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Cockatoo

Cockatoos are parrots comprising the family Cacatuidae, which includes 21 species divided among eight genera and is the sole family within the superfamily Cacatuoidea. The English name "cockatoo" derives from Dutch "kaketo(e)", borrowed from Malay "kakatua", possibly onomatopoeic of the bird's cry or from "kakak tua" meaning "elder sibling".^[1] These birds are endemic to Australasia, ranging from the Philippines and Indonesian islands through New Guinea and the Solomon Islands to Australia and nearby Pacific archipelagos.^[2]^[3] They are distinguished by prominent erectile crests used for signaling, robust curved beaks adapted for cracking nuts and seeds, zygodactyl feet for grasping, and plumage typically in white, black, or grey tones accented with yellow, pink, or red.^[4]^[5] Native to diverse wooded habitats from rainforests to savannas, cockatoos are highly social, often forming large flocks outside breeding season and maintaining lifelong monogamous pair bonds with biparental care in tree cavities.^[6] Their intelligence is evident in behaviors such as tool use for foraging, puzzle-solving, and vocal mimicry, making them popular but demanding pets that require extensive interaction to prevent behavioral issues like feather-plucking.^[7]^[8] Many species face threats from habitat destruction, illegal pet trade, and invasive species, leading to endangered or vulnerable statuses for over half, with international protections under CITES regulating commerce.^[9]^[10]

Taxonomy

Phylogenetic Position and Evolution

Cockatoos constitute the monophyletic family Cacatuidae, the sole family within the superfamily Cacatuoidea, which forms one of three primary superfamilies in the order Psittaciformes alongside Psittacoidea (true parrots) and Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots).^[11] This classification is supported by multilocus molecular phylogenies and whole-genome analyses that delineate Cacatuidae as a basal lineage distinct from the more derived Psittacoidea, based on shared derived traits such as movable head crests and unique cranial kinesis, corroborated by genetic markers rather than solely morphological convergence.^[12] Genomic evidence underscores their separation, with cockatoos exhibiting distinct mitochondrial and nuclear gene arrangements that reflect an ancient split, prioritizing sequence divergence over superficial bill or foot similarities shared ancestrally across parrots.^[13] Molecular clock estimates, calibrated against fossil constraints, place the divergence of Cacatuidae from Psittacidae (representing Psittacoidea) at approximately 40.7 million years ago during the Eocene (95% confidence interval: 51.6–30.3 Ma), marking an early radiation within Psittaciformes likely driven by Gondwanan vicariance and subsequent dispersal.^[14] This timeline aligns with Eocene climatic shifts that favored arboreal adaptations, where zygodactyl feet—two toes forward and two backward—evolved as a mechanical solution for precise branch grasping and manipulative feeding, enabling exploitation of hard-shelled seeds in forested niches without reliance on ground foraging. Similarly, the reinforced bill structure, with a hinged upper mandible, represents a causal adaptation for shear-force cracking of nuts and seeds, selected in environments where such resources demanded high mechanical leverage over softer fruits targeted by other parrot lineages.^[12] These traits, while plesiomorphic to Psittaciformes, diversified in cockatoos through iterative selection pressures in isolation from continental parrot radiations. The fossil record, though sparse due to the fragility of parrot bones, provides empirical anchors in the Australia-New Guinea region, with early Miocene (23–16 Ma) specimens like the Riversleigh cockatoo from Queensland deposits indicating a size comparable to modern Cacatua species and confirming Australasian origins post-Eocene divergence.^[15] Crown-group Cacatuidae diversification accelerated around 27.9 Ma in the Oligocene (95% CI: 38.1–18.3 Ma), coinciding with Miocene aridification and sclerophyllous vegetation expansion in Australia, which likely intensified selective pressures for specialized feeding and crested signaling amid habitat fragmentation.^[16] Limited pre-Miocene fossils underscore reliance on genetic proxies over fragmentary osteology, as avian taphonomy biases against small-bodied arboreal taxa, yet available evidence refutes recent African or South American origins in favor of vicariant Gondwanan ancestry.^[17]

Genera and Species

The family Cacatuidae consists of 21 species divided among six genera: Cacatua, Calyptorhynchus, Probosciger, Callocephalon, Nymphicus, and Eolophus.^[12] All species are endemic to Australasia, encompassing Australia, New Guinea, the Indonesian islands of Wallacea, and parts of Melanesia, with no native occurrences outside this region.^[12] The genus Cacatua is the most speciose, containing 11 species primarily characterized by white plumage, including the sulphur-crested cockatoo (C. galerita), which ranges widely across northern and eastern Australia, New Guinea, and eastern Indonesia.^[9] The genus Calyptorhynchus includes three species of black cockatoos restricted to Australia, such as the red-tailed black cockatoo (C. banksii).^[18] Probosciger comprises a single species, the palm cockatoo (P. aterrimus), distributed in New Guinea and Cape York Peninsula in Australia.^[12] The remaining genera each hold one species: the galah (Eolophus roseicapillus) in Eolophus, the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) in Nymphicus, and the gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum) in Callocephalon.^[12] Speciation in Cacatuidae has been shaped by geographic isolation, with vicariance events—such as the separation of southwestern Australian populations from eastern ones due to aridification—promoting divergence, alongside allopatric processes in island chains versus the continental mainland.^[19] This pattern accounts for higher species diversity in peripheral islands like those of Wallacea compared to the relatively uniform mainland fauna.^[12]

Recent Taxonomic Developments

A 2020 phylogeographic study using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA from over 200 red-tailed black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus banksii) samples identified a distinct western Australian lineage, formally described as the subspecies C. b. escondidus, diverging approximately 1.7 million years ago and challenging prior morphological lumping of populations based on plumage and calls alone.^[20] This revision highlighted genetic isolation driven by arid barriers, prioritizing molecular data for subspecies delimitation over traditional traits like tail panel color variation.^[21] In December 2024, a museomics analysis sequenced whole genomes from 16 museum specimens of the yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea), validating up to seven historical subspecies—four previously recognized (abbotti, parvus, sulphurea, paulandrewi)—and revealing deep phylogenetic structure among Wallacean island populations, with divergence times spanning 0.5–2 million years.^[22] The study emphasized genomic evidence of cryptic diversity over morphological similarity in white plumage and crest patterns, supporting refined taxonomy for conservation amid rapid declines.^[23] Building on this, a January 2025 genomic synthesis of Wallacean white cockatoos reclassified the Cacatua sulphurea complex into three cryptic species—lesser sulphur-crested (C. sulphurea), citron-crested (C. citrinocristata), and an intermediate lineage—based on fixed genetic markers and low interbreeding signals, overriding earlier synonymy reliant on subtle crest yellowing differences.^[24] These data-driven splits underscore how whole-genome approaches expose hidden divergences in morphologically conservative taxa, informing targeted protections against hybridization risks in reintroductions.^[25]

