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Cos

Cos, also known as Kos, is a Greek island in the Dodecanese archipelago of the southeastern Aegean Sea, situated off the southwestern coast of modern Turkey near ancient Halicarnassus. The island, measuring approximately 42 kilometers in length and noted for its fertile plains and mineral hot springs, has been inhabited since the Early Bronze Age around 2900–2100 BC, with archaeological evidence of continuous settlement. It gained prominence in antiquity as a center of medical learning, serving as the birthplace of Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BC), the ancient physician regarded as the father of Western medicine, who established the Hippocratic school and corpus of ethical medical writings. Cos prospered as a maritime hub under Dorian influence from the 11th century BC, later aligning with Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman powers, and features enduring landmarks such as the Asklepieion sanctuary dedicated to the healing god Asclepius, where Hippocratic practices were advanced, alongside the iconic Plane Tree under which tradition holds Hippocrates taught. The island's strategic position fostered trade and cultural exchange, contributing to its role in the Dorian Hexapolis alliance and later as a Ptolemaic possession following Alexander the Great's conquest in 336 BC. Today, Cos remains valued for its historical sites, including medieval fortifications from the Knights Hospitaller era, and its natural landscape of beaches and volcanic springs, though its defining legacy endures through associations with empirical medical inquiry pioneered by its native son.

Mathematics

Cosine

The cosine of an angle θ in a right-angled triangle is defined as the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to θ to the length of the hypotenuse. This geometric ratio provides the foundational empirical basis for the function, verifiable through direct measurement of triangle sides using tools like rulers or calipers, where consistency holds across repeated constructions adhering to Euclidean geometry. For angles beyond acute triangles, the definition extends to the unit circle of radius 1 centered at the origin, where cos(θ) equals the x-coordinate of the point obtained by traversing an arc of length θ (in radians) counterclockwise from the positive x-axis; the radian measure itself derives from the arc length equaling the angle in a unit circle, ensuring scale-invariance via the circle's constant curvature./01:_The_Trigonometric_Functions/1.02:_The_Cosine_and_Sine_Functions) Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the coordinates (cos θ, sin θ), which lie on the circle satisfying x² + y² = 1, yields the identity cos²(θ) + sin²(θ) = 1; this causal relation stems from the vector's fixed magnitude, projecting orthogonally without loss./01:_The_Trigonometric_Functions/1.02:_The_Cosine_and_Sine_Functions) The function is even, with cos(-θ) = cos(θ), as negative angles reflect across the y-axis to the same x-coordinate, and periodic with period 2π, since a full rotation returns the point identically due to the circle's closure. These properties admit empirical verification independent of axiomatic proofs, through geometric tables derived from constructible angles: for instance, bisecting an equilateral triangle yields cos(π/3) = 1/2 and sin(π/3) = √3/2, satisfying the identity via side ratios measurable to high precision with instruments like protractors and balances. In physical systems, such as simple pendulums undergoing small-angle oscillations, the angular displacement θ(t) ≈ θ₀ cos(√(g/L) t) matches timed measurements of position versus time, where g ≈ 9.81 m/s² and L is length, confirming cosine's form through repeated trials minimizing damping effects.

Natural Sciences

Cos Lettuce

Cos lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. longifolia) is a variety of cultivated lettuce characterized by its upright growth habit, forming tall, elongated heads with sturdy, crisp dark green leaves featuring prominent central ribs. This botanical form originated in the Mediterranean region, where it adapted to produce dense, loosely connected heads suited for structural integrity during growth. The variety thrives in cooler climates, with optimal growth temperatures between 60°F and 65°F, as higher temperatures above 70°F promote premature flowering and seed production, reducing head quality. In agricultural cultivation, cos lettuce typically yields heads weighing 500-800 g under standard field conditions, with harvest occurring 60-70 days from transplanting in spring plantings. Varieties such as 'Little Gem', a compact romaine type, demonstrate enhanced resistance to bolting—premature stem elongation triggered by heat or long days—evidenced in breeding trials where it maintained head formation under stress compared to standard cultivars. These genetic traits, derived from selective breeding, support consistent yields in temperate zones by delaying reproductive shifts. Empirical compositional analyses by the USDA indicate cos lettuce's leaves contain higher concentrations of vitamins A and K relative to less compact loose-leaf types, with raw romaine providing approximately 102.5 μg phylloquinone (vitamin K) per 100 g and substantial beta-carotene contributing to vitamin A content, factors linked to its sustained agricultural preference for nutrient-dense production. This density arises from the variety's thicker leaf structure, enabling greater accumulation of fat-soluble vitamins during cooler, longer growth cycles compared to thinner-leaved alternatives.

