Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Dugite

The Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is a species of highly venomous snake in the family Elapidae, endemic to southwestern Western Australia, where it is commonly encountered in both natural and urban environments.^[1] This slender, diurnal reptile typically measures 1.5 meters in length, though it can reach up to 2 meters, and exhibits variable coloration ranging from olive-brown to dark grey or black, often with black speckling on the dorsal surface and a pale yellow or olive belly.^[2] Distinguished by its small head that blends gradually into the body, large eyes with a golden-orange rim, and semi-glossy scales arranged in 19 rows at mid-body, the dugite is well-adapted to sandy habitats such as coastal dunes, heathlands, shrublands, and woodlands, but it frequently ventures into semi-rural and urban areas like golf courses and Perth suburbs, drawn by abundant prey.^[1]^[2] Primarily active from October to April, the dugite is a fast-moving predator that shelters under rocks, debris, or burrows during cooler months and exhibits defensive behaviors such as raising its body in an S-shape, hissing, and striking when threatened.^[1] Its diet consists mainly of small vertebrates, including lizards, frogs, birds, mammals like house mice, and occasionally other snakes, employing both venom injection and constriction to subdue prey; it is also known to engage in cannibalism.^[2] Reproduction occurs in late winter to early spring, with females laying clutches of 11 to 35 eggs (averaging 21) that hatch after 53 to 105 days, depending on temperature, and sexual maturity is reached at around 58–68 cm snout-vent length.^[1] The dugite's venom is particularly potent, containing neurotoxins like pseudonajatoxins, procoagulants that disrupt blood clotting, and potential nephrotoxins, with an average yield of 2–6 mg per bite (up to 53 mg maximum).^[3]^[4] Its mouse LD50 is 0.66 mg/kg subcutaneously.^[3] Bites are often painless initially but can lead to severe systemic effects, including headache, nausea, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, acute renal failure, and rare neurotoxic paralysis, making it responsible for approximately 70% of snakebites reported to Perth hospitals and one recorded human fatality.^[2]^[3] Immediate first aid involves applying a pressure-immobilization bandage, and treatment requires intravenous administration of brown snake antivenom, alongside supportive care for coagulation and renal issues.^[1] Despite its medical significance, the species has no conservation concerns, benefiting from habitat degradation and introduced prey like mice.^[1]

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Scientific classification

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) belongs to the genus Pseudonaja (brown snakes), within the family Elapidae and order Squamata.^[5]^[1] This species was first described by Albert Günther in 1872, based on specimens from Western Australia, establishing its binomial nomenclature as Pseudonaja affinis.^[6] Three subspecies are currently recognized: the mainland form Pseudonaja affinis affinis (Günther, 1872), distributed across coastal southwestern Western Australia; P. a. exilis (Storr, 1989), endemic to Rottnest Island; and P. a. tanneri (Worrell, 1961), found on offshore islands such as those in the Archipelago of the Recherche.^[5]^[2] Phylogenetic analyses based on mitochondrial DNA sequences indicate that P. affinis diverged relatively recently from other Pseudonaja species, forming part of a clade that includes the eastern brown snake (P. textilis), with genetic divergence estimates supporting a shared ancestry within the Australian elapid radiation; more recent genomic studies up to 2023 have reinforced this relationship through venom proteome and whole-genome comparisons, highlighting P. affinis as part of the diverse Pseudonaja complex.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Etymology and common names

The name "dugite" is an anglicized form derived from terms used in dialects of the Noongar (also spelled Nyungar) Aboriginal language of southwestern Western Australia, including variants such as "dobitj," "dubyt," "karbarda," "tornoek," and "tookyte," which refer to this snake species.^[10] These Indigenous names reflect the cultural significance of the snake in Noongar knowledge systems, though specific meanings tied to its burrowing behavior or appearance are not explicitly documented in available ethnographic records.^[11] Commonly known in Australia as the dugite or spotted brown snake, the species has no widely recognized names outside the continent, with "dugite" becoming the standardized term in herpetological literature by the mid-20th century.^[1] Historically, the dugite was often confused with other brown snakes in the genus Pseudonaja, such as P. nuchalis (gwardar), due to overlapping morphological variations, leading to misidentifications until taxonomic revisions in the 1980s.^[12] These revisions, including chromosomal and electrophoretic analyses by Mengden (1985) and species delineations by Wells and Wellington (1985), clarified P. affinis as a distinct species based on genetic and morphological evidence, resolving much of the earlier nomenclature ambiguity.^[12]

