->R that satisfies the following axioms for any scalar alpha and any choice of vectors.
[42]
bilinear map - PlanetMath.org
Mar 22, 2013 · Let R be a ring, and let M , N and P be modules over R . A function f:M×N→P f : M × N → P is said to be a bilinear map if for each b∈M b ∈ M ...
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[PDF] bilinear forms - keith conrad
For a fixed matrix A ∈ Mn(R), the function f(v, w) = v · Aw on Rn is a bilinear form, but not necessarily symmetric like the dot product. All later examples are.
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[PDF] Lecture 4.7. Bilinear and quadratic forms - Purdue Math
Apr 9, 2020 · In particular, if a standard basis is used, then the Gram matrix is A = (B(ei,ej)) and. B(x,y) = xT Ay. For example, to the forms B1 and B2 in ( ...
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Multilinear -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A basis, form, function, etc., in two or more variables is said to be multilinear if it is linear in each variable separately.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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[PDF] LIE ALGEBRAS 1 Definition of a Lie algebra k is a fixed field. Let L ...
Traditionally in a Lie algebra one writes [x, y] instead of xy and one calls [x, y] the bracket. Example (a). Let A be an algebra. Assume that (xy)z = x(yz), ...
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non-degenerate bilinear form - PlanetMath
Mar 22, 2013 · A bilinear form B over a vector space V is said to be non-degenerate when. • if B(x,y)=0 ⁢ ( 𝐱 , 𝐲 ) = 0 for all x∈V 𝐱 ∈ V , then y=0 , and. • ...
[48]
[PDF] maclane-categories.pdf - MIT Mathematics
... Mac Lane. Categories for the. Working Mathematician. Second Edition. Springer. Page 4. Saunders Mac Lane. Professor Emeritus. Department of Mathematics.
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[PDF] General Operads and Multicategories - arXiv
Abstract. Notions of 'operad' and 'multicategory' abound. This work provides a single framework in which many of these various notions can be expressed.
[50]
[PDF] 1. Monoidal categories - MIT OpenCourseWare
The category Sets of sets is a monoidal category, where the tensor product is the Cartesian product and the unit object is a one element set; the structure ...
[51]
[PDF] Enriched Categories
May 16, 2018 · A Set-enriched category is simply a category. Ob is the set of objects of the category, and Hom(A, B) is the set of morphisms from A to B.
[52]
nLab signature (in logic)
Feb 14, 2024 · The theory of groups is usually described as a single-sorted theory whose signature has one binary operation (called 'multiplication') m m , one ...
[53]
[PDF] Lectures on Universal Algebra
Nov 8, 1999 · A lattice L consists of a nonempty set L, equipped with two binary operations ∧ and ∨ which satisfy: • x ∧ x = x and x ∨ x = x for all x ∈ L,. • ...
[54]
variety of algebras in nLab
Jan 25, 2024 · The notion of variety of algebras is a classical notion from universal algebra that subsumes nearly all of the usual kinds of algebraic objects.Idea · Definitions · Generalisations · Examples
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[PDF] The structure of free algebras - University of Hawaii Math Department
The binary operation on the algebra is denoted f0. Information about how each generated element is obtained is explicitly given. Thus, in the last two lines of ...
[56]
homomorphism in nLab
Aug 19, 2025 · A homomorphism is a function between (the underlying sets) of two algebras that preserves the algebraic structure.