COS-7 Cells

COS-7 cells are a transformed fibroblast-like cell line derived from the CV-1 line, which originates from the kidney of an African green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus). The transformation was achieved using an origin-defective mutant of simian virus 40 (SV40) that expresses wild-type large T antigen, enabling these cells to support replication of plasmids containing the SV40 origin of replication. This modification, established by Yakov Gluzman in 1981, results in high copy numbers of transfected vectors and thus elevated transient expression levels of recombinant proteins, typically 10-100-fold higher than in non-permissive cells. These cells proliferate adherently in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum at 37°C and 5% CO₂, with a population doubling time of approximately 35-48 hours and saturation densities reaching 5 × 10⁶ cells per 80 cm² flask. Their morphology and growth characteristics make them amenable to standard subculturing via trypsinization, with harvest yields of 2-3 × 10⁶ cells per 80 cm². The SV40 large T antigen also promotes cell immortalization, supporting indefinite propagation without senescence, though they retain permissiveness for SV40 lytic growth. COS-7 cells are widely employed in molecular biology for transient transfection assays, achieving efficiencies of 50-70% with lipid-based reagents such as FuGENE 6 or Lipofectamine, often optimized to 70-80% under conditions of 60-80% confluency and 24-hour complex incubation. Expression peaks 24-72 hours post-transfection, ideal for analyzing recombinant viral proteins, membrane receptors, or signaling cascades without stable integration. The endogenous absence of robust type I interferon production in unstimulated states—evident from low basal gene expression and use in interferon-inducible studies—minimizes interference with foreign protein synthesis, as confirmed by proliferation assays showing limited antiviral restriction compared to primary cells.

Geography

Kos (Island)

Kos is a Greek island in the southeastern Aegean Sea, forming part of the Dodecanese archipelago and situated approximately 4 kilometers from the Bodrum Peninsula in Turkey. The island measures 42 kilometers in length and spans an area of 290 square kilometers, characterized by a generally flat terrain with two low mountain ranges and a 112-kilometer coastline. Its population stood at 37,089 residents as recorded in the 2021 Greek census, concentrated primarily in Kos Town, the capital and main port on the northeastern coast. Archaeological evidence links Kos to early empirical medical practices through the Asklepieion, a sanctuary dedicated to Asclepius, the deity associated with healing. Surviving structures date to the Hellenistic period, with primary construction phases in the 3rd century BCE, built on a hillside featuring natural springs used for therapeutic purposes. Artifacts and inscriptions indicate treatments combining observation-based methods with ritual elements, aligning with the rational medical corpus attributed to island-born practitioners active from the 5th century BCE onward. The island's geology includes Upper Miocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, contributing to nutrient-rich soils that underpin agricultural productivity in olives, grapes, and other crops. These features, combined with abundant groundwater, have sustained local farming despite seismic activity common to the Aegean region. Ottoman administration governed Kos from the late 15th century until 1912, a period marked by continuity in agrarian self-sufficiency amid minimal direct settlement by rulers. Italian forces occupied the island in May 1912 during the Italo-Turkish War, developing infrastructure while suppressing initial local aspirations for Greek unification; control persisted until 1947, when the Paris Peace Treaties transferred the Dodecanese to Greece. Throughout these transitions, empirical records show reliance on island-based cultivation rather than external dependencies, with export-oriented agriculture persisting into the postwar era.

Other Locations

Cos is a commune in the Ariège department of southern France, situated at coordinates 42°59′N 1°34′E in the rural foothills of the Pyrenees mountains. As of 2021, its population stood at 368 inhabitants, reflecting a slight decline from 379 in 2020. The economy relies on small-scale agriculture and pastoralism, consistent with the department's mountainous terrain where farming supports local subsistence and limited commercial output. Villa de Cos is a municipality in Zacatecas state, north-central Mexico, encompassing approximately 6,405 km² and located near 23°47′N 102°00′W. Its population was 34,623 as of the 2020 census. Economic activity centers on agriculture, particularly chili pepper cultivation and cattle feedlots, rather than extractive industries despite the state's broader mining context. These sites represent minor administrative divisions named "Cos," distinguished from the prominent Greek island of Kos by their lack of ancient cultural significance and reliance on topographic and census documentation for delineation, with Cos (France) featuring negligible scale and Villa de Cos emphasizing modern agrarian functions over historical prominence.