Physical characteristics

Size and morphology

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) exhibits a slender body morphology typical of many elapid snakes, with adults generally reaching total lengths of 0.45 to 1.5 meters, although maximum recorded lengths approach 2 meters.^[1]^[13] Neonates measure 0.19 to 0.23 meters in snout-vent length (SVL), while adults average around 1.09 meters SVL, with the largest specimens exceeding 1.63 meters SVL.^[13] There is little to no sexual size dimorphism overall, though males tend to attain slightly larger average SVL (1.27 meters) compared to females (1.13 meters); sexual maturity is reached at approximately 40 cm SVL for both sexes.^[13]^[14] The head is small and indistinct from the neck, featuring a strong brow ridge over the large eyes, which contributes to its streamlined profile.^[1] The dorsal scales are smooth and relatively large with a semi-glossy appearance, arranged in 17 to 19 rows at midbody (most commonly 19 rows), while the ventral scales number 190 to 230 and are divided, as is the anal scale.^[1]^[13] Subcaudal scales are also mostly divided, ranging from 50 to 65 pairs.^[15] Juveniles display a more slender build that becomes moderately stouter with age.^[13] Ontogenetic changes are evident in fang morphology, with juveniles possessing robust, blunter fangs suited for piercing scaly lizard prey, transitioning to slender, sharper fangs in adults optimized for mammalian prey; this shift occurs around 0.60 meters SVL.^[16] Average fang length measures 2.8 mm (range 2.0 to 4.0 mm), with the fangs featuring venom grooves enclosed for most of their length.^[3] Sexual dimorphism appears in adult fang shape, where males exhibit significantly more slender fangs than females (p = 0.002), potentially reflecting dietary niche partitioning, though tip sharpness does not differ between sexes.^[16] The dugite lacks heat-sensing pits, a trait absent in elapids, but possesses a well-developed Jacobson's organ that facilitates chemoreception through tongue-flicking behaviors, aiding in prey detection and environmental navigation.^[17]

Coloration and variation

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) displays significant intraspecific variation in coloration, which serves as an unreliable identifier for the species. The mainland subspecies P. a. affinis typically features an olive-brown to grey-brown dorsal surface marked by irregular black or dark grey spots or flecks, each often covering half to a full scale. The ventral surface is pale, ranging from grey to cream or yellowish, occasionally with brownish orange or dark grey blotches. This base pattern can vary widely, including uniform tones from cream and yellow to brick-red, green, or black, as well as sparsely or densely spotted forms; denser spotting is more common in larger adults and eastern or southern populations.^[1]^[13] Juveniles of P. a. affinis exhibit more vivid patterning than adults, often with an olive-green, yellow, or brown ground color overlaid by a herringbone or banded design that fades and darkens with maturity, potentially enhancing camouflage in diverse substrates like leaf litter during early life stages. Rare morphs include carinate forms with 9–15 broad dark bands or fully banded patterns.^[13]^[18] Subspecies variation is pronounced, particularly between mainland and insular forms. While P. a. affinis shows the described spotting and color range, the island subspecies P. a. exilis and P. a. tanneri are generally smaller and uniformly chestnut brown to black dorsally, with minimal or no spotting and lighter or immaculate black ventral surfaces; some P. a. tanneri individuals display faint dark ventrolateral blotches. These uniform dark tones in insular populations contrast with the more mottled mainland variants, reflecting adaptation to island environments. No marked sexual dimorphism in coloration has been documented, though overall size differences exist between males and females.^[1]^[13]^[5]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is endemic to southwestern Western Australia, with its natural distribution spanning from Shark Bay in the north southward to Esperance and eastward to Israelite Bay along the western coastal fringe of South Australia.^[13]^[1] This range encompasses coastal dunes, plains, and inland extensions into the wheatbelt, though the species is absent from offshore islands except for endemic subspecies on Rottnest Island and the Recherche Archipelago. The core of the dugite's range centers on the Perth metropolitan area and the adjacent coastal plain, where it thrives in modified landscapes and is one of the most frequently encountered snakes. No introduced populations exist outside this native distribution, and the species shows strong adaptation to urban environments without evidence of range contraction as of 2025.^[1]^[19] Within its range, the dugite occupies diverse habitats from sea level up to approximately 600 m elevation in wheatbelt areas, though it primarily favors low-lying coastal and plains regions.^[20]

