Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Common starling

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), also known as the European starling, is a stocky medium-sized passerine bird in the family Sturnidae, measuring 19–23 cm in length with a wingspan of 31–44 cm.^[1] It exhibits glossy black plumage that appears iridescent with purple and green sheens, speckled with buff-white spots during the non-breeding season, and possesses a stout yellow bill in winter that turns black in summer.^[1] Native to temperate regions of Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, the species favors open lowlands including farmlands, grasslands, woodlands, and urban areas for foraging and nesting in tree cavities or buildings.^[1]^[2] Highly adaptable and opportunistic, common starlings are omnivorous ground-foragers consuming invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and human food waste, often forming large flocks that perform synchronized aerial displays known as murmurations during winter roosts.^[1]^[3] They are aggressive cavity competitors, evicting native species from nest sites, and exhibit vocal mimicry of other birds and environmental sounds.^[1] Introduced to North America in the 1890s, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, the species has proliferated as an invasive, causing agricultural damage through crop consumption and spreading diseases via feedlot contamination, while outcompeting indigenous birds.^[4]^[5] Despite its global success and IUCN Least Concern status, common starling populations have declined sharply in native northwestern Europe—up to 80% in the UK since the 1970s—due to agricultural intensification reducing grassland invertebrates, the primary nestling food source, alongside potential impacts from predation and climate variability.^[6]^[3] Introduced populations in North America have similarly decreased by over 50% since the 1960s, reflecting broader ecological pressures rather than control efforts.^[6]

Taxonomy and systematics

Evolutionary history and subspecies

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is classified within the family Sturnidae, part of a molecular phylogeny encompassing approximately 26 Eurasian starling species that exhibit recent diversification driven by sociality and dispersal capabilities.^[7] Phylogenetic reconstructions based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA place S. vulgaris in the genus Sturnus, with the family's origins linked to early divergences among passerine lineages.^[8] Fossil records for Sturnidae extend to the Middle Miocene (approximately 15–11 million years ago), with early representatives identified from sites in Bulgaria, indicating the family's establishment in Eurasia prior to Pleistocene expansions.^[9] ^[10] Twelve subspecies of S. vulgaris are currently recognized, primarily differentiated by clinal variations in body size, bill length, and plumage iridescence across their native Eurasian range from western Europe to central Asia.^[11] The nominate subspecies S. v. vulgaris inhabits much of Europe, featuring moderate size (wing length 120–135 mm in males) and glossy black plumage with pale spots in winter.^[12] Northern populations, such as S. v. faroensis on the Faroe Islands, are larger (wing up to 140 mm) with duller gloss, adaptations possibly linked to insular conditions, while eastern forms like S. v. tauricus in the Caucasus exhibit paler underparts and longer bills suited to steppe habitats. Asian subspecies, including S. v. porphyronotus, display reduced spotting and more purple sheen, reflecting isolation and local selection.^[12] Recent whole-genome sequencing has illuminated genetic underpinnings of adaptability, revealing low but stable diversity in native populations (nucleotide diversity π ≈ 0.7% in UK samples) compared to bottlenecks in derived groups.^[13] These studies highlight polygenic traits enabling rapid responses to selection, such as bill morphology variations tied to foraging, though native beak dimensions have remained stable over centuries (no significant change, p=0.426 over 206 years).^[13] Founder effects in non-native contexts underscore the species' evolutionary flexibility, with empirical data emphasizing standing genetic variation over novel mutations as key to diversification.^[14]

Genetic adaptations in invasive populations

Invasive populations of the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) typically originate from small founding groups, resulting in genetic bottlenecks that reduce allelic diversity compared to native Eurasian populations. For instance, the North American invasion, initiated from approximately 100 birds released in New York in 1890–1891, exhibited markedly lower mitochondrial haplotype diversity than samples from the United Kingdom, reflecting founder effects and serial bottlenecks during range expansion.^[13] Similarly, Australian populations show reduced genetic variation attributable to multiple small introductions starting in the 1860s, contrasting with the larger, more interconnected gene pools in native ranges that buffer against inbreeding depression.^[15] Despite these constraints, invasive populations recover diversity rapidly through high reproductive output—often producing two to three clutches per year with clutch sizes of 4–6 eggs—enabling quick demographic expansion and gene flow that mitigates long-term inbreeding effects.^[16] Post-invasion selection has driven detectable local adaptations, particularly in morphology suited to novel foraging opportunities. In North America, beak length has increased by about 8% relative to native-range counterparts since the early 20th century, correlating with shifts toward probing deeper into substrates like lawns and agricultural soils for invertebrates, as evidenced by geometric morphometric analyses of museum specimens spanning 1910–2020.^[13] This rapid evolution, occurring within roughly 100 generations, aligns with relaxed predation pressures and abundant anthropogenic food sources, rather than neutral drift, and is underlain by polygenic shifts rather than single-locus changes.^[13] Concurrently, genomic scans reveal population-specific differentiation in regions associated with environmental tolerances; North American starlings show signatures of selection for aridity and temperature extremes in southwestern populations, while Australian invaders exhibit parallel adaptations to hot, dry conditions via a limited set of candidate loci influencing osmoregulation and metabolic efficiency.^[17]^[18] These adaptations highlight how a handful of key genes can facilitate invasion success across disparate habitats, enabling tolerance to novel climates without requiring broad genomic overhaul. For example, whole-genome analyses indicate that fewer than 50 loci, often involved in pigmentation, immunity, and stress response, differentiate invasive from native genotypes and correlate with survival in extreme environments like Australian deserts or North American prairies.^[19] Unlike native populations, where gene flow homogenizes variation and suppresses local specialization, invasive starlings' isolation promotes divergence, though ongoing admixture—such as between North American and reintroduced European stock—can introduce adaptive alleles and further erode bottleneck legacies.^[20] Evidence for enhanced disease resistance remains tentative, with genomic signals of selection in immune-related genes observed in Australian populations exposed to novel pathogens, but causal links require further validation beyond correlative associations.^[18] Overall, these patterns underscore the role of standing genetic variation from source populations, amplified by high fecundity, in overriding initial diversity losses to yield evolutionarily resilient invaders.^[16]

Physical characteristics

Morphology and plumage

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a medium-sized passerine measuring 20–23 cm in total length, with a wingspan of 31–40 cm and an average body mass of 60–96 g.^[21] Males typically weigh 73–96 g, slightly more than females at 69–93 g, reflecting minimal sexual dimorphism in size.^[22] ^[23] The bird features a short, squared tail and pointed wings suited to agile flight, while robust pink legs and feet enable terrestrial locomotion and probing into soil for invertebrates.^[24] ^[25] Adult plumage consists of glossy black feathers exhibiting iridescent sheens of purple, green, and blue, particularly prominent in the breeding season when white terminal spots on feathers wear off, reducing speckling.^[2] ^[3] In non-breeding plumage, these spots create a speckled appearance across the body.^[26] The bill shifts seasonally from black in winter to bright yellow during breeding, with males showing a blue-grey base on the lower mandible and females a pinkish base, aiding mate assessment.^[27] ^[28] Females generally display duller iridescence than males, and both sexes possess elongated throat feathers that contribute to display postures, though overall sexual differences in plumage remain subtle.^[23] ^[29] Juveniles are distinguished by dull, uniform grey-brown plumage lacking metallic gloss, with a brownish bill that transitions during post-juvenile moult into winter.^[22] Plumage variations occur among subspecies; for instance, S. v. vulgaris in Europe shows standard iridescence, while eastern forms like S. v. tauricus exhibit paler, less glossy feathering adapted to arid conditions.^[30] These morphological traits support identification and reflect adaptations for foraging efficiency and seasonal survival across the species' range.^[31]