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Plumage

Cockatoos exhibit a body length ranging from 30 to 60 centimeters, classifying them as medium to large parrots with substantial mass relative to other avian groups.^[4] Their bills are robust and strongly hooked, providing mechanical leverage to crack tough seeds and nuts, a adaptation evident in comparative studies of parrot beak morphology.^[26] The feet are zygodactyl, featuring two toes directed forward and two backward, which facilitates secure perching and manipulation of food items in arboreal environments.^[7] ^[27] Plumage in cockatoos is typically dominated by white, black, or grey tones, with less vibrant coloration compared to other parrot families, serving camouflage functions in open woodlands.^[28] Sexual dimorphism is generally minimal across species, often limited to subtle iris color differences, though exceptions occur in certain black cockatoos where females display barred patterns or reddish undertail coverts absent in males.^[29] ^[30] Cockatoos possess powder down feathers, specialized structures that disintegrate into a fine keratin powder during preening, which coats the plumage to enhance waterproofing and remove contaminants, an adaptation supporting hygiene in variable environmental conditions.^[31] ^[32]

Crest and Display Features

Cockatoos feature an erectile crest consisting of elongated feathers originating from a muscular ridge atop the skull, enabling voluntary erection through contractions of underlying muscles attached to the feather bases.^[33] This mechanism allows precise control, with the crest deployable in seconds to amplify visual signals during interactions.^[34] Unlike static ornaments, the crest functions dynamically in conspecific communication, conveying emotional states, intentions, and environmental alerts such as predator proximity via observable raising patterns.^[34] In threat displays, individuals raise the crest to increase apparent body size, deterring rivals or predators; empirical field observations document this in aggressive encounters where the expanded silhouette combines with postural changes to assert dominance.^[34] For courtship, the crest elevates during greeting rituals or pair bonding, signaling receptivity or affiliation, as seen in captive studies where raised crests accompany approach behaviors without aggressive posturing.^[34] These displays rely on the crest's visibility, with rapid flicking or sustained erection differentiating subtle mood variations, supported by consistent anecdotal records from long-term observations of multiple species.^[34] Crest morphology varies across species, influencing display efficacy; in the sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), recurved yellow feathers form a forward-curving structure that fans prominently when raised, enhancing threat or affiliation signals in open woodland settings.^[35] Conversely, the palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) possesses a long, slender crest erected stiffly during territorial and mating sequences, integrating with tool-based drumming—where males rhythmically strike hollows with modified sticks—to broadcast possession and attract females, as verified through audio-visual analyses of wild populations in northern Australia.^[36] Such variations underscore the crest's adaptation for species-specific signaling mechanics, prioritizing visual emphasis in dense forest habitats.^[37]

Vocalizations

Cockatoos produce a broad array of vocalizations, including harsh screeches, squawks, whistles, and softer contact calls, which acoustic analyses characterize by their harmonic richness and frequency modulation. These sounds typically feature prominent fundamental frequencies with overlaid harmonics, enabling clear transmission over distances. In the sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), calls can attain intensities of 120 to 135 dB, an adaptation for signaling across expansive, open habitats where visual contact is intermittent.^[38]^[39] Contact calls predominate in flock contexts, serving to coordinate group movements during foraging and flight; empirical observations show call rates increasing with group size, countering expectations of dilution effects and instead promoting cohesion through repeated auditory cues.^[40] Learned elements in these vocalizations, such as dialect variations across populations, further support individual recognition and social bonding, as documented in studies of wild parrots including cockatoos.^[41] This complexity arises from syrinx anatomy allowing dual-voice production, facilitating simultaneous emission of varied notes for efficient communication in dynamic environments.^[42] Vocal mimicry occurs in several species, with individuals replicating conspecific calls, environmental noises, or anthropogenic sounds; captive experiments confirm this capacity, as in palm cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus) imitating drum-like beats via modified vocal output.^[42] In wild settings, such mimicry likely reinforces foraging coordination by simulating alarm or food signals, though direct causal links require further acoustic mapping; it does not imply abstract intent but stems from iterative learning tied to survival needs like group synchronization.^[41]^[43]

Habitat and Distribution

Geographic Range

Cockatoos (family Cacatuidae) are endemic to the Australasian biogeographic region, with native distributions spanning Australia (including Tasmania), New Guinea, eastern Indonesia (including Wallacea), the Philippines, and adjacent Pacific islands such as those in Melanesia up to the Solomon Islands.^[44] There are no naturally occurring populations in the Americas, Africa, or other continental regions outside this core area, reflecting their evolutionary origins and historical biogeography confined to the Indo-Pacific.^[12] Several species exhibit range expansions correlated with anthropogenic landscape changes, particularly agricultural development. The galah (Eolophus roseicapilla), originally distributed across central and northern Australia, has extended southward into South Australia and western regions, including areas previously unoccupied, facilitated by the provision of open grasslands and water sources from farming practices since the mid-20th century.^[45] This contrasts with assumptions of widespread contraction, as modified habitats have enabled population growth and colonization of settled districts.^[46] Human-mediated introductions have led to established non-native populations demonstrating invasive potential. Sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), primarily from escaped cage birds supplemented by possible vagrants, formed feral groups in New Zealand starting in the late 19th century, with current distributions scattered across the North Island and estimated totals below 1,000 individuals as of recent surveys.^[47] These populations continue to expand locally, underscoring the species' adaptability beyond native ranges.^[48]

Habitat Preferences

Cockatoos primarily inhabit environments providing both arboreal nesting sites and proximate open ground for resource access, including eucalypt woodlands, savannas, and rainforest fringes across their Australasian range.^[49] These preferences stem from the need for large tree hollows in mature specimens for breeding, coupled with adjacent clearings that facilitate detection of ground-level food.^[50] Empirical observations confirm selection for such heterogeneous mosaics over uniform forest interiors, as evidenced by foraging habitat choices in species like the glossy black-cockatoo, which favors sheoak-dominated woodlands with interspersed grassy understories.^[51] Many cockatoo taxa demonstrate pronounced habitat generalism, readily exploiting anthropogenically altered landscapes such as urban peripheries and agricultural zones where supplemental seeds, fruits, and water enhance survival rates beyond those in unmodified wilds.^[52] Sulphur-crested cockatoos, for example, have proliferated in cities like Sydney by leveraging waste grains and garden produce, with roost sites shifting seasonally toward built-up areas offering thermal refuge and reduced predation.^[53] This adaptability underscores causal drivers like opportunistic resource patronage over fidelity to "pristine" conditions, enabling range expansions into novel matrices.^[54] Little corellas exemplify arid-zone resilience, persisting in central Australia's deserts through aggregation at artificial or semi-permanent water points amid sparse acacia scrub and spinifex grasslands.^[55] Nesting remains tied to infrequent riverine eucalypts providing hollows, yet population stability hinges less on extensive canopy cover than on mitigating competition from co-occurring parrots and invasives for these cavities.^[56] Studies of Carnaby's cockatoo reveal that hollow occupancy rates correlate more strongly with exclusion of rivals via entrance modifications than with raw hollow abundance, implicating interference dynamics as primary bottlenecks amid habitat fragmentation.^[57] Such patterns affirm that while tree loss curtails options, competitive exclusion—exacerbated by habitat compression—drives localized declines more directly than absolute acreage deficits.^[58]