Habitat preferences

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) primarily inhabits arid shrublands, coastal dunes, heathlands such as kwongan, and urban fringes characterized by sandy soils across southwestern Western Australia.^[1]^[2] These environments provide suitable cover and prey availability, with the snake showing a strong preference for dry, sandy substrates over wetlands or dense closed forests.^[13] Within these habitats, dugites favor microhabitats such as burrows in sandy soils, under logs, rocks, or debris, and in disturbed areas like paddocks and gardens.^[1]^[2] They also utilize abandoned termite mounds, ant nests, and rodent burrows for shelter, adapting readily to human-modified sites including concrete slabs and discarded building materials in urban settings.^[1] This tolerance extends to heavily disturbed landscapes, where the species maintains high densities due to increased prey like introduced house mice.^[13] Seasonally, dugites exhibit shifts in activity and distribution, becoming more prevalent in coastal areas during summer for foraging and mating, while retreating inland or to burrows during cooler winter months.^[1] They are most active from October to April in warmer conditions, with reduced movement from May to August, often overwintering in sheltered burrows.^[1] Urban adaptation has been notable in Perth since the 1970s, with populations increasing in semi-rural and city fringes as urbanization expanded.^[21] The species thrives in the Mediterranean climate of southwestern Australia, featuring hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters with annual rainfall typically ranging from 300 to 800 mm.^[1]^[13] This climatic regime supports their diurnal activity patterns and ecological niche in sandy, low-vegetation habitats.^[2]

Behavior and ecology

Activity and movement

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is primarily a diurnal species, with peak activity occurring in the morning and to a lesser extent in the late afternoon, particularly on hot days when it avoids midday heat.^[1] In cooler months, individuals often bask to regulate body temperature, emerging from shelters to absorb solar radiation.^[18] Overall activity is highest from early spring through early autumn (October to April), with reduced movement during the colder period from mid-autumn to late winter.^[1] Locomotion in the dugite involves rapid lateral undulation, enabling bursts of speed up to 12 km/h when fleeing threats or pursuing opportunities.^[18] The species demonstrates occasional semi-arboreal capabilities, with documented instances of climbing low vegetation, shrubs, or even structures like power lines up to 4 meters high, likely for opportunistic purposes such as thermoregulation or vantage points. Dugites maintain a solitary social structure throughout most of the year, interacting minimally outside of the breeding season.^[22] Males become more territorial during spring (September to November), engaging in combat rituals to establish dominance and access to females.^[1] In winter (typically May to August), dugites enter brumation, a state of dormancy where they seek shelter in burrows, under logs, or in soil crevices to conserve energy amid low temperatures.^[18] They emerge from these sites in early spring (September) as conditions warm, resuming active foraging and movement.^[1]

Diet and predation

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is a carnivorous elapid snake with a diet primarily consisting of small mammals such as house mice (Mus musculus) and native rodents, as well as lizards including skinks and geckos, frogs, birds, and occasionally other snakes.^[1]^[21] Lizards represent the most frequently consumed prey group (approximately 62%), followed by mammals (38%), with all reptile prey being native species while rodents often include introduced taxa.^[21] Juveniles exhibit an ontogenetic shift, primarily consuming small lizards and occasionally other small vertebrates, aligned with robust juvenile fang morphology suited for piercing scaly prey.^[13]^[23] Dugites employ an active foraging strategy, actively searching for prey in crevices, under debris, or within grasses during daylight hours, particularly in the morning.^[1] They strike prey with venomous fangs to immobilize it, occasionally using mild constriction to assist in subduing larger items, before swallowing it whole; digestion typically requires 3–5 days depending on prey size.^[1]^[24] Dietary composition shows seasonal variation, with reptiles and invertebrates consumed more frequently during warmer months (spring to autumn), while mammals become relatively more prominent in cooler periods when reptilian activity declines.^[25] Larger adults tend to ingest more diverse and substantial meals compared to juveniles, reflecting increased foraging efficiency.^[21] As mid-level predators, dugites are preyed upon by raptors such as wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax), monitor lizards (goannas), introduced foxes (Vulpes vulpes), feral and domestic cats, and occasionally other snakes including conspecifics; juveniles face additional threats from spiders and small lizards.^[1]^[26] In urban ecosystems, dugites play a key role in controlling rodent populations by preying on invasive mice and rats, thereby supplementing natural pest management without relying solely on human interventions.^[21]

Reproduction and development

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) mates during the spring season, typically from September to November in the wild, when males engage in ritual combat to establish dominance for access to females.^[1]^[13] This combat involves males entwining their bodies and attempting to overpower one another with raised heads.^[1] The species is oviparous, with females laying eggs in late spring to midsummer, from mid-December to the end of January.^[1] Clutch sizes range from 11 to 35 eggs on the mainland (averaging 21), and larger females produce larger clutches due to a positive correlation between maternal body size and fecundity.^[1]^[27] Eggs are deposited in deep, humid burrows or hollow logs and left to incubate without parental care, with the period lasting 53 to 105 days, depending on temperature (23–30 °C), in moist substrates.^[1] Hatchlings emerge in late summer, measuring 19–23 cm in snout-vent length and weighing about 5–7 g, and are fully independent upon hatching.^[13] Juveniles grow rapidly, reaching sexual maturity at 18–24 months of age, when males attain about 58 cm and females about 68 cm in snout-vent length.^[13]^[1]