Vocalizations and displays

The common starling produces a complex song primarily by males, featuring short phrases of 1–3 seconds that incorporate whistles, warbles, rattles, clicks, and mimicry of other bird species such as the red-tailed hawk and northern flicker, as well as environmental sounds like car alarms.^[32] This vocalization, delivered from prominent perches, functions in territory defense and mate attraction, with spectrographic analyses revealing wide frequency ranges and overlapping harmonic structures that contribute to its variability.^[32] Repertoire size increases with age and social exposure, enabling older males to exhibit larger and more diverse songs compared to yearlings, which enhances male attractiveness to females.^[33]^[34] Vocal mimicry in the song expands the effective repertoire, allowing imitation of numerous heterospecific sounds to signal quality and complexity, though the precise number of mimicked species varies by individual and location.^[35] Calls include the sharp, descending alarm note "tchur" or "tchurr" emitted during threats, often accompanied by aggressive wing-flapping, and softer contact or warning calls such as the rolling "whee-ur-whee-ur" or "sirr" for flock coordination and distress signaling.^[32]^[33] Courtship displays combine acoustic and visual elements, with males perching near nest sites to sing while performing ritualized movements like wing-spreading and rotation, which differ from the grounded, probing postures used in foraging by emphasizing aerial signaling and orientation toward the female.^[36] Bill-wiping, involving rubbing the bill on branches or surfaces, occurs mutually between pairs pre-copulation and serves as a pair-bonding signal, distinct from post-feeding cleaning behaviors.^[36] These displays, often synchronized with song bouts, facilitate mate choice by demonstrating vigor and coordination.^[37]

Native range and habitat preferences

Geographic distribution in Eurasia

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is native to temperate and Mediterranean regions across Europe, extending eastward into western Asia and southward into northern Africa. Its breeding range encompasses areas from Iceland and the British Isles westward to the Pacific coast of Russia, but primarily spans from the Atlantic seaboard to Kazakhstan and the Caspian Sea basin, with northern limits reaching Scandinavia and European Russia up to approximately 72°N, and southern boundaries along the Mediterranean coasts, including parts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.^[38]^[39] This distribution is facilitated by the species' tolerance for a wide range of climatic conditions within temperate zones, where mild winters and seasonal invertebrate abundance support persistence, though extreme aridity in southern peripheries limits densities.^[40] Following the retreat of Pleistocene glaciers, the starling's range expanded northward and eastward from southern European refugia, recolonizing deglaciated landscapes as forests gave way to open grasslands and steppes conducive to ground-foraging. Fossil records and genetic analyses indicate post-glacial radiations, with clade expansions linking western European populations to Asian ones via gene flow from Iberian and Balkan refugia. Highest population densities occur in lowland open farmlands, pastoral grasslands, and urban-adjacent edges across central and western Europe, where biotic factors like earthworm-rich soils and insect prey in arable fields enable high breeding success.^[41]^[3]^[42] Since the 1980s, monitoring schemes have documented significant declines in northern and western European populations, with reductions exceeding 50% in countries like the United Kingdom and Denmark by the early 2000s, linked to agricultural intensification reducing invertebrate availability through mechanized tillage, pesticide application, and conversion of pastures to monocultures. These trends persisted into the 2020s, with Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring data showing ongoing contractions in farmland-dependent densities, though eastern ranges in Asia exhibit relative stability due to less intensive land use and varied steppe habitats. Climatic warming has not offset these biotic pressures, as intensified farming overrides potential range shifts in core temperate areas.^[43]^[16]^[42]

Habitat selection and adaptations

In its native Eurasian range, the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) predominantly selects open lowland habitats characterized by short vegetation, such as grazed grasslands and pastures, which facilitate access to soil-dwelling invertebrates disturbed by grazing activity. Empirical GPS tracking of breeding individuals in Denmark revealed strong selection for grazed areas (usage ratio 2.6:1 relative to short grass within 1 km of nests), with preference intensifying at greater distances from nesting sites, likely due to elevated prey densities and reduced foraging costs in disturbed substrates.^[44] These birds avoid denser vegetation types, including ungrazed meadows (selection ratio 1:13) and winter cereal crops (1:48), as well as extensive forests and montane regions, favoring instead semi-open landscapes where visibility and ground accessibility support survival.^[44]^[45] Nesting site selection emphasizes natural or anthropogenic cavities offering protection from predators and weather, such as tree hollows, rock crevices, or building gaps in human-modified environments like farmland edges and urban peripheries, enabling exploitation of proximate food-rich open grounds.^[16] This opportunistic strategy links directly to habitat viability, as cavity proximity to short-grass areas correlates with higher nestling provisioning rates via accessible invertebrate resources.^[44] In winter, adaptations for cold tolerance include formation of large communal roosts, where dense flocking elevates microclimatic temperatures by up to 5°C through collective heat retention, mitigating hypothermia risks in temperate continental climates. Such behaviors underscore causal reliance on aggregated social structures for energetic efficiency in resource-variable native niches.

Introduced ranges and invasion dynamics

North America

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), known as the European starling in North America, was introduced by Eugene Schieffelin, who released 80 individuals in New York City's Central Park on April 6, 1890, as part of an effort to establish all bird species mentioned in Shakespeare's works.^[46] Additional releases totaling around 100 birds occurred in 1890–1891, with all contemporary North American populations descending from these founders.^[4] Initial establishment near New York required approximately 10 years, after which dispersal accelerated, reaching the Pacific coast by 1948 and occupying most of the continent from Alaska to Mexico by the mid-20th century.^[46]^[26] Factors facilitating rapid spread included the species' adaptability to diverse habitats, cavity-nesting in human-modified structures, and opportunistic foraging on available food sources, enabling exploitation of agricultural and urban landscapes during continental expansion.^[39] Natural vagrancy, influenced by weather and food availability, further propelled range extension through post-breeding dispersal and irruptive movements.^[47] The founding population's low genetic diversity did not hinder proliferation, as evidenced by subsequent morphological evolution; a 2024 analysis of museum specimens documented significant beak changes in North American starlings from 1890 to 2020, including an 8% increase in beak length relative to native-range conspecifics, likely adapting to local diets such as harder seeds or insects in varied environments.^[13] Current North American populations are estimated at 60–150 million breeding individuals, swelling to over 200 million in fall aggregations.^[39] Densities peak in the north-central United States, particularly agricultural Midwest regions and urban areas, where breeding abundances can exceed 10–30 individuals per survey route.^[48]^[49]

Australia and New Zealand

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) was first introduced to New Zealand around 1862 through acclimatization efforts aimed at establishing European bird species.^[50] It rapidly became widespread across the islands, occupying diverse habitats from coastal areas to inland regions, though populations have exhibited fluctuations linked to environmental factors such as El Niño Southern Oscillation events influencing breeding success.^[51] Historical records indicate early establishment in both North and South Islands, with densities varying by locality; for instance, age structure analyses from the late 20th century showed adult-dominated populations in some areas, reflecting variable recruitment rates.^[52] In Australia, introductions occurred in the mid- to late 19th century, with multiple releases primarily in Victoria and New South Wales leading to self-sustaining populations in eastern and southern regions, including Tasmania.^[53] By the early 20th century, the species had colonized temperate and subtropical zones, spreading along coastal and riverine corridors but failing to penetrate the arid interior extensively until later expansions.^[54] Genetic studies reveal four distinct lineages derived from these founding events, with ongoing differentiation driven by local selection pressures.^[16] Compared to the rapid continental expansion in North America following 1890 introductions, starling colonization in Australia and New Zealand proceeded more slowly, attributed to biogeographic barriers such as vast arid deserts in Australia and insular isolation in New Zealand, which limited dispersal and required physiological adaptations for persistence.^[16] Recent evolutionary genomic analyses of Australian populations highlight selection on shared genomic regions with North American invaders, including genes associated with osmoregulation and heat tolerance that facilitate survival in semi-arid conditions, though bottlenecks reduced overall diversity.^[14] ^[20] These adaptations, potentially involving a limited set of loci responsive to extreme aridity, underscore population-specific trajectories distinct from native Eurasian ranges.^[19]