Computing

Operating Systems

COS, or China Operating System, is a Linux kernel-based operating system developed by the Institute of Software at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, primarily targeting mobile devices, tablets, and set-top boxes. Announced on January 15, 2014, it was positioned as a government-approved alternative to foreign mobile OSes, featuring a user interface resembling Android with HTC Sense-inspired elements. The system supports compatibility with Android applications through emulation layers, enabling deployment on ARM-based hardware, though empirical tests in early versions showed reduced performance in multitasking scenarios compared to native Android, with latency spikes up to 200ms in app switching under load. In embedded systems, variants of COS, such as COS-II, function as open-source real-time kernels tailored for resource-constrained microcontrollers like STM32 processors. These have been deployed in industrial control applications since the early 2000s, providing deterministic scheduling with interrupt response times under 1μs in benchmarked configurations. Designed for minimal footprint—typically occupying less than 8KB of ROM—COS embedded implementations prioritize causal reliability in sequential task execution over preemptive multitasking, as evidenced by case studies in STM32-based systems handling sensor data at rates exceeding 10kHz without buffer overflows. Comparative evaluations against μC/OS-II derivatives highlight COS's advantages in low-power modes, achieving up to 50% energy savings in idle states for battery-operated controls. Additionally, Card Operating System (COS) refers to firmware embedded in smart card ROM, managing file systems, I/O protocols, and security primitives like ISO 7816 compliance. Deployed since the 1990s in contactless and contact-based cards, it supports transaction throughputs of 9600 baud with error rates below 10^-6 in verified EMV implementations, though it exhibits limitations in dynamic resource allocation compared to modular OS kernels, restricting it to single-threaded applet execution. Criticisms of COS variants across domains include constrained extensibility, with load tests demonstrating 30-40% lower efficiency in concurrent operations versus Unix-like systems due to monolithic architectures.

Center for Open Science

The Center for Open Science (COS) is a nonprofit organization established in 2013 in Charlottesville, Virginia, with the mission of aligning scientific incentives and practices to promote openness, integrity, and reproducibility in research. COS develops tools and conducts empirical studies to address systemic issues such as selective reporting and low replication rates, emphasizing verifiable improvements over unsubstantiated advocacy. Its primary platform, the Open Science Framework (OSF), provides a free, open-source system for researchers to manage projects, share data, materials, and preregistrations throughout the research lifecycle. COS advances preregistration, where researchers publicly timestamp detailed study plans—including hypotheses, methods, and analyses—prior to data collection, to curb practices like p-hacking and publication bias that inflate false positives. Empirical evaluations by COS, such as the 2015 Reproducibility Project: Psychology, attempted to replicate 100 studies from high-impact journals and found only 39% produced significant effects in the same direction, highlighting pervasive reproducibility challenges driven by underpowered designs and flexible analyses rather than outright fraud. This project underscored causal links between opaque practices and unreliable findings, prompting COS to integrate badges for open data, materials, and preregistration into journals to incentivize transparency, though uptake remains uneven due to entrenched publication pressures. In 2025, COS launched a redesigned OSF interface in early October to enhance navigation and collaboration, alongside initiatives for an open-source ecosystem model to sustain platform development through community contributions rather than centralized funding alone. These updates aim to reduce barriers to data sharing, with analyses of badge-awarded articles showing improved analytic reproducibility after author clarifications in over 40% of cases examined. However, critics note administrative overhead from OSF workflows, such as mandatory documentation, which burdens resource-limited labs and may deter adoption without institutional mandates. Persistent p-hacking in low-adoption fields, as evidenced by meta-analyses revealing effect size inflation from selective reporting, indicates that COS tools mitigate but do not eliminate incentive misalignments in academia, where career advancement favors novel over replicable results.

Business and Commerce

COS (Clothing Brand)

COS is a fashion retailer launched in March 2007 by H&M Group, operating as an upscale sister brand to H&M with the acronym denoting "Collection of Style." Headquartered in London, it debuted with a flagship store on Regent Street, emphasizing minimalist aesthetics, architectural silhouettes, and premium fabrics to differentiate from H&M's mass-market fast-fashion approach. The brand targets urban professionals seeking enduring wardrobe staples over trend-driven novelty, with collections designed in Sweden and produced through H&M's global supply network. COS has achieved steady global expansion, operating over 260 stores across 48 countries by mid-2025, supported by robust e-commerce growth including US$725 million in online revenue from cos.com in 2024. In North America, it announced three new store openings for 2025: in San Jose, California, at Westfield Valley Fair Mall; Bellevue, Washington, at Bellevue Square; and Montreal, Quebec, reflecting a strategic push into key urban markets amid rising demand for mid-tier premium apparel. Collections adopt a see-now-buy-now model, prioritizing tailored separates, fluid outerwear, and versatile basics priced from approximately €100 for entry-level items to €1000 for statement pieces like leather coats, positioning COS as accessible luxury rather than entry-level fast fashion. Critics, including environmental watchdogs, have linked COS to H&M Group's broader operational challenges, such as supply chain opacity where viscose sourcing has been tied to toxic pollution in Asia and deforestation risks in regions like Brazil's Cerrado. H&M's model of high-volume production has drawn empirical scrutiny for contributing to industry overproduction, with unsold inventory and textile waste exacerbating landfill burdens despite sustainability pledges; independent analyses question the verifiability of emission reduction targets, highlighting discrepancies between claims and audited outcomes. These issues underscore COS's vulnerability to parent-company scandals, where data on waste diversion and supplier audits remains limited compared to transparency demands from stakeholders.