Venom and defense

Venom properties

The venom of the dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is a complex mixture primarily exhibiting procoagulant and neurotoxic effects, with an LD50 of 0.66 mg/kg via subcutaneous injection in mice.^[28] This toxicity profile enables rapid immobilization of prey through disruption of blood coagulation and neuromuscular function. The venom contains a glycoprotein prothrombin activator, similar to other Pseudonaja species where it comprises approximately 40% of the protein content in P. textilis, which converts prothrombin to thrombin, leading to consumptive coagulopathy and clot formation.^[3] Postsynaptic neurotoxins, such as pseudonajatoxin-a and -b, bind to acetylcholine receptors on skeletal muscle, inducing paralysis with LD50 values of 0.3 mg/kg and 0.015 mg/kg (intraperitoneal, mice), respectively.^[3] Myotoxins are present but contribute minimally to overall pathology, as clinical rhabdomyolysis is not commonly observed.^[3] Venom yield from adult dugites averages 40 mg of dry venom per extraction, with a maximum recorded at 143 mg, though defensive bites typically deliver a mean of 4.5 mg (range 0.03–9.1 mg).^[29]^[3] This quantity is sufficient to overwhelm small prey, given the venom's potency. Ontogenetic shifts in composition occur, with juvenile venom emphasizing neurotoxic components for subduing ectothermic prey like lizards, resulting in flaccid paralysis without significant coagulopathy.^[30] In contrast, adult venom shifts toward procoagulant dominance, enhancing hemorrhagic effects through defibrination, which aligns with a diet increasingly focused on mammalian prey.^[30] Evolutionarily, the dugite's venom represents an adaptation for efficient predation on small vertebrates in arid and semi-arid environments, where rapid prey immobilization minimizes energy expenditure.^[3] Its overall potency, as measured by LD50, is lower than that of the closely related eastern brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis, LD50 0.053 mg/kg subcutaneous, mice), reflecting ecological divergence in prey preferences and habitat demands.^[28]

Defensive behaviors

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) primarily employs evasion as its first line of defense against perceived threats, attempting to flee rapidly or seek shelter in burrows, under rocks, or amid debris such as concrete slabs and roofing tin.^[1] This shy disposition allows the snake to avoid confrontation in both natural and urban environments, where it often remains hidden during the day.^[1] When cornered or unable to escape, the dugite adopts more aggressive defensive postures, raising its forebody into a tight S-shaped coil while emitting loud hisses to intimidate potential predators.^[1] This body flattening and vocalization serve to make the snake appear larger and more formidable, a common anti-predator strategy among elapid snakes. From this position, it delivers rapid, forward-directed strikes aimed high toward the threat, often without prolonged contact.^[1] These strikes frequently result in dry bites, with estimates indicating 70–80% of defensive bites by brown snakes (Pseudonaja spp.) inject no venom, conserving resources while deterring attackers.^[31] In addition to these overt displays, the dugite integrates passive camouflage into its defensive repertoire, freezing motionless to blend with surrounding leaf litter, sandy soils, or vegetated substrates thanks to its variable brown to olive coloration and spotting pattern.^[1] This immobility can precede flight, allowing the snake to evade detection until a safe escape route is available.^[32]

