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Elephant bird

The elephant birds comprise an extinct order of giant, flightless birds (Aepyornithiformes) that were endemic to the island of Madagascar, representing some of the largest avian species to have ever existed.^[1] These palaeognathous birds, closely related to the kiwis of New Zealand as their sister group, diverged evolutionarily around 30 million years ago during the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.^[1] Characterized by their massive size and inability to fly, they inhabited diverse habitats across Madagascar, including arid spiny bushlands, succulent woodlands, and humid forests in southern, central, and northern regions.^[2]^[1] Taxonomically, elephant birds are divided into two main families: Aepyornithidae (genus Aepyornis) and Mullerornithidae (genus Mullerornis), with recent analyses questioning the validity of a third genus, Vorombe, potentially synonymizing it with Aepyornis.^[1] Known species include Aepyornis maximus and A. hildebrandti in the former family, and Mullerornis modestus in the latter, exhibiting significant size variation across lineages.^[1]^[2] The largest, A. maximus, stood up to 3 meters (10 feet) in height and weighed between 700 and 1000 kilograms, making it one of the heaviest birds on record, while smaller species like M. modestus weighed around 41 kilograms.^[3]^[1]^[2] Their eggs were the largest known from any amniote, with A. maximus eggs reaching masses of approximately 10.5 kilograms and volumes exceeding 7 liters, featuring thick shells up to 3.3 millimeters.^[1] Elephant birds persisted into the late Holocene but became extinct around 1000 CE, coinciding with human arrival and colonization of Madagascar approximately 1,200 years ago.^[2]^[1] Radiocarbon dating of eggshells indicates they were extant as recently as 1290 ± 15 years before present, with extinction likely driven by human hunting, habitat alteration, and introduction of non-native species.^[1] Genetic studies from fossil eggshells reveal low diversity within populations and possible sexual dimorphism in Aepyornis, alongside evidence of distinct northern and southern phylogeographic lineages.^[1] These birds' remains, primarily eggshells and bones, have provided insights into their ecology, with ongoing research using molecular techniques to uncover hidden aspects of their evolutionary history.^[1]

Discovery and History

Early Accounts

Early accounts of elephant birds stem from interactions between Arab traders and the island of Madagascar between the 9th and 13th centuries, where reports described massive birds or their enormous eggs, inspiring legends such as the mythical Roc—a colossal raptor capable of carrying elephants.^[4] These traders, navigating the Indian Ocean, likely encountered eggshell fragments used by locals for storage or trade, which fueled tales in Arabic folklore of birds far larger than ostriches.^[5] Local Malagasy oral traditions, predating European contact, reference giant flightless birds known as vorompatra or similar entities, often portrayed as shy forest dwellers whose eggs were prized for their size and used in rituals or as vessels.^[6] These stories, passed down through generations, emphasized the birds' immense stature and the awe they inspired, integrating them into cultural narratives of the island's ancient fauna.^[7] By the 17th century, European sailors visiting Madagascar collected giant eggshells, frequently mistaking them for oversized ostrich eggs due to their unfamiliar scale, and brought fragments back to Europe as curiosities.^[8] These encounters, documented in traveler reports, highlighted the eggs' capacity—up to 160 times that of a chicken egg—sparking initial European interest in Madagascar's extinct megafauna.^[8] In the early 19th century, intact eggs began reaching European collectors, with notable acquisitions including those presented to French naturalists around 1850, marking a shift toward systematic documentation.^[9] Additionally, intact elephant bird eggs have been discovered in coastal dunes of Western Australia, dated to approximately 1,000–2,000 years ago and attributed to ocean currents transporting them across the Indian Ocean from Madagascar.^[10] This evidence underscores pre-modern human awareness of these birds through transoceanic drift. These anecdotal reports laid the groundwork for mid-19th-century scientific investigations.