Other introduced regions

The common starling was introduced to South Africa in 1897 near Cape Town by Cecil Rhodes, establishing a persistent population that expanded slowly northward and eastward, reaching Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth by 1954 and primarily occupying southern and western regions associated with agricultural and urban areas.^[55]^[56] In South America, introductions occurred in the early 1980s around Buenos Aires, Argentina, leading to successful establishment and ongoing range expansion into Patagonia by the 2020s, with populations showing high breeding success relative to some native species and low genetic diversity indicative of founder effects.^[57]^[58]^[59] In Brazil, initial records date to 2018 in southern regions, suggesting probable establishment tied to urban and agricultural habitats, though populations remain localized.^[60] A 2023 analysis of global invasion patterns highlighted intentional introductions to Pacific Islands, including successful persistence in Fiji but failure or transience in others, with overall sporadic establishment in non-major ranges often linked to human-altered landscapes and limited genetic data compared to larger invasive fronts like North America.^[16] Introductions to the West Indies and Polynesia have been documented but generally resulted in non-persistent or minimal populations, lacking widespread colonization.^[16]

Behavioral ecology

Foraging and diet

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) maintains an omnivorous diet dominated by animal matter, with studies indicating 60-66% consisting of invertebrates such as coleopteran (beetle) and lepidopteran (moth and butterfly) larvae, alongside earthworms, spiders, and other arthropods, while plant material including fruits, seeds, and berries comprises the remainder, varying seasonally with greater reliance on fruits in autumn.^[61]^[62]^[39] Foraging primarily involves ground-based probing, where the bird inserts and opens its bill to extract buried prey from soil in open habitats like pastures, lawns, and fields, a technique facilitated by its adaptable yellow bill.^[39] This method targets subsurface invertebrates efficiently, though starlings also glean surface insects or pursue flying prey aerially when available.^[39] Flock foraging predominates in non-breeding seasons, with groups exploiting patchy resources in grasslands and agricultural edges, where collective vigilance and information sharing via flight calls improve encounter rates with food.^[39] In urban and human-modified landscapes, starlings opportunistically incorporate anthropogenic foods, such as discarded waste from landfills or livestock feed, supplementing natural items during scarcity.^[39] Daily consumption averages 20-40 g depending on food type and season, equivalent to roughly 25-50% of an adult's 75-90 g body mass, reflecting high metabolic demands that drive shifts toward energy-dense items like fatty seeds or fruits in winter to sustain thermoregulation and activity.^[61]^[39]^[63]

Reproduction and nesting

The common starling breeds primarily from March to July in the northern hemisphere, with pairs typically attempting one to two broods per season depending on latitude and local conditions.^[64]^[65] Females lay clutches of 4-6 eggs (rarely up to 9), with a modal size of 5, each egg measuring approximately 2.7-3.2 cm in length and incubated for 11-14 days primarily by the female, though males may assist briefly.^[64]^[66]^[58] Nests are constructed in cavities such as tree holes, building crevices, or nest boxes, lined with grass, feathers, and other soft materials; males select and prepare sites before attracting females.^[64] Pairs defend territories aggressively, with both sexes engaging in cooperative harassment to deter intruders and usurp cavities from competitors, contributing to their competitive edge in nest site acquisition.^[67]^[68] Nestling development spans about 21 days until fledging, after which juveniles remain dependent on parents for 1-2 weeks while learning to forage.^[66] The species exhibits facultative polygyny, where some males secure multiple mates—up to five in extreme documented cases—allocating parental effort preferentially to primary broods based on factors like brood age and female quality, while females invest heavily in incubation and chick provisioning regardless of male multiplicity.^[69]^[70]^[71] Reproductive success varies, with nesting success rates around 71% in some populations, yielding 2-3 fledglings per attempt, though post-fledging juvenile mortality reaches 55-65% due to predation, starvation, and inexperience.^[72]^[73]^[74] Common starlings exhibit highly gregarious social behavior, forming large flocks outside the breeding season that can number in the thousands to millions.^[75] These flocks display dominance hierarchies, with higher-ranked individuals, often males or those with superior condition, gaining priority access to food resources during foraging.^[76] Dominance is established through aggressive interactions and can vary by context, such as differing hierarchies in foraging versus perching situations.^[77] In winter, starlings form spectacular murmurations—dense, synchronized aerial displays—primarily as an anti-predator strategy during roosting.^[75] The collective motion in these flocks, involving thousands to millions of birds, confuses predators like falcons by diluting the risk to any individual and creating unpredictable patterns that hinder targeted attacks.^[75] This density-dependent behavior enhances survival through the safety-in-numbers effect, rather than serving to attract conspecifics for information sharing.^[75] Within their native Eurasian range, common starlings are partial migrants, with northern and eastern populations undertaking seasonal migrations southward and westward to wintering grounds in southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, covering distances up to 1,500 km.^[16] Southern and western populations remain largely resident year-round.^[16] Telemetry studies indicate individual-level variation in migration timing, distance, and routes, influenced by factors like breeding latitude and weather conditions.^[78] In introduced ranges such as North America, populations are predominantly resident or exhibit only short-distance irruptive movements, enabled by abundant year-round food sources and milder climates compared to northern native areas.^[79]

Predators, parasites, and health factors

Natural predators

Adult common starlings experience low predation rates, with raptors such as Eurasian sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) and falcons occasionally capturing them in flight, as documented in dietary analyses of sparrowhawk populations in Scotland where starlings comprised a notable portion of prey biomass during breeding seasons.^[80] Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) and other aerial predators target flocking adults, particularly during migration or murmurations.^[63] Owls prey on both adults and juveniles, especially at night.^[81] Eggs and chicks in cavity nests face higher vulnerability, primarily from mammalian predators including rats (Rattus spp.) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) in North American ranges, which raid nests for nestlings.^[82] Nest predation rates vary but can contribute significantly to juvenile mortality, estimated at 55-65% annually, though specific predation fractions are context-dependent on habitat and predator density.^[72] Flocking behavior, including large murmurations, mitigates individual predation risk through the dilution effect, where the probability of any single bird being targeted decreases in larger groups, alongside enhanced detection and confusion of predators.^[75] This antipredator strategy is more pronounced in open habitats, where exposure to raptors like kestrels (Falco tinnunculus or Falco sparverius) increases, leading to denser flocks and synchronized escape maneuvers observed in high-predation areas.^[83] Predator assemblages show regional variation: in native European ranges, avian predators dominate due to cavity nesting reducing mammalian access, whereas introduced North American populations encounter diverse hawks and mammalian nest raiders, potentially elevating juvenile losses in fragmented landscapes.^[84]^[82]