Interactions with humans

Envenomation incidents

The dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is responsible for the majority of snakebite envenomations reported in Perth hospitals, accounting for approximately 70% of cases due to its prevalence in urban and suburban areas of Western Australia.^[1] Annual envenomation incidents involving the dugite in Western Australia are estimated at 10–20, with most occurring in metropolitan Perth and peaking during spring and summer months when the snakes are more active.^[33] Between 1993 and 2002, for example, 88 cases of brown snake envenoming (predominantly dugite in this region) were documented across Western Australian hospitals, highlighting a consistent but low-volume incidence.^[33] Symptoms of dugite envenomation are often painless with minimal local effects at the bite site, rapidly progressing to systemic effects such as coagulopathy characterized by bleeding tendencies and consumption of clotting factors.^[3] If untreated, these can lead to venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy (VICC) in nearly all envenomed patients, with potential advancement to paralysis, particularly in severe cases; however, the fatality rate remains below 1% when antivenom is administered promptly.^[34] In a review of 155 brown snake envenomations across Australia from 2000 to 2010, systemic envenoming occurred in 88% of cases, universally involving VICC, though paralysis was less common than in other elapid bites.^[34] Notable case studies from the 1980s underscore the risks of urban encounters with dugites, including a 1989 fatal envenomation of a young child in Western Australia who presented comatose and apneic shortly after an unwitnessed bite, emphasizing delays in recognition and treatment in residential settings.^[3] A study of 76 suspected snakebite admissions to Fremantle Hospital from 1980 to 1989 identified 13 confirmed envenomations, mostly attributed to dugites, with urban proximity noted as a key factor in these incidents.^[35] No dugite-related fatalities have been recorded in Western Australia since the early 1990s, attributable to enhanced antivenom availability and rapid emergency response in affected areas.^[33] Demographically, dugite bites frequently occur on the lower limbs of adults engaged in outdoor work or gardening, reflecting the snake's ground-dwelling habits in urban fringes.^[36] Children represent about 30% of cases in some hospital series, often bitten in gardens or yards during play, increasing their vulnerability due to smaller body size and potential for delayed reporting.^[35] In a cohort of 35 severe brown snake envenomations in Western Australia, 66% of victims were male, with nearly half bitten within 50 km of Perth, further illustrating the urban occupational and recreational risks.^[33]

Mitigation and conservation

To mitigate human-dugite conflicts in urban areas like Perth, Western Australia, residents are advised to adopt snake-aware building practices, such as sealing gaps in walls, doors, and foundations to prevent entry, maintaining short grass and clearing debris or rock piles that provide shelter, and installing fine-mesh fencing around properties.^[37]^[38] These measures reduce the appeal of human habitats, where dugites are drawn by abundant prey like house mice. Public education efforts, including awareness campaigns by the Western Australian Department of Health and local initiatives since the early 2000s, emphasize snake identification, safe distances, and first-aid responses to lower bite incidents.^[39]^[40] Effective treatment for dugite envenomation relies on CSL brown snake antivenom, which neutralizes the venom's procoagulant and neurotoxic effects, as dugites belong to the Pseudonaja genus.^[34] This antivenom is stockpiled in Western Australian hospitals, with typical dosing ranging from 1 to 4 vials per case depending on severity, administered intravenously after confirming envenomation via coagulation tests.^[33] The dugite is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, reflecting its stable populations across southwestern Australia, including urban fringes, with no specific legal protections required beyond general wildlife regulations. However, urban populations face ongoing monitoring for habitat fragmentation due to development, which could exacerbate human-snake encounters. Recent research, including a 2018 Curtin University study, demonstrates the dugite's strong urban adaptation, with translocated individuals showing altered movement but overall population resilience to suburban expansion.^[41]

Cultural and historical significance

In Australian folklore

In Noongar traditions of southwestern Western Australia, the dugite is known locally as toogitj or dobitj and features in folklore, underscoring respect for the land's hazards.^[11] Snakes, including species like the dugite, feature prominently in broader Australian Indigenous Dreamtime stories, where they often symbolize earth-bound forces of creation, renewal, and peril; every Aboriginal clan group is said to have its own tales involving snakes, reflecting their cultural significance across diverse landscapes. In Noongar lore, detailed creation myths tend to center on larger serpentine beings like the Waakal (Rainbow Serpent). The snake's elusive burrowing behavior reinforces its role in teachings about harmony with the environment.^[42] Symbolically, the dugite represents the delicate balance of survival in arid and coastal habitats, promoting taboos against unnecessary killing—particularly among Wudjari Noongar groups, where only knowledgeable individuals were permitted to hunt and prepare venomous snakes for consumption, with the head removed to mitigate risks. This practice highlights ethical restraint and specialized roles within communities, fostering a cultural ethos of coexistence with potentially lethal wildlife.^[11] The dugite's notoriety has enduringly shaped regional identity, influencing place names such as the Dugite Trail in Kalamunda, Western Australia, designated after common sightings in the area's heathlands and woodlands.^[43]