Ecology and Behavior

Diet and Foraging Strategies

Cockatoos (family Cacatuidae) maintain an opportunistic omnivorous diet dominated by plant matter, including seeds (comprising up to 54% in species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo), fruits, nuts, bulbs, corms, roots, and inflorescences, with insects and larvae providing supplementary protein. Their powerful, chisel-like bills facilitate processing hard-shelled foods by cracking seeds and excavating tubers, adapting to diverse textures and defenses in native eucalypt-dominated habitats. This varied intake reflects first-principles energy maximization, as cockatoos select resources yielding high caloric returns relative to handling costs.^[59]^[3] Foraging strategies emphasize efficiency in heterogeneous environments, with diurnal activity concentrated in early mornings and late afternoons to exploit peak resource availability while minimizing predation exposure. Ground-based gleaning and digging predominate (around 68% of observations in urban-adjacent sulphur-crested populations), targeting grass seeds and underground storage organs, while arboreal feeding (22%) focuses on canopy fruits and seeds; flocks systematically scan and strip patches, depleting high-value items like pine cones that offer 16,864 J/g energy—27% higher than many native alternatives—enabling rapid intake to meet daily needs of approximately 726 kJ. Seasonal shifts occur without major dietary overhaul but with increased ground excavation in drier periods, underscoring adaptability to scarcity through exploitation of emergent, high-density patches over less efficient dispersed foraging.^[59]^[60] This opportunism extends to non-native resources when natural yields falter, as empirical energy budgets demonstrate raids on calorie-dense alternatives stem from survival imperatives rather than intent, with species like Carnaby's cockatoo consuming over 85% of available pine seeds in plantations to offset protein deficits in native diets via volume. Such behaviors highlight causal drivers of resource selection—nutrient density and accessibility—prioritizing net energy gain, which can incidentally overlap with human-modified landscapes but originates in ecological realism unbound by anthropocentric valuations.^[60]^[61] Cockatoos form fission-fusion societies characterized by fluid, nomadic flocks that assemble and disband based on foraging opportunities and safety needs, typically ranging from 10 to over 100 individuals, though roosting sites can host up to 500 birds for enhanced vigilance against predators.^[62] Foraging subgroups are often smaller, with 41% consisting of 1-5 members and 20% of 6-10, reflecting pragmatic alliances that prioritize resource access over permanent bonds; pair affiliations remain loose outside breeding contexts, allowing individuals to shift groups dynamically.^[59] This structure, observed in field studies of species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo, reduces individual risk through collective detection and dilution effects during nomadic movements across habitats.^[62] Dominance hierarchies within these flocks are linear and stable, enforced via aggressive displays such as bill threats and postures, which empirically limit costly fights by establishing clear ranks for resource priority.^[63] In sulphur-crested cockatoos, males consistently outrank females, and adults dominate juveniles, with hierarchies persisting across fission-fusion cycles at communal roosts, as documented in long-term observations spanning multiple years.^[64] ^[62] These ranks facilitate orderly access to food and perches, minimizing intra-group conflict and supporting efficient group cohesion without relying on kin-based favoritism, though contextual kin associations occur.^[65] Urban populations exhibit amplified group dynamics, with larger aggregations forming around reliable human-derived food sources like waste bins, where flocks synchronize with anthropogenic activity peaks to maximize intake.^[66] ^[67] This adaptation, evident in expanding sulphur-crested cockatoo numbers in cities, leverages hierarchy for innovative foraging—higher-ranked birds lead in accessing secured resources—demonstrating opportunistic scaling of flock size to exploit novel, clumped provisions while maintaining core fission-fusion flexibility.^[68]^[66]

Breeding and Reproduction

Cockatoos generally form long-term monogamous pairs that exhibit breeding site fidelity, with pairs returning to the same tree hollows across seasons.^[69] Nesting occurs in large tree hollows, where females typically lay clutches of 1-3 eggs, most commonly two, spaced several days apart.^[70] ^[71] Incubation, primarily by the female but with male assistance in some species, lasts 25-30 days, resulting in synchronous or near-synchronous hatching.^[70] ^[72] Breeding is often seasonal and cued by environmental factors such as food abundance, with peak laying periods varying by species and region—for instance, September in palm cockatoos.^[73] ^[61] Access to reliable food resources, including anthropogenic sources like canola fields, has been linked to improved reproductive outcomes in species such as Carnaby's cockatoo.^[61] Fledging success rates are empirically low, often around 66-75% per nest, with high nestling mortality; in two-egg clutches, typically only one chick survives to fledge due to sibling competition and other factors.^[74] ^[71] Both parents contribute to brooding and provisioning, with males often foraging for food to regurgitate for the female and chicks.^[75] Nestlings fledge after 8-12 weeks but remain dependent on parental care for 3-6 months until achieving full independence, varying by species—shorter in smaller white cockatoos and longer in larger black cockatoos.^[75] ^[73] This extended post-fledging period reflects the K-selected life history strategy common in the family, prioritizing few offspring with high parental investment over rapid reproduction.^[73]

Predators and Natural Threats

Adult cockatoos face predation primarily from large raptors, including the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), which sporadically preys on species such as Carnaby's black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus latirostris), and the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), capable of taking adults in flight.^[27]^[76] Other birds of prey, such as little eagles (Hieraaetus morphnoides), also target cockatoos, particularly fledglings and weakened individuals.^[76] Nest predators pose significant risks to eggs and chicks, with goannas (monitor lizards of the genus Varanus, such as the lace monitor V. varius) climbing trees to raid hollows containing cockatoo nests, consuming eggs and nestlings.^[77] Pythons, including carpet pythons (Morelia spilota), exploit arboreal nesting sites by constricting and devouring chicks or eggs, a predation strategy observed across Australian parrot species reliant on tree cavities.^[78] Diseases represent a chronic natural threat, with psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), caused by beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) in the family Circoviridae, inducing feather loss, beak deformities, and immunosuppression in wild cockatoos, leading to secondary infections and mortality rates exceeding 50% in affected populations.^[79] Starvation occurs during seasonal droughts or food shortages, though cockatoo populations demonstrate resilience in habitats with abundant eucalypt resources, where foraging success mitigates baseline mortality below 20% annually in stable flocks.^[80] Intra-species competition for limited large tree hollows constrains breeding success, as evidenced by aggressive interactions and eviction attempts among sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) and other congeners vying for suitable cavities, where dominant pairs monopolize sites, reducing nesting opportunities for subordinates by up to 30% in dense populations.^[81] This resource limitation, inherent to the slow formation of mature hollows in native forests, acts as a primary density-dependent regulator rather than external factors alone.^[82]