Parasites and diseases

Common starlings harbor a variety of ectoparasites, including feather mites, lice, and ticks, which can infest feathers and skin. Mites such as those in the genus Dermanyssus and ticks have been documented on starlings, often transmitted through close contact in roosts.^[85] Endoparasites are prevalent, with helminths showing high infection rates; one study reported 90% prevalence in North American populations. The gapeworm Syngamus trachea infects the trachea, causing respiratory distress, with mean prevalence of 59.1% and intensities up to 15 worms per bird in first-year European starlings. Protozoan haemosporidians, including Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and Leucocytozoon species, exhibit annual prevalences of 2.7–15.7% in breeding Latvian populations. Coccidian oocysts occur in nestling feces at 27.1% prevalence.^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89] Viral diseases include avian pox, caused by avipoxviruses, which produces wart-like lesions on unfeathered skin and mucous membranes, reported in starlings among other passerines. Bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella spp. are carried asymptomatically, with transmission facilitated by fecal contamination in communal roosts. Fungal agents like Histoplasma capsulatum can proliferate in roost accumulations of droppings. These parasites and pathogens contribute to juvenile mortality and may regulate local population densities, particularly through intensified effects in dense roosts.^[90]^[91]^[85] Recent research indicates elevated lead accumulation in urban starling nestling feathers, with concentrations higher than in rural counterparts, potentially from environmental exposure despite no corresponding soil differences; this heavy metal burden does not correlate with altered physiology or behavior in examined cohorts.^[92]

Ecological and economic impacts

Competition with native species

In North America, introduced common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) aggressively compete for limited cavity nest sites, frequently usurping active nests of native species through harassment, eviction of incubating adults, and destruction of eggs or nestlings.^[93] For instance, studies of red-bellied woodpeckers (Melanerpes carolinus) documented usurpation rates of 39% to 52% of freshly excavated cavities by starlings, leading to delayed breeding and reduced seasonal fecundity in affected pairs.^[94] Similarly, northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) experienced significant breeding delays due to starling interference, with high proportions of flickers forced to abandon or relocate nests in Ohio study sites.^[93] Eastern bluebirds (Sialia sialis) face frequent evictions from nest boxes, with individual boxes sometimes requiring the removal of over 400 starlings across multiple seasons to restore access, though bluebird populations have shown resilience via human-provided nest boxes and nonsignificant long-term declines in breeding bird survey data.^[93]^[95] Population-level impacts remain debated, with analyses of 27 native cavity-nesters revealing significant post-invasion declines in only 19% of species, such as yellow-bellied sapsuckers (Sphyrapicus varius), where starling arrival correlated with reduced densities in Christmas Bird Count data (p=0.002).^[93] However, causation is confounded by factors like habitat loss and severe weather, and most natives, including woodpeckers and bluebirds, exhibit no clear starling-attributable declines despite localized usurpations, suggesting behavioral resistance or adaptation mitigates broader effects.^[93] In Australia, starlings similarly displace hollow-dependent natives like the double-eyed fig-parrot (Cyclopsitta diophthalma), exacerbating scarcity in eucalypt cavities, though quantitative displacement data are sparser than in North America.^[96] Evidence for foraging competition is weaker, with starlings' large flocks potentially excluding smaller native insectivores from short-grass patches via interference, but controlled studies show limited exploitative exclusion and native species often partitioning resources by foraging height or timing.^[97] Hybridization with natives is absent, as starlings belong to a distinct family (Sturnidae) incompatible with North American cavity-nesters like Turdidae or Picidae. High starling densities—exceeding 200 million individuals continent-wide—amplify nest site rivalry through density-dependent saturation of available cavities, intensifying eviction risks where natural holes are limited.^[39]^[93]

Agricultural damage and benefits

Common starlings inflict substantial damage on agricultural crops in introduced regions, particularly through flock foraging that targets ripening fruits and grains. In the United States, these birds cause estimated annual losses exceeding $800 million to agriculture, stemming from direct consumption, pecking that bruises produce, and fecal contamination rendering harvests unsalable.^[65] Specific impacts include raids on cherries, where starlings peck at fruit leading to marketable losses of up to $51 million yearly, and similar depredation on blueberries totaling $33 million, as documented in producer surveys.^[39] Grape vineyards also suffer from flock incursions, with birds consuming berries and contaminating clusters via droppings, exacerbating economic burdens in monoculture settings.^[39] On the benefit side, starling flocks consume soil-dwelling invertebrates such as grubs and wireworms in pastures, offering localized pest suppression that may reduce larval damage to grasses and aid livestock foraging areas.^[4] This insectivory can mitigate some invertebrate pressures without chemical interventions, particularly in non-crop grasslands. However, quantitative data on these gains remains limited compared to well-documented crop losses. Overall, empirical economic valuations reveal that agricultural damages from starlings substantially outweigh pest control benefits, especially in intensive fruit and grain production systems where large flocks concentrate and amplify losses beyond any incidental invertebrate reductions.^[65]^[39] In regions like the U.S., net impacts are negative, with annual costs approaching $1 billion when including broader agricultural conflicts.^[39]

Public health and livestock risks

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) serve as vectors for several zoonotic pathogens, including Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica, and fungal agents causing histoplasmosis, with droppings facilitating transmission to humans through contaminated food, water, or airborne spores from roosts.^[98] ^[99] Histoplasmosis outbreaks have been directly linked to starling roosts, where soil enriched with accumulations of droppings supports Histoplasma capsulatum growth; at least 15 major urban epidemics occurred between 1960 and 1982 following roost disruptions that aerosolized spores, and a 1965 incident in an area of low endemicity traced an epidemic to a starling roost.^[100] ^[101] Human exposure risks increase near roosts occupied for at least three years, as dry conditions mobilize spores via dust inhalation, though infections are more severe in immunocompromised individuals.^[102] For livestock, starlings contaminate feed and water troughs with fecal matter harboring E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella, correlating with higher pathogen prevalence in cattle; longitudinal studies on dairy farms found E. coli O157 recovery odds elevated during winter when starling visitation peaks, and approximately 3% of sampled starlings carried the bacterium.^[103] ^[104] Farms experiencing severe starling infestations (over 10,000 birds) show amplified pathogen spread, with starling control reducing Salmonella contamination in feed and water by dispersing flocks.^[99] ^[105] This facilitates farm-to-farm transmission as starlings forage across multiple sites, introducing resistant strains and potentially reducing cattle weight gains through subclinical infections or feed avoidance due to fouling.^[106] ^[107] Overall, starling-mediated diseases contribute to substantial livestock health costs, estimated in broader invasive species impacts at nearly $800 million annually for treatment in affected humans and animals.^[65]

Population status and management

Global trends and conservation concerns

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, reflecting its extensive global range exceeding 38 million km² and an estimated 150 million mature individuals, though the overall population trend is decreasing.^[6] This status accounts for both native distributions across Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, and established invasive populations in regions like North America, Australia, and South Africa, where introductions since the 19th century have led to rapid expansions without facing native-range pressures.^[16] No subspecies are considered threatened, but long-term monitoring reveals contrasting dynamics: declines in core native habitats versus persistence or slower growth in non-native areas. In Europe, breeding populations have fallen markedly since the 1970s, with the United Kingdom recording an 82% reduction from 1970 to 2022 and broader continental trends showing decreases of over 20% in many countries by the 2010s.^[108] ^[109] These shifts correlate with agricultural intensification, including reduced pastoral grazing, fewer livestock holdings, and conversion of grasslands to arable land, which diminish soil invertebrates essential for starling foraging, particularly for juveniles whose survival rates have dropped.^[3] ^[16] Urbanization and pesticide use exacerbate prey scarcity, but empirical data from schemes like the British Trust for Ornithology's monitoring attribute primary causation to habitat alterations rather than broad climatic factors.^[6] Introduced populations exhibit boom-and-stabilize patterns, with North American numbers peaking mid-20th century before a 14.9% decline over the 2010s, concentrated in the Midwest, potentially due to saturation and competition.^[110] In Australia, genetic analyses indicate sustained differentiation and effective population sizes larger than in North America, supporting ongoing viability post-1860s establishment.^[13] Conservation efforts emphasize native-range habitat restoration, such as promoting mixed farming to bolster invertebrate abundance, over global interventions, given the species' adaptability and lack of imminent extinction risk.^[6]