Modern representations

In modern literature, the dugite has been prominently featured in authoritative herpetological texts as a key example of Western Australia's venomous elapids. Harold G. Cogger's Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia (7th edition, 2014) provides detailed descriptions of the species' morphology, distribution, and ecology, emphasizing its adaptation to urban fringes and potential risks to humans, serving as a foundational reference for researchers and enthusiasts.^[44] Similarly, G.M. Storr, L.A. Smith, and K.M. Johnstone's Snakes of Western Australia (1986, revised 2002) highlights the dugite's behavioral traits and habitat preferences in scientific prose, underscoring its role in regional biodiversity studies.^[45] While fictional portrayals are less common, the species appears in narrative contexts within Australian wildlife writing, such as in accounts of outback survival that dramatize encounters with brown snakes, reflecting broader themes of human-wildlife coexistence since the mid-20th century. In media, the dugite has gained visibility through news coverage of its increasing urban interactions, particularly in Perth suburbs where sprawl has drawn the snakes closer to human settlements. Post-2010 reports, such as a 2016 news.com.au article detailing a 1.8-meter dugite navigating residential gardens in Bibra Lake, illustrate public fascination and concern with these encounters, often framing the snake as both a natural resident and a hazard.^[46] ABC broadcasts have similarly documented such incidents, including a 2021 segment on a 1.5-meter dugite discovered inside a Kalamunda home, highlighting snake catchers' roles in safe relocations and educating viewers on avoidance strategies. These portrayals in electronic and print media since the 2010s have shifted perceptions from mere fear to informed awareness, often tying into seasonal warnings during warmer months.^[47] Educational initiatives in Western Australia have incorporated the dugite into curricula and public programs to promote safe coexistence with venomous fauna. A 2020 Curtin University study revealed gaps in snake identification skills among residents, recommending integration of dugite recognition into school programs to reduce bites, with adults outperforming children in identifying the species but overall knowledge remaining insufficient.^[48] Local efforts, such as the Town of Victoria Park's Urban Forest Citizen Science Program, use the dugite as a case study in workshops on urban ecology, teaching participants about its diet and habitat to foster conservation-minded behaviors.^[49] Although no formal statewide mascot designation exists, the dugite symbolizes regional biodiversity in some Western Australian conservation outreach, appearing in interpretive materials at sites like Whiteman Park to illustrate native reptile adaptations.^[50] Recent trends show the dugite's modern representation amplified through digital platforms, particularly citizen science applications that track sightings and generate viral social media content. iNaturalist Australia's project logs thousands of dugite observations, enabling community-contributed data on distribution shifts amid urbanization, with uploads peaking in spring and summer.^[51] In 2025, these app-based reports have fueled online virality, such as Instagram reels from wildlife photographers documenting urban sightings, sparking discussions on ethical relocation and habitat preservation while reaching broader audiences than traditional media.^[52]