Cognitive Abilities

Intelligence and Problem-Solving

Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana) demonstrate notable problem-solving abilities in controlled experiments, such as sequentially unlocking a puzzle box secured by five interlocking mechanisms to access a nut reward, with untrained individuals succeeding after brief exposure.^[83] These birds also innovate composite tool use, manipulating multiple objects simultaneously—like combining a rigid tool to pierce a barrier and a flexible one to retrieve food—indicating flexible causal understanding rather than rote imitation.^[84] However, such feats are primarily observed in captive settings with enriched environments, and wild applications appear opportunistic, tied to foraging in unpredictable island habitats rather than systematic planning.^[85] Tool use among cockatoos is uncommon and species-specific; palm cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus) manufacture and modify drumsticks from branches or seed pods to produce rhythmic beats on hollow trees, a behavior linked to territorial displays and mate attraction, with individuals showing preferences for tool design that affects sound quality.^[86]^[87] In contrast, Goffin's cockatoos exhibit tool-making in lab puzzles, such as selecting and transporting appropriate implements ahead of time, but this does not extend broadly across the family, where most species rely on beak and foot dexterity without manufactured aids.^[88] These capacities reflect adaptive intelligence for exploiting variable resources, measurable through success rates in multi-step tasks (e.g., 7 of 10 Goffin's solved lock sequences), rather than implying advanced sentience akin to mammalian cognition.^[89] Evidence for mirror self-recognition is absent in tested cockatoo species; Goffin's cockatoos failed mark tests, showing no directed responses to facial marks visible only in reflections, unlike some corvids that pass with contingency checks.^[90] This limitation underscores that cockatoo intelligence prioritizes practical problem-solving over self-conceptual awareness, aligning with evolutionary pressures for environmental manipulation in flock-based, food-scarce niches.^[91] Sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) in urban Sydney suburbs have developed a multi-step technique to lift household bin lids using beak and feet, granting access to discarded food; this behavior emerged independently in multiple locations and spread through social observation rather than individual trial-and-error, as demonstrated by controlled experiments where naive birds learned faster after watching trained demonstrators than when learning alone.^[92] Geographic clustering of bin-opening hotspots, with regional variants in lid-lifting sequences (e.g., lifting from the side versus front), further indicates local traditions maintained via flock interactions, persisting even as human countermeasures like bin straps evolve in response.^[93] Observations from 2018–2020 across 735 suburbs quantified the behavior's diffusion, with prevalence rising from isolated innovators to over 10% of flocks in affected areas within years.^[92] In 2025, a novel drinking innovation appeared in the same species, where urban cockatoos manipulate public water fountains by pecking buttons or levers to release streams, enabling hydration during dry periods; initial adopters in Sydney's inner suburbs transmitted this via roost proximity, though spread remains patchy compared to bin-opening, limited to flocks within 5–10 km radii without cross-roost diffusion yet observed.^[54]^[94] This adaptation exploits anthropogenic water sources amid climate variability, with video analyses confirming emulation over asocial learning in juvenile observers.^[94] Foraging innovations in agricultural contexts, such as coordinated crop-raiding in flocks of species like the galah (Cacatua roseicapilla), show localized spread of tactics like timing raids to evade deterrents or targeting vulnerable field edges; while direct causation studies are sparse, flock fission-fusion dynamics facilitate transmission, mirroring urban patterns where successful exploiters attract followers.^[65] These behaviors prioritize caloric gains—e.g., bin contents providing 20–50% supplemental energy in winter—over non-utilitarian displays, with no evidence of arbitrary or aesthetically driven innovations persisting without survival payoffs.^[92] Experimental limits in captive Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana) confirm social transmission of tool-based foraging but underscore reliance on observable cues for practical outcomes, not symbolic or decontextualized creativity.^[95]

Human Interactions

Agricultural Pests and Economic Impacts

Sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) and corella species (Cacatua sanguinea, Cacatua tenuirostris) are major pests in Australian agriculture, inflicting damage on sunflowers, cereals like wheat and sorghum, fruits including grapes and stone fruits, and nuts such as almonds and pistachios. Flocks target ripening seeds and fruits, with recorded yield losses up to 95% in some unprotected grape blocks (average 14%) and 5-42% in nut crops like walnuts and hazelnuts. In peanuts, red-tailed black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus banksii) cause an average 7.3% yield reduction (ranging 0-31.8%), contributing to district-level losses of $28,167 in direct damage plus $7,500 indirect in one 1998 case. Overall, cockatoo-inclusive bird damage to horticulture totals approximately $300 million annually (2007 AUD), with perceived losses highest in nuts (22%) and stone fruits (16%).^[96] Beyond crops, cockatoos chew electrical infrastructure and buildings to abrade their beaks, exacerbating economic costs. Sulphur-crested cockatoos damaged Australia's National Broadband Network (NBN) fiber optic cables, incurring repair costs of $80,000 by 2017 through repeated gnawing of spare lines. Similar behaviors lead to failures in power lines, street lighting (243 repairs in the Australian Capital Territory due to suspected bird damage), and structural harm to homes and commercial facades, amplifying maintenance expenses in rural and urban-fringe areas. These impacts compete with livestock feed resources by depleting germinating cereals, though quantified competition data remains limited compared to direct crop raids. Management strategies emphasize exclusion and deterrence over broad protection, with netting proving most effective for high-value crops, achieving up to 100% damage reduction at damage thresholds exceeding 15-25% and costing around $1,900 per hectare. Scaring via gas guns, visual predators, and shooting yields short-term reductions (e.g., 48% in vineyards) but faces habituation; integrating with population reduction enhances outcomes. Targeted culling through shooting, trapping, or poisoning (e.g., alphachloralose achieving 50% flock reduction) demonstrates practical success in Victorian programs, lowering complaints and damage without standalone long-term population control due to high reproduction rates, prioritizing cost-benefit in high-impact zones over uniform conservation.^[96]^[97]^[98]

Aviculture and Captive Management

Cockatoos are maintained in captivity for exhibition in zoos and as companion animals, with species such as the umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba) and Moluccan cockatoo (C. moluccensis) favored for their vocal mimicry abilities and affectionate behaviors toward handlers.^[99] These parrots demand expansive enclosures to accommodate their flight needs and prevent behavioral issues; minimum dimensions for single birds often exceed 3 meters in length, width, and height, with aviaries preferred for pairs or groups to allow natural movement and reduce stress from confinement.^[100] Inadequate space contributes to aggression, stereotyped pacing, and feather-plucking, underscoring the necessity for environmental enrichment including perches, swings, and destructible toys mimicking foraging.^[101] Captive lifespans range from 40 to 70 years or more for larger species, necessitating lifelong commitment from owners, yet high relinquishment rates—often due to unanticipated noise levels exceeding 120 decibels, destructive chewing of household items, and intense bonding requirements—overload rescues and sanctuaries.^[102] ^[99] Empirical observations indicate that many cockatoos cycle through multiple owners, with some individuals accumulating 7 to 11 homes over decades, exacerbating welfare strains and occasionally resulting in escapes that seed feral populations ill-equipped for wild survival.^[103] ^[104] Breeding programs in captivity support conservation for threatened taxa by producing surplus individuals for release, as demonstrated by reproductive success in species like the Philippine cockatoo (C. haematuropygia), where clutch sizes average 2-3 eggs with fledging rates improved via artificial incubation and hand-rearing.^[105] However, welfare challenges persist, including pair incompatibility leading to chronic stress and the risks of inbreeding in small founder populations without genetic monitoring.^[106] Quarantine protocols, minimizing interspecies contact to avert diseases like psittacosis, are standard in institutional settings to safeguard breeding stock.^[100]

Conservation Status and Policy Debates

The conservation status of cockatoo species varies widely, with several classified as critically endangered by the IUCN due to poaching, habitat destruction, and trade. The yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) exemplifies acute vulnerability, with an estimated 1,200-2,000 mature individuals remaining globally as of recent assessments, primarily in Indonesia and introduced populations elsewhere.^[107]^[108] Similarly, the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) numbers 430-750 individuals, confined to fragmented Philippine habitats.^[109] In contrast, species like the galah (Eolophus roseicapilla) are listed as least concern, with populations increasing across Australia due to adaptation to modified landscapes.^[110]^[111] Conservation initiatives include targeted interventions, such as the installation of artificial nest boxes in Hong Kong's urban parks in 2025 to address nesting site loss for the feral yellow-crested cockatoo population of approximately 200 birds, which represents about 10% of the global wild total.^[112]^[113] These efforts aim to mimic natural tree hollows amid urban expansion, though their long-term efficacy remains unproven given ongoing pressures like competition for resources. Empirical data on urban adaptability, particularly for species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), indicate reduced extinction risks; these birds exploit artificial food sources, roosting sites, and water in cities, sustaining large flocks despite habitat fragmentation.^[114]^[115] Policy debates center on balancing protections with practical management, especially in Australia where native species protections under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act impose severe penalties—such as $250,000 fines for unauthorized habitat clearing or harming protected cockatoos like black species (Calyptorhynchus spp.).^[116] Critics, including horticulturalists, argue these regulations are overly punitive for controlling abundant pest populations (e.g., corellas or galahs damaging crops), favoring collaboration over fines that deter farmers without addressing root causes like overabundance from landscape changes.^[117] Habitat offset schemes, requiring developers to fund equivalent restoration elsewhere, face skepticism for their measurable benefits, as relocated sites often fail to support viable populations due to poor monitoring and ecological mismatches.^[118] Such policies, while aimed at preventing localized declines, may inadvertently prioritize regulatory compliance over evidence-based pest mitigation, given the resilience of adaptable cockatoos in human-dominated environments.