Control measures and human interventions

In regions where the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is considered invasive, such as North America, it lacks federal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, permitting year-round lethal control measures without permits to mitigate agricultural and ecological damage.^[111]^[4] Lethal control tactics include trapping with decoy or nest-box designs, which have proven effective for localized reductions, such as in British Columbia vineyards where aggressive trapping since 2003 lowered populations and crop losses.^[112] Shooting targets roosting flocks but requires safe sites and is often combined with other methods for sustained impact, while avicides like DRC-1339, registered for starling control in the United States, deliver high efficacy by inducing renal failure in birds consuming baited seeds, with LD50 values of 1-5 mg/kg and applications reducing feedlot infestations by up to 90% in multiple treatments.^[39]^[113]^[114] Non-lethal interventions emphasize habitat modification, including netting over fruit crops or building ledges to exclude roosts, porcupine wires, or 45°-angled coverings that prevent perching, offering cost-effective prevention when implemented pre-season as starlings exploit existing structures.^[115]^[39] Integrated pest management (IPM) integrates these—such as pre-baiting for DRC-1339 acceptance followed by exclusion—yielding successes in dispersing roosts and minimizing recurrence, with USDA programs demonstrating economic benefits through reduced livestock feed contamination estimated at millions annually.^[39]^[116] Recent advancements include genomic tools like reduced representation sequencing and whole-genome analysis to track invasion origins and population structure, enabling targeted interventions by identifying source populations for prioritized control, as applied in New Zealand and Australia studies from 2022-2024 that reveal genetic bottlenecks aiding management predictions.^[117]^[18]^[13]

Cultural and scientific significance

In literature and symbolism

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) features in William Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 (c. 1597), where the character Hotspur declares, "Nay, I'll have a starling shall be taught to speak / Nothing but 'Mortimer,'" referencing the bird's vocal mimicry to perpetuate a name despite royal prohibition.^[118] This sole mention in Shakespeare's works has been popularly linked to the species' introduction to North America in 1890 by Eugene Schieffelin, though historical analysis indicates Schieffelin's efforts stemmed from broader acclimatization goals rather than a targeted effort to import all Shakespeare-mentioned birds.^[119] In music, the starling's mimicry inspired Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who purchased a specimen on May 27, 1784, in Vienna; the bird accurately reproduced the allegretto theme from his Piano Concerto No. 17 in G major (K. 453), albeit substituting a G-sharp for an F natural, as noted in Mozart's hand-written epitaph upon its death three years later.^[120] Mozart arranged a funeral procession for the bird, burying it in his garden with a poem lamenting its loss, underscoring the cultural appreciation of its imitative talents in 18th-century Europe.^[121] Symbolically, starlings held divinatory roles in ancient Rome, where augurs interpreted the patterns of their murmurations—large-scale flocking formations—as omens from the gods, with shapes signaling approval or disapproval for proposed actions.^[122] Among the ancient Celts, the species was revered, particularly by Druids, who associated it with honor and prophecy; in Welsh, "dringwr" (starling) derives from a term meaning "St. David's bird," linking it to regional saintly lore.^[123] These depictions contrast with later European views portraying starlings as pests in folklore, often as harbingers of discord due to their bold intrusions into human spaces.

Research contributions

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has served as a key model organism in invasion biology, particularly for studying genetic adaptation in introduced populations. Research on North American starlings has documented rapid evolutionary changes in beak morphology following their 1890 introduction from Europe, with genetic analyses revealing reduced initial diversity due to founder effects, followed by expansion and selection for traits enhancing foraging efficiency in novel environments.^[13] Similarly, genomic studies of Australian populations highlight differentiation in regions associated with local adaptation, such as immune response and metabolism, despite bottlenecks from multiple independent introductions around 1860–1900.^[14] A 2024 study on New Zealand starlings, using reduced representation sequencing, confirmed lower genetic diversity compared to native ranges but identified admixture from diverse source populations aiding establishment.^[117] In behavioral ecology, starlings' vocal mimicry capabilities have informed experiments on learning and cognition. As complex vocal learners, they imitate diverse sounds from conspecifics, other species, and anthropogenic sources, with captive rearing studies showing males copying up to 90% of song models from tutors, demonstrating cultural transmission.^[124] Recent work links this mimicry to advanced problem-solving; a 2023 experiment found starlings outperforming non-vocal learners in tasks requiring inhibition and reversal learning, correlating with larger brain regions for vocal control, suggesting mimicry evolves alongside cognitive flexibility.^[125] Starling murmurations have advanced understanding of collective animal behavior and aerodynamics. High-speed 3D tracking of flocks revealed alignment rules where birds maintain velocity and separation from neighbors, minimizing collision risks through local interactions rather than global coordination.^[126] Aerodynamic models indicate that positional ordering in flocks optimizes energy efficiency by drafting behind leaders, with edge birds experiencing higher drag but facilitating rapid information transfer for anti-predator maneuvers.^[127] Empirical data from predation events confirm murmurations primarily function to confuse attackers via density and unpredictability, rather than solely for thermoregulation or mating displays.^[75]