References

[1]
Dugite, Pseudonaja affinis - The Australian Museum
Well-known to south-western WA residents, the Dugite has made itself at home around urban and semi-rural areas, drawn to the prevalence of its favoured prey – ...
[2]
Fact File: Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) - Australian Geographic
The dugite is well known in the southwest of Australia, where it can be found in urban and semi-rural areas on the hunt for its favoured prey, the common house ...
[3]
Pseudonaja affinis (PIM 450) - INCHEM
They have an enclosed groove for venom transport, with an exit point near the fang tip. Average fang length in adult brown snakes is 2.8 mm (2.0 - 4.0 mm), and ...Venom apparatus, poisonous... · Special identification features · Mode of action
[4]
Pseudonaja affinis GÜNTHER, 1872 - The Reptile Database
Pseudonaja affinis GÜNTHER, 1872 ; Higher Taxa, Elapidae (Hydrophiinae), Colubroidea, Caenophidia, Alethinophidia, Serpentes, Squamata (snakes) ; Subspecies ...
[5]
Species Pseudonaja affinis Günther, 1872 - Australian Plant Census
Pseudonaja affinis Günther, A. 1872. Seventh account of new species of snakes in the collection of the British Museum. Annals and Magazine of Natural History ...
[6]
A phylogenetic analysis of Pseudonaja (Hydrophiinae, Elapidae ...
A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial ND4 and adjacent tRNA sequences for a geographically extensive series of specimens reveals nine major clades within ...
[7]
Highly Evolvable: Investigating Interspecific and Intraspecific Venom ...
Jan 13, 2023 · The PCA of seventeen Pseudonaja venoms revealed a clear divergence between the ringed brown snake (P. modesta) and its congeners (Figure 4C) ...
[8]
Large-scale snake genome analyses provide insights into vertebrate ...
Jul 6, 2023 · Using the 31-taxon whole-genome alignment, we identified 142 newly evolved coding genes and 156 lost coding genes in snakes (Table S3).
[9]
[PDF] the food resources of the aborigines of the south-west
These are the dugite (Demansia ajfinis), known as dubyt, karbarda, tornoek, or tookyte; the tiger snake (Noteehis seutatus), known as norne; the carpet ...Missing: etymology Noongar<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Toogitj | Noongar Boodjar Plants and Animals - Profile collections
Aug 15, 2021 · Wudjari: Snake is a former of life, he created the rivers, valleys and mountains in the dreamtime. Every Aboriginal clan group of Australia has ...
[11]
[PDF] Taxonomy of the Genus Pseudonaja (Reptilia: Elapidae) in Australia
The clear morphological differences that exist within the genus as previously considered strongly indicate that it is a polyphyletic assemblage.
[12]
(PDF) The Dugite or Spotted Brown Snake (Pseudonaja affinis)
Sep 17, 2015 · Pseudonaja affinis affinis is a very common elapid snake in SW Western Australia. The authors review all available literature and include both published and ...
[13]
[PDF] Fang shape varies with ontogeny and sex in the venomous elapid ...
Here, we will investigate fang morphology through ontogeny in a snake that demonstrates a shift in diet. Our study species, Pseudonaja affinis Günther, 1872, ...Missing: genetic eastern
[14]
Brown snakes, Pseudonaja Günther, 1858
The brown snakes are the most medically relevant genus of venomous snakes in Australia and have caused more than half of all serious snakebite (and over 60% ...Pseudonaja Affinis Günther... · Pseudonaja Mengdeni Wells &... · Pseudonaja Modesta (günther...
[15]
https://biomedicalsciences.unimelb.edu.au/departments/department-of-biochemistry-and-pharmacology/engage/avru/discover/snakes/common-brown-snake
[16]
Reptile - Chemoreception, Senses, Adaptations - Britannica
Oct 27, 2025 · The use of the Jacobson's organ is most obvious in snakes. If a strong odour or vibration stimulates a snake, its tongue is flicked in and out ...Missing: Pseudonaja affinis
[17]
The Dugite Snake: Identification, Facts, & First Aid | STC
Sep 26, 2024 · The dugite snake, native to Western Australia, is a species of brown snake recognized for its slender body and variable color, ranging from olive to brown or ...
[18]
Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) - iNaturalist
The dugite /ˈdjuːɡaɪt/ (Pseudonaja affinis) is a species of venomous, potentially lethal, snake native to Western Australia, a member of the family Elapidae ...Missing: elevation wheatbelt
[19]
[PDF] Reptiles in and around the house
• Dugites Pseudonaja affinis occur in southwest WA and Gwarda Pseudonaja nuchalis occur from Perth northwards. They live in a wide variety of habitats.
[20]
Does urbanization influence the diet of a large snake? - PMC - NIH
Unlike other taxa that experience food supplementation by urban areas, dugites do not appear to derive any particular dietary benefit from living in cities.
[21]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6007707/
[22]
Fang shape varies with ontogeny and sex in the venomous elapid ...
Jan 4, 2022 · The fangs of the snake Pseudonaja affinis are found to vary in shape throughout their lives ... Sexual size dimorphism in snakes revisited.
[23]
Interesting Facts About How Snakes Eat - Centennial Animal Hospital
Sep 24, 2019 · Typically, it takes 3-5 days for snakes to digest a meal. The larger the prey, and the larger the snake, the longer digestion takes.Missing: Pseudonaja affinis
[24]
(PDF) Does urbanisation influence the diet of a large snake?
Aug 7, 2025 · We investigated how urbanisation affects the feeding ecology of dugites Pseudonaja affinis, a prolific elapid snake in south–west Western ...
[25]
Wedge-Tailed Eagle Facts & Worksheets - KidsKonnect
Jun 19, 2023 · Wedge-tailed eagles can eat snakes, which is why it is not considered the top predator in the ecosystem. Wedge-tailed eagles attack their prey ...Missing: Dugite | Show results with:Dugite