Cultural Representations

In Indigenous Australian cultures, specific cockatoo species serve as totems linked to songlines and Dreaming narratives. The glossy black cockatoo holds cultural importance among Aboriginal groups, appearing in stories that convey ancestral knowledge and environmental connections.^[119] Black cockatoos, including Carnaby's cockatoo known as "Ngoolark" to the Noongar people, symbolize strength and resilience, with their flocks historically darkening skies and integrating into daily observations of nature.^[120]^[121] These roles reflect practical totemic associations rather than universal spiritual archetypes, grounded in regional ecological observations.^[122] Cockatoos feature in historical European art, evidencing early awareness of Australasian fauna through trade or exchange. Illustrations of likely sulphur-crested or yellow-crested cockatoos appear in a 13th-century Vatican manuscript, predating known direct European contact with Australia.^[123] Similarly, Andrea Mantegna's 1496 painting Madonna della Vittoria depicts a sulphur-crested cockatoo, prompting analysis of medieval maritime routes from northern Australia to Europe.^[124] Such representations often symbolize exoticism or rarity, without deeper symbolic consistency across contexts.^[125] In contemporary media, cockatoos illustrate behavioral intelligence, as seen with Snowball, a sulphur-crested cockatoo whose videos of spontaneous synchronization to music rhythms gained widespread attention starting in 2008. Scientific analysis of Snowball's 14 distinct moves, including voguing and head-bobbing, confirms voluntary entrainment to beats, a trait linked to vocal learning species and paralleling human musicality without implying cultural equivalence.^[126]^[127] This ethological foundation has amplified public fascination with cockatoo cognition, distinct from folklore portrayals of species like black cockatoos as rain predictors based on pre-storm behaviors in Australian settler accounts.^[128]