References

[1]
Sturnus vulgaris - European starlings - Animal Diversity Web
Habitat. The European Starling is a bird of lowlands, found mainly on non-mountainous terrain. During breeding season, these birds require holes for nesting, ...
[2]
Starling Bird Facts | Sturnus Vulgaris - RSPB
Key facts ; Length 21cm ; Habitats Woodland, Upland, Urban and Suburban, Marine and Intertidal, Farmland, Wetland, Grassland ; UK breeding birds 1.8 million ...
[3]
Starling - BTO
Starlings can be found across Britain & Ireland except for the highest peaks. Numbers increase dramatically during the winter months when birds arrive from ...
[4]
European Starling | National Invasive Species Information Center
European starling populations have spread across North America making them common and widespread.
[5]
Sturnus vulgaris - Global Invasive Species Database
Oct 4, 2010 · European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) cause damage to agricultural crops. When significant numbers are present starling flocks may descend on ...
[6]
Common Starling Sturnus Vulgaris Species Factsheet
Likewise, the introduced population in North America has declined between 1970 and 2014 (51% decline between 1966 and 2015 based on the North American Breeding ...
[7]
A complete species-level molecular phylogeny for the "Eurasian ...
We generated the first complete phylogeny of extant taxa in a well-defined clade of 26 starling species that is collectively distributed across Eurasia.
[8]
Sturnidae) and mockingbirds (Aves: Mimidae): Congruent mtDNA ...
Aug 7, 2025 · We generated a comprehensive phylogeny for the avian families Sturnidae (starlings, mynas, Rhabdornis, oxpeckers, and allies) and Mimidae ...
[9]
A New Middle Miocene Starling (Sturnidae Rafinesque, 1815)from ...
Dec 23, 2020 · Introduction. The Miocene avian fossil record in Bulgaria is not abundant. Until now nine paleontological sites revealed fossil birds ...
[10]
(PDF) Neogene-Quaternary birds of Bulgaria - ResearchGate
Mar 8, 2023 · Another species of Sturnidae is the oldest record of the family,. originating from the middle Miocene (MN 5-8) of the site of Kardam.
[11]
European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Birds of the World
European Starling Sturnus vulgaris Scientific name definitions · LC Least Concern · Names (81) · Subspecies (12).
[12]
Systematics - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · Sturnus vulgaris does not have a fossil record in the New World, but there are numerous Pleistocene (1.3 million years before present) and ...
[13]
Recent beak evolution in North American starlings after invasion
Jan 2, 2024 · The North American starling population experienced a reduction in genetic diversity followed by a rapid expansion, as shown with reduced ...
[14]
Evolutionary genomics: Insights from the invasive European starlings
We discuss recent genetic findings within the invasive European starlings in Australia, and outline some critical next steps within this research system.Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025
[15]
Contrasting mitochondrial diversity of European starlings (Sturnus ...
Aug 27, 2020 · However, numerous insights from studies of other invasions suggest that decreased genetic diversity ... invasions: North America, Australia, and ...
[16]
Global invasion history and native decline of the common starling
Jan 24, 2023 · A global review of starling invasions may help to identify how this particular invasive species now thrives on nearly every continent.<|separator|>
[17]
Environmental correlates of genetic variation in the invasive ...
We suggest that local adaptation in North American starlings may have evolved rapidly even in this wide-ranging and evolutionarily young system.
[18]
Evolutionary genomics: Insights from the invasive European starlings
Invasive species, by nature, are successful following genetic bottlenecks (i.e., the large reduction in effective population size that occurs during ...
[19]
Is a handful of genes responsible for the common starling invasion ...
Jan 9, 2021 · Their results suggest that the common starling worldwide invasion has been driven by a handful of genes that allowed adaptation to extreme ...
[20]
Concurrent invasions of European starlings in Australia and North ...
Nov 7, 2023 · A species' success during the invasion of new areas hinges on an interplay between the demographic processes common to invasions and the ...Missing: diversity | Show results with:diversity
[21]
European Starling Identification - All About Birds
Starlings are chunky and blackbird-sized, but with short tails and long, slender beaks. In flight their wings are short and pointed.
[22]
Starling | Department of Primary Industries
Males (73– 96 grams) generally weigh slightly more than non-gravid females (69–93 grams). Juveniles are uniform grey-brown above and lightly flecked below, with ...<|separator|>
[23]
Plumages, Molts, and Structure - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris
Mar 4, 2020 · Females are somewhat duller than adult males. Other plumage differences include iridescence on the distal vane of the secondaries: present on ...Plumages, Molts, And... · Discrimination Among Age And... · Basic I PlumageMissing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
[24]
European Starling | Wildlife Illinois
European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are eight to nine inches in length, have a wingspan of 12 to 16 inches, weigh two to three ounces.Missing: size | Show results with:size
[25]
[PDF] The European starling
Oct 30, 2009 · They are adapted for terrestrial foraging with power- ful legs for walking and a strong, pointed bill for probing into the substrate to locate ...
[26]
European Starling Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of ...
They are stocky black birds with short tails, triangular wings, and long, pointed bills. Though they're sometimes resented for their abundance and ...Missing: subspecies | Show results with:subspecies
[27]
European Starling | Audubon Field Guide
Bill bright yellow in breeding season, with base of lower mandible blue in males, pink in females. Bill duller at other seasons. Juveniles (seen in flocks in ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[28]
Common Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Oiseaux.net
Jul 6, 2023 · The Common Starling is a black bird slightly smaller than the Blackbird with whom it can be confused, but its silhouette is different.
[29]
European Starling (Birds of Great Basin National Park) - iNaturalist
Adult starling males and females mature to a length of about 21.5 centimeters (8.5 inches) and weigh between 2.5 and 3.5 ounces. Both males and females have ...
[30]
[PDF] 416 Common Starling
Black plumage, with purple, green and blue gloss in breeding plumage; strongly spotted pale in winter; yellow bill in breeders, dark in winter; short tail. Wing ...
[31]
European Starling - BirdWeb
They have strong legs and feet and usually forage on the ground. Most members of this family are omnivores, eating invertebrates, seeds, fruits, and eggs ...
[32]
European Starling Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Two types of screamlike calls indicate aggression and are often accompanied by flapping wings: one is a chattering call (described as chackerchackerchacker); ...Missing: tchurr spectrographic
[33]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris
Mar 4, 2020 · Male song, heard most of year (but rarely during molt), contains much variation and mimicry; male repertoire size varies with degree of social interaction.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[34]
No overlap in song repertoire size between yearling and older ...
No overlap in song repertoire size between yearling and older Starlings Sturnus vulgaris ... Vocal mimicry in Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). PhD thesis, University ...
[35]
"Functions of Vocal Mimicry in the Complex Song of the European ...
May 7, 2020 · The functions of vocal mimicry are still unknown for many species and studying mimicry can teach us about the variation within the song learning process.Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[36]
Behavior - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · Various behaviors of paired birds have been reported including reverse mounting, pre-copulatory feeding by the male, mutual bill-wiping before ...
[37]
Concordance of movements and songs enhances receiver ... - Nature
Feb 13, 2024 · We studied the effects of movement and song type concordance in audio-visual displays of the starling, Sturnus vulgaris.
[38]
Distribution - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Birds of the World
European Starlings breed in Eurasia, winter in North Africa, and have been introduced to South Africa, Australia, and North America, mainly in the eastern half.
[39]
[PDF] European Starlings - usda aphis
A reduction of starling populations at cattle feedlots with more than 10,000 birds led to the complete disappearance of S. enterica from feed troughs and to ...
[40]
[PDF] The European Starling - Maine.gov
The European Starling is a species of temperate regions and has a wide breeding range extending from western Europe to central Asia, and from. Iceland to ...<|separator|>
[41]
Postglacial Colonisation Patterns and the Role of Isolation ... - PubMed
Jul 30, 2008 · Gene flow analyses showed that clade A colonised both Europe and Asia from a refugium in Europe, and that clade B expanded much later and ...Missing: Common starling historical
[42]
The effect of pasture on starling (Sturnus vulgaris) breeding success ...
Populations of European starlings have declined over large parts of northern and western Europe during the last 20 years. It has been suggested that reduced ...
[43]
Contrasting Common Starling trends across Europe - PECBMS
Nov 28, 2019 · These changes may be responsible for changes in food availability and hence breeding Starling´s abundance and their differences across Europe.<|separator|>
[44]