Scientific Description

The scientific study of elephant birds began in earnest in the mid-19th century, following the arrival of fossil remains from Madagascar in European museums. The first formal scientific description was provided in 1851 by French zoologist Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who named the genus Aepyornis based on eggshells and fragmentary bones, including parts of the leg and pelvis, collected from recent alluvial deposits on the island. These specimens, obtained through colonial trade networks, indicated a massive, ostrich-like bird, prompting initial comparisons to known ratites. Pre-19th-century collections of large eggshells from Madagascar had sparked curiosity among naturalists, serving as precursors to this systematic analysis.^[11] Subsequent discoveries in the 1860s and 1870s expanded the known material, with British anatomist Richard Owen describing additional eggshells and leg bones, such as a tarsometatarsus, in 1852 and later publications, emphasizing their structural similarities to ostrich anatomy. French paleontologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards, collaborating with collector Alfred Grandidier, further detailed leg bones and eggshells in works from 1866 to 1879, including the description of smaller species like Aepyornis medius based on tibiotarsi and fibulae from central Madagascar sites. These finds, often sourced from local Malagasy collectors, allowed for reconstructions of the birds' robust hindlimbs, supporting inferences of terrestrial locomotion. By the late 19th century, the taxonomic framework solidified, with Italian ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte establishing the family Aepyornithidae in 1853 to encompass these giant ratites, distinct from other flightless birds.^[12] The order Aepyornithiformes was formally proposed in 1884 by British ornithologist Edward Newton, grouping the family based on shared morphological traits like a flat sternum and reduced wings observed in the accumulating fossils. Major excavations intensified in the 1890s, led by French paleontologists including Milne-Edwards and Grandidier at sites like Ampasambazimba in central Madagascar, yielding hundreds of bones from swamps and caves that revealed stratigraphic contexts for the birds' Holocene distribution. These efforts, part of broader colonial surveys, uncovered associated fauna and confirmed the birds' endemicity to the island. Early publications also featured debates on the evolution of flightlessness and gigantism, with Owen and others comparing elephant birds to New Zealand's moas (Dinornithidae) as parallel examples of insular gigantism in ratites, attributing their size to resource abundance and predator absence in isolated ecosystems.^[11] Milne-Edwards argued that vestigial wing elements and massive leg proportions evidenced complete flight loss, akin to moa adaptations, though some contemporaries speculated on retained gliding abilities based on incomplete skeletons.

Taxonomy and Biogeography

Phylogenetic Relationships

Elephant birds belong to the superorder Palaeognathae, a basal clade of birds characterized by flightless or weakly flying forms such as ratites and tinamous. Within this group, molecular and morphological evidence consistently positions elephant birds as the sister taxon to the kiwis (genus Apteryx) of New Zealand, forming a clade that excludes other palaeognaths like ostriches, rheas, emus, and cassowaries. This relationship is supported by mitochondrial genome sequencing from subfossil remains, which reveals shared synapomorphies including reduced sternal morphology and large egg sizes relative to body mass.^[13] Nuclear data from ancient eggshells further corroborates this placement, emphasizing the kiwi-elephant bird lineage as a distinct branch within Palaeognathae.^[1] The divergence of the elephant bird-kiwi clade from other palaeognaths is estimated at approximately 62–71 million years ago, during the late Paleocene to early Eocene, shortly after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event and amid the ongoing fragmentation of the Gondwanan supercontinent. This timeline aligns with vicariance-driven speciation, where ancestral palaeognaths dispersed across southern landmasses before continental drift isolated populations. Phylogenetic analyses incorporating both fossil calibrations and molecular clocks indicate that the common ancestor of all crown-group palaeognaths arose around 66–80 million years ago, with subsequent radiations tied to the separation of Africa, Madagascar, India, and Australasia. However, the elephant bird fossil record is sparse, limited primarily to Quaternary subfossils from the Pleistocene and Holocene, creating gaps that rely on molecular dating to infer deeper history.^[13]^[14] Elephant birds are classified in the order Aepyornithiformes, confirmed as monophyletic through recent ancient DNA studies, with separation into two distinct families: Aepyornithidae (encompassing genera like Aepyornis) and Mullerornithidae (genus Mullerornis). This bipartition, supported by morphometric analyses of eggshells and bones as well as mitochondrial phylogenomics, reflects a divergence around 30 million years ago during the Oligocene, driven by climatic shifts and habitat diversification on Madagascar. The 2023 analysis of eggshell-derived DNA from multiple sites across the island reinforces this family-level distinction, showing genetic distances of about 11.9% between the clades while upholding the overall monophyly of Aepyornithiformes and its close affinity to kiwis, though it highlights low intraspecific diversity that challenges some prior species delimitations within New Zealand-linked lineages. Biogeographically, the elephant bird radiation has been isolated on Madagascar since the late Oligocene, approximately 30 million years ago, amid the establishment of its unique endemic avifauna, with no evidence of post-dispersal gene flow from mainland Africa.^[2]^[1]