References

[1]
Australasian Cockatoos (Cacatuidae family) - Avibirds.com
May 8, 2023 · They are known as Australasian cockatoos because they're mainly found in mainland Australia, but some are also distributed in the Phillippines, Indonesia, New ...Missing: taxonomy characteristics
[2]
Cacatuidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Rowley suggests 6 genera of Cacatuidae (cockatoos) with 21 species, Collar describes 78 genera of Psittacidae (parrots, macaws, lories) with 332 species ...
[3]
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Three Foreign ...
Jun 24, 2014 · Species Information Cockatoos are found only in Australasia—a few archipelagos in Southeast Asia (Bismarck, East Timor, Indonesia, Philippines, ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[4]
https://lafeber.com/vet/basic-information-sheet-for-the-cockatoo/
[5]
Cockatoo Animal Facts - A-Z Animals
The cockatoo bird is a type of parrot that comprises the family of Cacatuidae. ... The cockatoo is a sizable parrot species that features a curved beak ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[6]
Cacatuidae - Cockatoos - Birds of the World
Cockatoos are monogamous with biparental care. They nest in cavities and hollows in trees that they do not excavate, though many species line the bottom of the ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[7]
Cockatoo | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
Cockatoos are admired for their intelligence, but being smart can sometimes get them into trouble. They learn quickly to take handouts from humans and love to ...
[8]
[PDF] Spontaneous innovation in tool manufacture and use in a Goffin's ...
Here, we report a case of spontaneous tool innovation in the Goffin's cockatoo (Cacatua goffini), a species endemic to the Tanimbar archipelago in Indonesia.Missing: facts | Show results with:facts<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Salmon ...
Nov 3, 2009 · We announced that listing was warranted for 30 foreign bird species, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is the subject of this ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[10]
Parrot Facts: Habits, Habitat & Species - Live Science
Jul 24, 2014 · ... parrot), Nymphicus hollandicus (cockatiel) and Cacatua alba (white cockatoo). Conservation status. Many species of parrots are endangered.
[11]
A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes ...
Timing of Divergences. We estimated divergence times among parrot lineages using 2 different calibration dates representing separate historical events. To ...
[12]
The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes
Our estimates indicate Cacatuidae diverged from Psittacidae approximately 40.7 million years ago (95% CI 51.6–30.3 Ma) during the Eocene.
[13]
Characterization and Comparative Analysis of Complete ... - MDPI
Based on a phylogenetic analysis of 37 mitochondrial genes, the genus Cacatua formed a well-supported, monophyletic, crown group within the Cacatuidae.
[14]
The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes - PubMed
Our estimates indicate Cacatuidae diverged from Psittacidae approximately 40.7 million years ago (95% CI 51.6-30.3 Ma) during the Eocene.
[15]
Riversleigh Cockatoo - The Australian Museum
Jul 17, 2020 · Lived. 23-16 million years ago, early Miocene. Description. The Riversleigh Cockatoo was about the size of the modern Galah.Missing: record | Show results with:record
[16]
(PDF) The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes
Cockatoos are the distinctive family Cacatuidae, a major lineage of the order of parrots (Psittaciformes) and distributed throughout the Australasian region ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[17]
The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes
Aug 5, 2025 · The extant Cacatuidae are the descendants of a comparatively ancient split within the parrots [20,26]. Despite the importance of the Cacatuidae ...
[18]
[PDF] Zanda latirostris, Carnaby's Black-cockatoo - IUCN Red List
Jan 20, 2022 · Carnaby's Black-cockatoos are endemic to south-western Australia, occurring in a broad arc from. Kalbarri in the north to Esperance in the south ...
[19]
https://researchportal.murdoch.edu.au/esploro/fulltext/journalArticle/The-evolutionary-history-of-cockatoos-Aves/991005545010407891
[20]
Phylogeography of the iconic Australian red-tailed black-cockatoo ...
May 12, 2020 · For all diversity metrics, graptogyne had the lowest genetic diversity, while the northern group had the highest. Calyptorhynchus banksii ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[21]
Hidden In Plain Sight: New Cockatoo Subspecies Identified ... - Forbes
May 31, 2020 · A large genetic study has uncovered a new subspecies of one of Australia's most iconic birds, the red-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii.Missing: developments | Show results with:developments<|separator|>
[22]
Museomics Sheds Light on Evolutionary Diversity in a Critically ...
Dec 17, 2024 · To clarify genetic relationships and shed light on the diversification of this parrot radiation, whole genomes were sequenced for 16 museum ...
[23]
(PDF) Museomics Sheds Light on Evolutionary Diversity in a ...
Dec 19, 2024 · The recently split yellow‐crested cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea and citron‐crested cockatoo C. citrinocristata have undergone catastrophic ...
[24]
Genomics Reveals White Cockatoos Are Two Distinct Cryptic Species
Jan 29, 2025 · The yellow-crested cockatoo, Cacatua sulphurea, is the smallest of these three cryptic species, and is typically referred to as the lesser ...
[25]
Ecologists reveal key genetic insights for the conservation of iconic ...
Jan 13, 2025 · Ecologists have made valuable discoveries that could transform the conservation of two iconic cockatoo species: the Sulphur-crested cockatoos ...
[26]
Psittaciform - Bill, Skull, Beak - Britannica
Sep 12, 2025 · The most distinctive morphological trait of parrots is the strongly hooked, powerful bill. Superficially the bill resembles that of the hawks and owls.
[27]
https://www.bushheritage.org.au/species/cockatoos
[28]
Cacatua / Cockatoo's - Parrots Portal
A cockatoo is a parrot that is any of the 21 species belonging to the bird family Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea.
[29]
COCKATOOS (Cacatuidae) - The World Birds
Description: The yellow-crested cockatoo has mainly white plumage including a yellow crest. It has bluish-white orbital skin, a black bill, and grey feet. It ...
[30]
Male vs. Female Cockatoos: 5 Key Differences - A-Z Animals
Oct 24, 2023 · Cockatoos with Different Plumage Colors in Adult Males and Females ; Glossy Black Cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami), female has yellow patches ...Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
[31]
down (Feathers) - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Down feathers are specialized feathers that produce a fine powder keratin dust from their barbs, which is used to coat the plumage during preening.
[32]
Preen Gland Morphology - Bird Health
6 Preen gland oil and powder down feathers play major roles in feather maintenance.7 Most parrot families have powder down feathers and functional preen glands.
[33]
Cockatoos are Lovers - AFA Watchbird
... cockatoo owner. The crest feathers grow from the ridge of muscle and this is the mechanism that allows the cockatoo to raise and lower its crest. Some ...Missing: sulphur- | Show results with:sulphur-
[34]
The use of the crest - Cockatoo Info
In communication with conspecifics, the crest serves as a signal to transfer emotions, intentions and warnings about predators in the environment.
[35]
Greater Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo - Susan Clubb
Greater sulphur-cresteds are very large white cockatoos with recurved yellow crests. ... Precise data on life span of the average Greater sulphur-crested cockatoo ...
[36]
Cockatoos Drum With The Rhythm Of Love - Forbes
Jun 29, 2017 · Drumming is part of an intricate courtship display where male palm cockatoos sway their bodies and erect their long slender crest feathers, ...<|separator|>
[37]
In mating, birds like palm cockatoos try drumming : Short Wave - NPR
Sep 22, 2023 · The display begins with a string of whistles and calls and a stiffening of the crest on the male's head. "He's blushing his red cheeks and he's ...
[38]
How LOUD is your bird?...Decibel facts - Parrot Forum
Apr 5, 2013 · Moluccan Cockatoos hold the record as the loudest bird on earth at 135db (average = 120db). Hyacinth macaw alarm calls were 106 dB.
[39]
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 2021-11-30 (7D_182A0908) | The loud…
Dec 1, 2021 · The loud, raucous screeching of the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo has been measured up to 135 decibels. When there's a crowd of them making a noise it is a sound to ...Missing: call loudness
[40]
Audience effects in a group‐living bird: How contact call rate is ...
We found that the individual‐level rate of the most common call types increased with a greater group size, the opposite pattern to what would be expected if ...
[41]
Vocal communication of wild parrots - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Learned vocalizations play a key role in parrot social dynamics and ... Given the importance to parrots of group cohesion and social ...
[42]
[PDF] Vocal complexity in the palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus)
Aug 21, 2015 · Palm cockatoo vocalizations are harmonically rich, and the majority of energy occurs in the fundamental frequency (i.e. the lowest-frequency ...
[43]
A scientific survey takes a look at 'vocal mimicry' in parrots - NPR
Dec 8, 2022 · A new scientific survey takes a close look at the ability of parrots to mimic human words and phrases.