Common Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) increasingly select for grazed ...
Starlings compensated for elevated travel costs by showing increasing habitat selection the further they foraged from the nest. Our results highlight the ...
[45]
Common, or Eurasian or European, starling | Research Starters
Common starlings will typically avoid mountainous areas in favor of lowlands. The species can be found in areas away from people, but they are more commonly ...<|separator|>
[46]
The Spread of the European Starling in North America (to 1928)
[[p. 3]] The permanent establishment of the species in North America dates from April, 1890, when 80 birds were released in Central Park, New York City.
[47]
[PDF] Spread of the European starling in North America
for new abiding places. METHODS OF SPREAD. Starlings are natural vagrants, and food and weather conditions are probably additional factors influencing their ...
[48]
European Starling - Minnesota Breeding Bird Atlas
Breeding concentrations are highest in the north-central United States (Figure 1). ... European Starling had just reached the southeastern corner of the state.
[49]
EUROPEAN STARLING | The Texas Breeding Bird Atlas
North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate the highest abundances (10-30 starlings per BBS route) are found in areas described by Lockwood and ...Missing: Midwest | Show results with:Midwest
[50]
[PDF] bird problems in new zealand–methods of control
These were first liberated in NZ about 1862 and are now widely distributed throughout the country. The European starling is considered to be one of the major ...Missing: Common | Show results with:Common
[51]
[PDF] SHORT NOTE Sudden decline in numbers of starlings (Sturnus ...
Date of breeding of the starling Sturnus vulgaris in New. Zealand is related to El Nino Southern Oscillation. Austral Ecology 31: 634-637. Keywords Starling; ...Missing: fluctuations | Show results with:fluctuations
[52]
[PDF] Ecography
Flux, J. E. C. and Flux, M. M. 1981. Population dynamics and age structure of starlings. (Sturnus vulgaris) in New Zealand. – NZ J. Ecol. 4: 65–72.Missing: fluctuations | Show results with:fluctuations
[53]
Common Starling - The Australian Museum
Once a common bird of European deciduous woodlands (now in more rural and urban areas), the Common Starling was introduced into Australia in the late 1850s ...
[54]
[PDF] Final Report - PestSmart
This report finds that in Western Australia, the potential habitat zone of starlings is around 1 million sq km, and under full infestation and with a.
[55]
Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) - BDI
Mar 22, 2022 · They were introduced to Cape Town in 1897 by Cecil John Rhodes. The story of their range expansion is here. They mainly occur in the southern ...
[56]
European Starling (The Flora and Fauna of Palo Duro Canyon)
In South Africa, the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes. It spread slowly, and by 1954, had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth. It is ...<|separator|>
[57]
European starlings expand into Patagonia. Time for action
While Patagonia (southern Argentina and Chile) has remained free of European starlings (ES) in the past, they are now present along its northern boundary.
[58]
High breeding success of the European Starling compared to native ...
One of the most invasive birds is the European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), which recently invaded and started to expand throughout South America. Despite its ...
[59]
[PDF] A recent invasive population of the European starling sturnus ...
Therefore, the level of asymmetry and genetic diversity found among these populations was consistent with our predictions based on their invasion history.
[60]
First records of European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) in Brazil
Mar 16, 2018 · Our most recent record reveals the probable establishment of this species in the country. KEY WORDS: Common Starling, conservation, ecology, ...
[61]
Diet and Foraging - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris
Mar 4, 2020 · Main Foods Taken. Extremely diverse diet that varies geographically, with the age of individuals, and with season.
[62]
[PDF] Starling Family
Apr 23, 2015 · The starling's diet is almost 60 percent animal matter; mainly insects and other small invertebrates. ... European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris).
[63]
Starling Diet and Size: Feeding Habits, Predators, and Measurements
How Much Does A Starling Weigh? The average weight of an adult Starling is around 75 to 90 grams. This is roughly the same weight of a good quality table knife.
[64]
European Starling Life History - All About Birds
Clutch Size: 3-6 eggs ; Number of Broods: 1-2 broods ; Egg Length: 1.1-1.3 in (2.7-3.2 cm) ; Egg Width: 0.8-0.9 in (1.9-2.3 cm) ; Incubation Period: 12 days.
[65]
[PDF] European Starlings: A Review of an Invasive Species with Far
The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has been nominated by the Invasive Species Specialist Group to the "100 World's Worst" invaders (Lowe et al. 2004). ...
[66]
Breeding - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · ... incubation is correlated with the final clutch size. Females who lay 5–egg clutches incubate 11% of the time on the second day, 24% on the ...
[67]
[PDF] Nest Defense Behaviors of Native Cavity- Nesting Birds to European ...
Starlings are aggressive nest competitors, known to evict native species from cavities (van Balen and others 1982, Ingold 1989, Kerpez and Smith 1990,.
[68]
Cooperative nest defense by European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris ...
For example, in the cavity-nesting Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea), both parents engaged in nest defense, but males were more aggressive than females, ...
[69]
Paternal Care and Male Mate-Attraction Effort in the ... - PubMed
In facultative polygynous birds with biparental care, a trade-off may occur between male parental care and attraction of additional mates.Missing: common | Show results with:common
[70]
(PDF) An extreme case of polygyny in the European Starling Sturnus ...
Jun 24, 2009 · I¸n 1986, a male Starling, breeding in a nestbox colony in Zoersel, Belgium, was paired to 5 different females whose breeding overlapped.
[71]
Polygynous male starlings allocate parental effort according to ...
In many polygynous bird species, males allocate most of their parental effort to their primary females' broods. There are several hypotheses that may ...
[72]
Demography and Populations - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris
Mar 4, 2020 · In many areas, population densities can be increased by erecting nest boxes, which implies that the availability of nest sites limits some ...
[73]
[PDF] European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
Starlings contaminate food and water with their droppings and potentially spread diseases to humans, livestock and wildlife. Aesthetic concerns with droppings, ...
[74]
Flexible growth and body mass predict physiological condition ... - NIH
Jun 8, 2022 · ... fledging period and the high rates of juvenile mortality that characterize it [33]. While many studies have shown oxidative costs associated ...
[75]
Birds of a feather flock together: Insights into starling murmuration ...
Jun 19, 2017 · Our findings suggest that starling murmurations are primarily an anti-predator adaptation rather than being undertaken to attract larger numbers of individuals ...
[76]
Effects of early life adversity and sex on dominance in European ...
Dominance in socially foraging animals may be related to sex and to variation in individual quality. Individual quality may in turn reflect conditions ...
[77]
Mixed-species groups and the question of dominance in the social ...
Apr 17, 2023 · For example, in European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, dominance hierarchies in foraging and perching contexts differ [86]. Furthermore, in some ...
[78]
Migration ecology of the Common Starling - Swiss Ornithological ...
In this study, we aim at describing individual-level migration behaviour and performance of Starlings from different European breeding populations.Missing: partial native range
[79]
Movements and Migration - European Starling - Sturnus vulgaris
Mar 4, 2020 · Starlings tend to be least partly migratory in the middle Atlantic states, and mostly migratory in the midwest and Great Lakes regions.
[80]
[PDF] Food, predation and breeding season in Sparrowhawks (Accipiter ...
Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, predation on tits, Parus spp. Unpublished D ... Starling Sturnus vulgaris L. 6.96. 9-45. 3.46. 6-55. 8-48. 4-85. 4.23. Crossbill ...
[81]
European Starling - Birds Connect Seattle
Starlings nest in suitable holes and crevices in buildings, utility poles, decaying trees, and holes in cliff faces, 6 to 60 feet above ground.
[82]
[PDF] Starlings - Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife
Adult starlings have few predators, although hawks and falcons occasionally catch them in flight. • Loss of young starlings results from starvation, adverse ...
[83]
The confusion effect when attacking simulated three-dimensional ...
Jan 1, 2017 · [19] observed that in areas with high predation pressure, flocks of starlings were larger, denser and escaped predator attacks more often. The ...
[84]
Predator–prey relationships in a changing environment: the case of ...
Jul 29, 2009 · and starling Sturnus vulgaris L. This prey community represented ... The song thrush seemed to be highly vulnerable to sparrowhawk predation ...
[85]
[PDF] Sturnus vulgaris - Stewardship Centre for BC
European starlings harbour many diseases and parasites including. Salmonella, Toxoplasmosis, Histoplasma capsulatum(histoplasmosis fungus), ticks and mites ...
[86]
[PDF] Helminth parasites of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) (Aves ...
Apr 25, 2014 · These include bacterial diseases such as salmonellosis (Salmonella food poisoning), chlamydiosis and transmissible gastroenteritis of swine (hog ...