Other Companies

COS Systems AB, a Swedish software company founded in 2008, develops business support systems (BSS) and operations support systems (OSS) tailored for open access fiber optic networks, enabling network planning, deployment, and management. The firm, headquartered in Umeå, focuses on telecom infrastructure operators and was acquired by Pivot Partners in 2020. The Monument Cos., a real estate developer based in Richmond, Virginia, specializes in mixed-use and adaptive reuse projects, including the Shipyard Flats development in Newport News, Virginia—a $24.5 million historic redevelopment featuring 91 apartments and ground-floor commercial space, which opened on October 23, 2025. This project utilized historic tax credits to convert a former industrial building near the Newport News Shipbuilding yard. Other entities include COS Computer Systems, a Spanish subsidiary established in 1986 under the Swiss parent COS AG, providing IT services in computer systems integration, distinct from broader tech or retail sectors.

Government and Military

Chief of Staff

The Chief of Staff (CoS) functions as the primary administrative coordinator and advisor to an executive leader in governmental and military organizations, overseeing staff operations, managing communications, and filtering information to align priorities with organizational goals. This gatekeeping mechanism causally streamlines decision-making by reducing cognitive overload on principals, as organizational analyses demonstrate that centralized coordination cuts through fragmented inputs, enhancing efficiency in high-stakes environments like executive offices. In the U.S. White House, the role emerged in 1946 under President Truman through special counsel structures to consolidate advisory and operational duties amid expanding executive demands. In military contexts, such as WWII Allied commands, CoS positions facilitated operational streamlining by integrating disparate staff functions, with post-war efficiency evaluations attributing faster command cycles and resource allocation to this coordination, reducing logistical delays in multinational theaters. Empirical reviews of command structures confirm that effective CoS implementation correlates with measurable gains in operational tempo, as staff integration minimized redundancies and accelerated tactical responses. Despite these benefits, the role carries risks of creating informational bottlenecks, where over-centralization impedes agile decision-making, as evidenced by executive case studies showing delayed responses in dynamic crises due to excessive filtering. Politicization further complicates dynamics, with unchecked CoS influence contributing to scandals through biased access control, particularly when appointments favor personal loyalty over competence, amplifying cronyism and eroding institutional neutrality. Data on executive CoS roles reveal an average tenure of 2.3 years, reflecting the position's intensity and transitional nature, which underscores the empirical value of merit-based selection—prioritizing proven coordination skills and analytical rigor—to counteract loyalty-driven choices that foster inefficiency and bias. Such selection practices, supported by management research, promote sustained organizational resilience over relational favoritism.

Education

Colleges and Schools

The College of the Sequoias (COS), a public community college in Visalia, California, was established in 1926 as Visalia Junior College to serve the educational needs of Tulare County's rural, agriculture-dependent population. By the 2023-2024 academic year, it enrolled 13,586 students across its Visalia and Tulare campuses, focusing on associate degrees, certificates, and transfer preparation. Its career technical education programs, including vocational training in automotive technology, agriculture, and manufacturing, support workforce entry in regional industries, with a dedicated Training Resource Center offering short-term certifications in skills like Lean Six Sigma and supervisory leadership. Empirical outcomes data reveal a six-year graduation rate of 32% and a transfer-out rate of 23%, with approximately 710 students transferring annually to campuses over the past five years. While transfer-prepared applicants achieve high rates—90.4% to the CSU in fall 2023—these figures underscore causal challenges in amid accessible , where low throughput rates limit returns and modest tuition investments for the , contrasting with narratives of benefits. The College of the Siskiyous (COS), another California community college, was founded in 1957 in Weed to provide postsecondary access in the remote, forested Siskiyou County, with accreditation from the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges. It maintains smaller-scale operations akin to Sequoias, emphasizing vocational and general education without large-scale expansion, though specific recent enrollment figures align with regional community college trends under 5,000 students.

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