[44]
Cacatuidae – Cockatoos: facts, distribution & population - BioDB
These birds are native primarily to Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the surrounding islands, where they occupy a range of habitats from forests to ...
[45]
Galah (Eolophus roseicapilla) Fact Sheet: Summary - LibGuides
Oct 30, 2024 · Additional range expansion due to escape from aviaries (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union 1984). Habitat Occurs in a wide variety of ...
[46]
The galah | Request PDF - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · The Galah is the most common and successful of the Australian cockatoos. The expansion of agriculture and the establishment of permanent ...
[47]
Sulphur-crested cockatoo - New Zealand Birds Online
Sulphur-crested cockatoos were introduced to New Zealand in the late 19th Century and soon established wild populations. The area over which they occur has ...Missing: feral invasive
[48]
[PDF] SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO CACATUA GALERITA ... - CITES
Introduced to New Zealand as a result of cage escapes but there is also evidence of genuine vagrants arriving from Australia. Scattered established populations ...
[49]
[PDF] Assessing the abundance of four cockatoo species in Victoria
These species have more generalised habitat and dietary preferences compared with the previously mentioned species. ... Because cockatoos can undertake long-range ...<|separator|>
[50]
Does the need to drink influence nest site selection in a wide ...
Feb 1, 2022 · Red-tailed Black-Cockatoos select nest hollows primarily at the hollow and landscape scales. •. Cockatoos prefer hollows that are deep and ...
[51]
Habitat selection at multiple spatial scales by foraging Glossy Black ...
Aug 10, 2025 · It is likely that glossy black-cockatoos prefer feeding in sheoak woodlands that have a combination of high seed quality (Pepper et al. 2000; ...
[52]
Microhabitat characteristics related to seasonal roost switching
Jun 28, 2021 · Summer roosts were often located in less vegetated areas but surrounded by a larger proportion of built-up and open area. Besides, night light ...
[53]
(PDF) Microhabitat characteristics related to seasonal roost switching
Aug 6, 2025 · This is the first empirical ecological study on the critically endangered Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) in a nonnative urban ...
[54]
Emergence of a novel drinking innovation in an urban population of ...
Jun 4, 2025 · In summary, we describe a new innovation in urban-living cockatoos, the 'drinking-fountain innovation'. This behaviour appears to be widely ...Missing: taxonomic developments
[55]
Investigating avian competition for surface water in an arid zone ...
Aug 3, 2023 · We used camera traps and observational surveys to investigate interference competition between terrestrial avian species at six long‐lasting waterholes.<|separator|>
[56]
[PDF] Artificial hollows for Carnaby's black cockatoo - DBCA Library
In general, the main threat to nesting success is competition for nests from other species. Some of these nest competitors are native species (but may have ...
[57]
Use of tree hollows by Carnaby's Cockatoo and the fate of large ...
Nest hollow selection by a breeding population at Coomallo Creek, in the wheatbelt of Western Australia, was studied from 1969 to 2013.
[58]
Feathers flying: why cockatoos and rainbow lorikeets have gone to war
Aug 23, 2021 · Both species nest in large hollows that are only found in old trees. As this prime accommodation disappears, competition is cut-throat.
[59]
[PDF] Foraging of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos
The diet comprised mainly grass seeds and roots (54%), bulbs and corms (22%) and tree fruits, inflorescences and seeds (22%). Supplementary, anthropogenic food ...
[60]
Pine as Fast Food: Foraging Ecology of an Endangered Cockatoo in ...
Apr 11, 2013 · Peak cockatoo abundance coincided with pine seed maturation. Pine seed had energy and protein contents equivalent to native food sources and, ...
[61]
A case of Carnaby's cockatoos (Zanda latirostris) and canola - PMC
Oct 9, 2023 · Optimal foraging theory suggests that animals adopt foraging strategies that maximise energy intake while minimising expenditure of energy and ...
[62]
Parrot politics: social decision-making in wild parrots relies on both ...
May 28, 2025 · Within these roosts, SC-cockatoos display highly fluid fission–fusion dynamics, with flock size varying between 2 and 500 individuals [30,31].
[63]
Long-term stability of dominance hierarchies in a wild parrot with ...
May 25, 2025 · ... cockatoos form clear, linear hierarchies. We find males rank higher than females and that adults rank higher than juveniles. Within sex ...Missing: field | Show results with:field
[64]
Long-term stability of dominance hierarchies in a wild parrot with ...
May 25, 2025 · Dominance hierarchies are a common feature of stable groups, allowing animals to limit the costs of fighting over access to resources.
[65]
Social network analysis reveals context‐dependent kin relationships ...
Nov 8, 2022 · Wild cockatoos maintain kin-relationship within and between roosts, despite high fission–fusion dynamics.
[66]
Wild sulphur-crested cockatoos match human activity rhythms to ...
Jul 22, 2024 · In summary, our study suggests that SCC take advantage of the urban environment by relying on green spaces including trees as roosting and main ...
[67]
[PDF] Wild sulphur-crested cockatoos match human activity ... - bioRxiv
Sep 27, 2023 · Sulphur-crested cockatoos match human recreational feeding routines, using urban space with specific time patterns, suggesting time-place ...Missing: aggregations | Show results with:aggregations
[68]
Sulphur-crested cockatoos: An Australian icon
Aug 19, 2021 · “There's a dominance hierarchy in a flock and birds that were higher in that hierarchy were more likely to be bin openers,” says Richard.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[69]
Breeding site fidelity, and breeding pair infidelity in the endangered ...
Jul 3, 2018 · The female selects a nesting hollow in a large eucalypt, usually lays two eggs, on average up to eight days apart. Both eggs usually hatch with ...
[70]
(PDF) Clutch size, incubation and nestling periods, and age ...
Feb 21, 2023 · Clutch size was a maximum of two and incubation took 28–29 days. Hatching success was higher for two-egg clutches than for one-egg clutches.
[71]
One fledgling or two in the endangered Carnaby's Cockatoo ... - NIH
While both eggs hatch in 77% of two-egg clutches, the species normally fledges only one young. However, the species is capable of fledging both nestlings from a ...Missing: monogamous | Show results with:monogamous
[72]
Psittaciformes (Parrots) | Encyclopedia.com
Breeding recorded most months; nest in tree-hollow, bottom lined with layers of splintered twigs, forming platform for single egg; incubation by female 33 days; ...
[73]
(PDF) The breeding biology of palm cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus)
Aug 7, 2025 · Palm cockatoos were weakly seasonal breeders, with the peak of egg-laying occurring in September; 41 breeding attempts were monitored at 28 nesting hollows.
[74]
Short-term sustainable collection of eggs and nestlings of the ...
In 1998, 30 of 40 nests (75%) produced a fledgling, which was not significantly different from the fledging success of 66% observed in the wild in two-egg ...
[75]
[PDF] Husbandry Guidelines For Major Mitchell's Cockatoo (Aves
They do breed seasonally every year; the young become independent at 4 months and leave, generally not roosting near parents but do join the same flock, leaving ...
[76]
[PDF] Guidelines for Reducing Cockatoo Damage - Wildlife
Cockatoos are scared of birds of prey Birds of prey, such as Peregrine Falcons, Little Eagles and Wedgetail Eagles may feed on adult cockatoos, whilst newly- ...
[77]
Alarm - Andrew the Bird Guy
Goanna are incredibly effective nest raiders. These wily reptiles can sniff out a Kookaburra nest from tens of metres below, which they happily climb to and ...
[78]
Bird Predators: What Eats Birds? - A-Z Animals
Oct 13, 2025 · Snakes like boas or pythons lunge at birds who perch too close, constricting the birds before swallowing. Other snakes raid poultry houses and ...
[79]
Beak and feather disease virus in wild and captive parrots
May 5, 2016 · BFDV causes PBFD, a threat to wild and captive parrots, with symptoms like feather loss and beak deformities. It is a virus in the Circoviridae ...
[80]
Psittacine beak and feather disease - DCCEEW
Aug 21, 2024 · Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is a highly infectious viral disease in parrots, causing high death rates and spread through food ...
[81]
(PDF) Overlap and competition for nest holes among eclectus ...
All species showed intraspecific competition for nest holes. Behavioural conflict was also common between sulphur-crested cockatoos and the other two species.
[82]
Aggressive Interactions at Tree Hollows in Forest Remnants - PMC
Mar 21, 2013 · A high number of intraspecific interactions has also been associated with competition for high quality nesting sites [42] and may not ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[83]
Cockatoos 'pick' puzzle box locks | University of Oxford
Jul 4, 2013 · A species of Indonesian parrot can solve complex mechanical problems that involve undoing a series of locks one after another, revealing new ...
[84]
Innovative composite tool use by Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua ...
Jan 27, 2022 · We demonstrate that these parrots can innovate composite tool use by actively controlling the position of the end effector and movement of both objects ...
[85]
Using an Innovation Arena to compare wild-caught and laboratory ...