[26]
Food Habits and Reproductive Biology of Australian Brownsnakes ...
The extent of sexual size dimorphism is similar in all taxa but is influenced by allometry; males are slightly larger, relative to females, in larger species.
[27]
Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) – Fauna Resources
Oct 5, 2025 · Pseudonaja affinis is endemic to southwestern Western Australia, from Shark Bay in the north to Esperance in the east and extending inland into ...
[28]
[PDF] Pergamon Press Ltd. 1979. Printed in Great Britain. - Kingsnake.com
The LD50 s.c. in 18-21 g mice was 7·0 µg/kg when saline was used as a diluent. When 0·1% bovine serum albumin in saline was employed the LD50 S.C. was 2.5 µg/kg ...
[29]
[PDF] Venom yields from Australian and some other species of snakes
Aug 26, 2006 · During venom collection, the venom vials were weighed between each snake to allow determination of the wet yield produced by each snake.
[30]
[PDF] Correlation between ontogenetic dietary shifts and ... - UQ eSpace
Apr 19, 2017 · Analyses confirmed the previously documented ontogenetic shift from non-coagulopathic venom in juveniles to coagulopathic venom as adults, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
“Dry bite” in venomous snakes: A review - ScienceDirect.com
Highest rate of dry bite is thought to be 70–80%, from brown snake bites(Pseudonaja sp.) in Australia (White, 2010). It is not possible to pin point the ...
[32]
Pseudonaja affinis - Dugite - Wild Herps
Nov 7, 2005 · I tried to learn the origin of the interesting name "dugite", but all I managed to learn was that the Noongar word for "dugite" is "dobitj", ...
[33]
Antivenom dosing in 35 patients with severe brown snake ...
Dec 6, 2004 · Results: Of 88 patients with brown snake envenoming admitted over the 10 years, at least 35 had severe envenoming. Afibrinogenaemia persisted ...
[34]
Clinical Effects and Antivenom Dosing in Brown Snake (Pseudonaja ...
Envenoming by brown snakes causes VICC and over a third of patients had serious complications including major haemorrhage, collapse and microangiopathy. The ...Missing: juvenile hemorrhagic
[35]
Ten years of snake bites at Fremantle Hospital - PubMed
Twenty-nine patients were definitely bitten, with 26 bites being witnessed. Of the 13 patients definitely envenomated, 11 had a coagulopathy although seven were ...
[36]
Admissions for suspected snake bite to the Perth adult ... - PubMed
Results: Ninety-nine patients were definitely bitten, with 53 envenomed, including three snake handlers. Thirty others may have been envenomed. Nearly half (44 ...Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
[37]
How to keep snakes out of your home - ABC News
Nov 7, 2019 · Remove shelter like piles of rubble, building materials and rock walls; · Keep grass short; · Create a clearing around the house; · Plant native ...Missing: Perth | Show results with:Perth
[38]
How to deter snakes from your garden - Termico Pest Management
Sep 12, 2024 · Keeping grass mowed short, shrubs and trees trimmed, and garden waste cleaned away will help keep snakes away.
[39]
Study finds West Australians need better education to prevent snake ...
Jul 14, 2020 · Snakes bites in Australia average 1,000 to 3,000 cases per year, with 58 related deaths in the last 40 years across the nation and 16 in WA,” ...
[40]
How to save lives this snake season - WA Country Health Service
Feb 16, 2021 · All suspected snake bites must be treated as potentially life threatening and you should call 000 immediately.Missing: awareness campaigns
[41]
https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/72202
[42]
[PDF] Nyungar stories about the Waakal the Nyungar rainbow serpent
The older Noongar said that the Woggle (snake) lived there and that they were afraid to go there because they weren't allowed to go there. They would not go ...
[43]
Dugite, Kalamunda Mountain Bike Trails - Trails WA
Dugite is a 400m blue trail, in the Kalamunda Mountain Bike Network. This dual direction trail continues onto both Camakazi and Joeys Line.<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia - CSIRO Publishing
The definitive book on Australian reptiles and amphibians, from world-renowned herpetologist Harold 'Hal' Cogger; Provides identification keys, distribution ...
[45]
Snakes of Western Australia - Google Books
Title, Snakes of Western Australia ; Authors, G. M. Storr, Lawrence Alec Smith, R. E. Johnstone ; Publisher, Western Australian Museum, 1986 ; Original from ...
[46]
Perth's urban sprawl attracts bigger snakes | news.com.au
Oct 23, 2016 · SNAKES alive! This 1.8m long “highly venomous” dugite was found slithering through suburban gardens in Bibra Lake this week.
[47]
Study finds West Australians need better education to prevent snake ...
Jul 14, 2020 · Snakes bites in Australia average 1,000 to 3,000 cases per year, with 58 related deaths in the last 40 years across the nation and 16 in WA," ...Missing: annual | Show results with:annual
[48]
Urban Forest: Citizen Science Program - Town of Victoria Park
Following on from our collaboration with the University of Western Australia's School ... To provide education about the Dugite and increasing ...
[49]
Dugites at Whiteman Park
The dugite, is a fast moving diurnal species that is found only in the south west of Australia. They vary greatly in colour from very dark, almost black to a ...
[50]
Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) - iNaturalist Australia
Taxonomy. Animals Kingdom Animalia · Chordates Phylum Chordata · Vertebrates Subphylum Vertebrata · Reptiles Class Reptilia · Snakes and Lizards Order Squamata.
[51]
Western Australia Wildlife: Identifying Dugite Snakes in the Wild
Oct 29, 2025 · In this video, we delve into the world of Western Australian wildlife, shedding light on the elusive Dugite snake.