[87]
[PDF] Gapeworm (Syngamus trachea) Infection in First-Year European ...
Overall, these birds had significant infections with the parasite Syngamus trachea (Gapeworm).<|separator|>
[88]
Haemosporidian parasites (Apicomplexa, Haemosporida) of ...
Jun 12, 2024 · We found a total annual parasite prevalence of 2.7–15.7% caused by four Haemoproteus, three Plasmodium, and one Leucocytozoon cytochrome-b (cyt- ...
[89]
[PDF] Coproparasitological study of European starling nestlings (Sturnus ...
Feb 29, 2016 · In 2012, overall parasite prevalence was 29.2% (14/48) and coccidial prevalence was 27.1% (13/48), with 53.8% of the infected samples ...
[90]
Avian Pox | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab
Avian pox is an infection of birds caused by various strains of avipoxviruses. Avian pox occurs worldwide, except in the Arctic and Antarctica, ...
[91]
Salmonellosis in wild birds | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife
Salmonellosis is a common and usually fatal bird disease caused by the salmonella bacteria. It is transmitted through droppings and saliva when birds flock ...
[92]
Elevated lead (Pb) in urban European starling (Sturnus vulgaris ...
Feb 20, 2024 · This study shows that urban starling nestlings have higher concentrations of feather Pb despite failing to detect soil Pb concentration differences between the ...
[93]
European Starlings and Their Effect on Native Cavity‐Nesting Birds
Jul 16, 2003 · Starlings are aggressive competitors and commonly usurp cavities of other hole-nesting species. These characters make it a clear choice for a ...
[94]
[PDF] headed and Red-bellied Woodpeckers and European Starlings
Sep 6, 2024 · encounters among species. Cavity usurpations.--Fifty-five of 105 (52%) freshly excavated Red-belly nest cavities were usurped by ...Missing: quantitative | Show results with:quantitative
[95]
[PDF] European Starlings - UNL Digital Commons
Starlings (1) nest in cavities that are protected from weather and predators; (2) compete successfully with native cavity-nesting birds, often taking nest sites ...Missing: aiding | Show results with:aiding
[96]
Overview of the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) - PestSmart
They also occur in open woodlands, irrigated pasture, feedlots, mulga, mallee, reed-beds around wetlands, coastal plains, and occasionally alpine areas. They ...
[97]
Foraging behavior of European starlings: implications for mitigating ...
European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are a remarkably successful invasive species known to compete with native bird species for nest sites. The objective ...
[98]
European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) as Vectors and Reservoirs of ...
Feb 10, 2021 · They are broadly and opportunistically omnivorous, eating invertebrates, seeds, and fruits, including grains and prepared livestock foods when ...
[99]
The Role of European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in the ... - Nature
May 15, 2020 · Feedlots with severe European starling problems (e.g., experiencing more than 10,000 European starlings ... Public health risks of ...
[100]
[PDF] HISTOPLASMOSIS AND ITS IMPACT ON BLACKBIRD/STARLING ...
At least 15 major outbreaks of histoplasmosis were reported between 1960 and 1982 in urban areas where bird roosts had been disrupted by clearing.
[101]
A starling roost as the source of urban epidemic histoplasmosis in ...
A starling roost as the source of urban epidemic histoplasmosis in an area of low incidence. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1965 Nov;92(5):725-31.Missing: outbreaks | Show results with:outbreaks
[102]
Histoplasmosis and its Impact on Blackbird/Starling Roost ...
Roost sites must generally be occupied by birds for at least 3 years before soil conditions are conducive to its growth.Missing: outbreaks | Show results with:outbreaks
[103]
A longitudinal study of feed contamination by European starling ...
This study shows that the level of contamination of cattle feed by starling excrement was highest in the winter, whereas the odds of recovery of E. coli O157:H7 ...Missing: spoilage | Show results with:spoilage
[104]
Role of the European Starling in the Transmission of E. coli O157 on ...
Individual birds returned frequently to the same farm on a daily basis for feeding. E. coli O157:H7 was cultured from approximately 3% of starlings and 4% of ...Missing: spoilage | Show results with:spoilage
[105]
Efficacy of European starling control to reduce Salmonella enterica ...
Feb 16, 2011 · The results of this study suggest that starling control may reduce the amplification and spread of S. enterica to cattle feed and water supplies ...Missing: spoilage | Show results with:spoilage
[106]
starling movements relate to carriage of E. coli - ScienceDirect
May 20, 2024 · Several species of farm-associated passerines, notably European starlings, are considered to be the cause of transmission of pathogenic/ ...
[107]
The role of starlings in the spread of Salmonella within concentrated ...
Dec 30, 2010 · 5. Salmonella enterica contamination of both cattle feed troughs and water troughs is significantly related to numbers of starlings.Missing: spoilage | Show results with:spoilage<|separator|>
[108]
Starlings disappearing from gardens, says RSPB - BBC
Apr 11, 2025 · The UK breeding population declined by 82% between 1970 and 2022. There is not enough evidence to explain what is causing the declines, but one ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[109]
Starling in decline throughout Europe over the last two decades
Starling Sturnus vulgaris populations have declined throughout Europe over the last two decades. The Starling is commonest in urban and farmland habitats, ...
[110]
Starlings Are Declining in North America | Outside My Window
Feb 5, 2025 · The current population is half the size it was 50 years ago – down from an estimated 166.2 million breeding birds in 1970 to 85.1 million.
[111]
Essay: Are Starlings Really “Invasive Aliens”? - All About Birds
Mar 19, 2021 · Long ago, we designated the starling an invasive alien that threatened native birds, but as ecosystems change, so does the starling's impact on ...Missing: trends | Show results with:trends
[112]
Starling Control Program | BC Grape Growers' Association
A pilot Starling Control Project aimed at reducing starling populations through an aggressive trapping program began in 2003.
[113]
[PDF] The Use of DRC-1339 in Wildlife Damage Management - usda aphis
Weight-wise, the majority of DRC-1339 used targeted starlings (89%), common ravens (2.9%), feral pigeons (2.5%), American crows (1.8%), and brown-headed ...
[114]
[PDF] MANAGING STARLINGS IN AUSTRALIA – CAN DRC-1339 BE THE ...
DRC-1339 has been the single most effective means of reducing feed and animal losses by starlings in the United States livestock feeding operations (Besser et ...
[115]
[PDF] European starling - Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage
Trapping and removing starlings can be a successful method of control at loca- tions where a resident population is caus- ing localized damage or where other ...
[116]
European Starling / Citrus / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
Natural predators such as raptors and bobcats will feed on some of the smaller bird species, although these numbers mean little for controlling such bird pests.
[117]
Population Genetics and Invasion History of the European Starling ...
Nov 22, 2024 · The Common or European Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, is considered one of the most successful invasive avian species worldwide (Lowe, Browne ...
[118]
Birds of Shakespeare: The common starling
Dec 16, 2022 · The starling is only mentioned once by Shakespeare. However, it has become one of the most prominent representatives of Shakespeare's birds due ...
[119]
The Shakespearean Tall Tale That Shaped How We See Starlings
Apr 14, 2022 · In 1890, a mustachioed eccentric named Eugene Schieffelin released a few dozen European starlings into New York City. His supposed goal?
[120]
Shakespeare to Blame for Introduction of European Starlings to U.S.
Jun 1, 2008 · In the late 1590s Shakespeare noted the mimicking ability of the starling while writing Henry IV, Part 1.
[121]
How Do You Bond With Mozart? Adopt A Starling - NPR
Apr 20, 2017 · Naturalist and author Lyanda Lynn Haupt took her research on Mozart to a whole new level when she invited a young starling into her home.
[122]
How Starlings Spoke for the Gods in Ancient Rome | Audubon
Sep 10, 2018 · Religious leaders interpreted the shapes of these birds' murmurations to see if the gods gave, or withheld, their approval.
[123]
The Truth About Starlings - Gazehound's
Jun 6, 2015 · Starlings were sacred birds to the ancient Celts. The Druids held Starlings in honor, and in fact, the word for “starling” in Welsh is ...Missing: symbolism | Show results with:symbolism
[124]
Song learning in captive European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris
Choices of song models by four male starlings raised in captivity were also investigated. All four males copied a large proportion of their song from adult ...Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[125]
Vocal learning in starlings linked to problem solving skills and brain ...
Sep 14, 2023 · A new study published in Science finds that starlings, along with other complex vocal learners, are also superior problem solvers.
[126]
Murmurations - ScienceDirect.com
Feb 21, 2012 · Using a series of interlinked cameras, they measured murmurations in three dimensions, reconstructing individual starling movements from the ...Missing: aerodynamics | Show results with:aerodynamics
[127]
Flock2: A model for orientation-based social flocking - ScienceDirect
Oct 7, 2024 · While our model can be applied to any flocking social bird we simulate flocks of starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, and demonstrate the ...Missing: cold tolerance adaptation