May 26, 2020 · We applied the IA for the first time to investigate how long-term captivity affects innovative capacities in the Goffin's cockatoo, an avian ...
[86]
Tool-assisted rhythmic drumming in palm cockatoos shares key ...
Jun 28, 2017 · Palm cockatoos manufacture two types of sound tools. They make drumsticks by breaking off a living or dead branch, snipping off the foliage, and ...
[87]
Individual preferences for sound tool design in a parrot - Journals
Sep 13, 2023 · (a) Individual use of drumsticks and seed pod tools We confirmed that male palm cockatoos actively shape and reduce the size of seed pod tools ...<|separator|>
[88]
Watch this genius bird plan for its 'handyman' job | Science | AAAS
Feb 10, 2023 · Goffin's cockatoos take a tool set to work on a puzzle box, a rare example of pre-planning in the animal kingdom.
[89]
String-pulling in the Goffin's cockatoo (Cacatua goffiniana) - PMC - NIH
Jan 22, 2021 · Goffin's cockatoos, a parrot species endemic to the Tanimbar Islands in Indonesia, demonstrate remarkable cognitive skills across various ...
[90]
https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/156/5-8/article-p763_12.xml
[91]
No evidence of mirror self-recognition in keas and Goffin's cockatoos.
So far only one bird species, a corvid, passed the mark test for mirror self-recognition (MSR) although the results have been questioned.
[92]
Innovation and geographic spread of a complex foraging culture in ...
Jul 23, 2021 · This finding both documents the existence and spread of complex foraging culture among parrots, a lineage known for high-level cognitive function.Missing: diet | Show results with:diet
[93]
Is bin-opening in cockatoos leading to an innovation arms race with ...
Sep 12, 2022 · Cockatoos in Sydney have begun to open suburban rubbish bins, with knowledge spreading to form local traditions. In accessing food, cockatoos ...
[94]
A clever cockatoo picked up a human skill—and then it spread
Jun 3, 2025 · Although cockatoos regularly interact with members of neighboring roosts, a key way for behaviors to spread, so far, it seems that other ...Missing: transmission | Show results with:transmission
[95]
Social transmission of tool use and tool manufacture in Goffin ...
In conclusion, our findings indicate that tool use can be socially transmitted in Goffin cockatoos, most likely via emulation learning. The competence for ...
[96]
[PDF] Managing bird damage to fruit and other horticultural crops
Bird damage is a significant problem in Australia with total damage to horticultural production estimated at nearly. $300 million annually. Over 60 bird species ...
[97]
[PDF] Bio-economic evaluations of management strategies for pest birds
Over. 60 bird species are known to damage horticulture crops in Australia (Tracey et al. 2007), including many native species, such as cockatoos and corellas ( ...
[98]
Beak performance: cable-chomping birds add to NBN headaches
Nov 3, 2017 · Yellow-crested cockatoos have already caused $80000 in damage to Australia's national broadband network wiring.
[99]
Cockatoo Bird Species: Types, Lifespan, and Care - PetMD
Jan 15, 2024 · Cockatoos live 20–40 years in the wild, and up to 70 years or more as pets. Proper care is essential for your pet cockatoo to live a long, ...
[100]
[PDF] HUSBANDRY GUIDELINES - Australasian Society of Zoo Keeping
Citron-crested Cockatoo. The plumage is white with yellow cheek patches. The forward-curving erectile crest is citron-yellow and very distinctive.
[101]
The Inconvenient Truth About …Cockatoos - Pamela Clark, CPBC
Aug 14, 2019 · Cockatoos aren't any more unfit for life as a human companion than any other parrot species. Instead, they suffer loss of their homes due to our perpetual ...Missing: lifespan | Show results with:lifespan
[102]
Cockatoos - General Information - VCA Animal Hospitals
Misting them daily with water or taking them into the shower can help minimize powder down from shedding off their feathers and spreading throughout the house.Missing: morphology feet
[103]
Number of Unwanted Parrots Reaches an All-Time High in the USA
Oct 14, 2011 · According to a study by Best Friends Animal Society, it is not unusual for an elderly parrot to have 7-11 owners over the course of its life.
[104]
Cockatoos are Not Pets: Home
Cockatoos are one the most abandoned "pets" in. America. Almost half of cockatoo species are threatened. with extinction. Humans have created these crises ...
[105]
Reproductive parameters in some captive-bred cockatoo species ...
Nov 12, 2020 · The aim of the present work was to investigate the reproductive performance of different species of the Cacatua genus reared in the same facility.
[106]
A review of commercial captive breeding of parrots as a supply‐side ...
Sep 9, 2024 · Decision makers and regulatory authorities should approach commercial captive breeding of parrots with caution and take into account knowledge ...
[107]
Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua Sulphurea Species Factsheet
This cockatoo has suffered an extremely rapid population decline (>80% over three generations), owing to unsustainable trapping for the cagebird trade.Missing: developments | Show results with:developments
[108]
Yellow-crested Cockatoo - World Parrot Trust
In total, the population is estimated to number 1,800-3,140, or 1,200-2,000 mature individuals, with the best estimate near the higher end of the range.
[109]
Philippine Cockatoo Cacatua Haematuropygia Species Factsheet
The Philippine Cockatoo is critically endangered with a decreasing population of 430-750, endemic to the Philippines, and its area of occupancy is 600 km².
[110]
Galah Eolophus Roseicapilla Species Factsheet | BirdLife DataZone
The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Current population trend. Increasing.
[111]
Galah | World Parrot Trust
The Rose-breasted Cockatoo or Galah is one of the few parrot species which has seen its wild population rise instead of decline.
[112]
One of the rarest birds in the world finds a city sanctuary in Hong Kong
Sep 18, 2025 · Hong Kong's conservationists have stepped in with a solution: installing artificial nest boxes that mimic these natural hollows.
[113]
HK scientist puts hope in nest boxes to save endangered cockatoos
Aug 19, 2025 · Nestled among its sprawling boughs is a nest box designed for the yellow-crested cockatoo, of which only 1,200 to 2,000 remain in the world.
[114]
A citizen science approach reveals long‐term social network ...
Jul 6, 2020 · Birds leave these communal roosts in smaller foraging flocks, membership of which is thought to follow fission–fusion dynamics. Sulphur-crested ...
[115]
Meeting an expanding human population's needs whilst conserving ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The cockatoos have adapted to urban living by utilising non-native trees for communal night roosting, artificial water sources and now also ...
[116]
Perth housing estate developers fined $250,000 for clearing black ...
Jan 26, 2022 · The Australian Conservation Foundation labelled the penalty a “slap on the wrist” and criticised the state of the country's environment laws ...
[117]
DEC 'heavy-handed' with cockatoo cull fines - ABC News
Feb 1, 2009 · Horticulturalists say the Western Australian Government should be working with them to control black cockatoos rather than fining farmers ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[118]
Developer Peet fined for clearing black cockatoo habitat - The Age
Sep 26, 2025 · An excavation company, working for developer Peet, was fined $19,800 under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act for ...
[119]
Why the Glossy Black Cockatoo is so special to Indigenous Australians
Jun 13, 2024 · Glossy black cockatoos carry deep cultural significance for Aboriginal Australians. This beloved species features heavily in songlines, Dreaming stories.
[120]
The black cockatoo and the Noongar people
Mar 1, 2023 · The black cockatoo is revered by the Noongar people for its beauty, strength, and spiritual connection, symbolizing resilience and used in ...
[121]
Black Cockatoos: Cultural Significance - YouTube
Jul 7, 2024 · Ancestors of the Noongar people gave the name 'Ngoolark' to the Carnaby's black cockatoo, the flocks of which blackened the skies, ...
[122]
First Nations storytelling - The Australian Museum
Australia's birds play many symbolic roles in First Nations cultures. As carriers of story, they teach us how to live in connection with other living beings ...
[123]
Cockatoo identified in 13th Century European book - BBC
Jun 25, 2018 · Researchers have discovered the oldest-known European illustrations of an Australasian cockatoo, in a manuscript from the 13th Century.
[124]
Cockatoo perched in Renaissance painting forces rethink of history
Mar 20, 2014 · The painting, completed by Andrea Mantegna in 1496 and now hanging in the Louvre, clearly shows what appears to be a sulphur-crested cockatoo perched above ...
[125]
Where Did That Cockatoo Come From? - The New Yorker
Jun 28, 2021 · Birds native to Australasia are being found in Renaissance paintings—and in medieval manuscripts, Rebecca Mead writes.
[126]
Cockatoo choreographs his own dance moves, researchers believe
Jul 8, 2019 · When Snowball the sulphur-crested cockatoo revealed his first dance moves a decade ago he became an instant sensation.
[127]
Study of Snowball the cockatoo suggests humans aren't the only ...
Jul 8, 2019 · Researchers filmed Snowball dancing to the songs, then coded his individual movements. In order to qualify as a distinct move, the parrot had to ...
[128]
What Can Dancing Cockatoos Teach Us About Ourselves?
Aug 9, 2022 · This bird rocketed to YouTube fame with his ability to move along to the beat of pop songs. Standing on the back of an armchair, Snowball ...