Recognized Species

Elephant birds are currently recognized as comprising four valid species across two families based on a comprehensive 2018 morphological revision, which reduced earlier proposed taxa through synonymization of numerous historical names. These include Aepyornis maximus, the largest species; Aepyornis hildebrandti; Mullerornis modestus, the smallest; and Vorombe titan, proposed as a distinct genus for the most massive specimens.^[2] This revision synonymized several 19th-century names, such as Flacourtia (a junior synonym of Mullerornis, with its type species F. rudis now under M. modestus) and Aepyornis wideawakeensis (merged into A. maximus), reflecting overlaps in skeletal morphology among previously fragmented classifications.^[2] The genus Aepyornis encompasses the more robust species, characterized by broader femora, thicker tibiotarsi, and more massive tarsometatarsi, with heights reaching up to 3 meters in A. maximus.^[2] In contrast, Mullerornis modestus exhibits a slenderer, more gracile build akin to an ostrich, with narrower limb bones and a less graviportal posture.^[2] Vorombe titan was initially distinguished by its extreme size and proportions, but its validity remains debated. A 2023 genetic analysis of ancient eggshells revealed minimal mitochondrial COI divergence (less than 1.01%) between V. titan-associated remains and A. maximus, falling below typical intergeneric thresholds in ratites (2.3–5.1%), suggesting V. titan may instead represent sexual dimorphism within A. maximus (females potentially 175% larger than males) rather than a separate genus.^[1] All elephant bird species were endemic to Madagascar, with fossils indicating broad but regionally varied distributions; Mullerornis modestus, for instance, is primarily known from southern sites such as arid spiny bush and succulent woodlands.^[2] The 2023 study further supports phylogeographic distinctions within Aepyornis, identifying A. maximus in the south and A. hildebrandti (with a cryptic northern subclade) in central and northern regions, based on eggshell protein and DNA markers.^[1]

Physical Description

Anatomy and Morphology

Elephant birds, members of the extinct order Aepyornithiformes (palaeognaths), comprising the families Aepyornithidae and Mullerornithidae, exhibited a skeletal structure highly adapted to a flightless, terrestrial existence on Madagascar. Their hindlimbs were exceptionally robust, featuring strong tibiotarsi with thick cortices of laminar fibrolamellar bone and extensive internal trabeculae to bear immense body weight, alongside reduced fibulae characteristic of ratite evolution.^[15] ^[16] The wings were vestigial, with a keelless sternum lacking the bony projection typical of flying birds, reflecting the complete loss of flight capabilities and reallocation of skeletal resources to ground-based locomotion.^[17] ^[18] The skull of elephant birds was massive and robust, accommodating a large, conical beak suited to their ecological niche, while the brain exhibited relative reduction in size compared to body mass, particularly with extremely small optic lobes that comprised a minimal portion of the total brain volume.^[15] ^[19] This cranial morphology, where the skull closely encased the brain, underscored adaptations toward nocturnality and reliance on other senses, as the optic regions were disproportionately tiny relative to olfactory bulbs.^[19] Rare soft-tissue fossils have preserved feather impressions indicating a downy plumage akin to that of modern ratites, providing insulation without aerodynamic function.^[20] In comparative terms, elephant bird anatomy paralleled ostriches in overall ratite form but featured more massively proportioned leg bones and shorter pedal phalanges, likely specialized for navigating Madagascar's varied terrain.^[15] Evidence from bone robusticity suggests sexual dimorphism, with males inferred to be slightly smaller than females, mirroring patterns in other ratites where skeletal variation correlates with sex-specific roles; genetic studies from 2023 confirm sexual dimorphism in Aepyornis maximus, with females likely larger.^[17] ^[1] Across species, size ranges varied, with smaller forms like Mullerornis contrasting larger Aepyornis.^[17]

Size and Weight Variations

Elephant birds exhibited significant size variations across genera and species, with body dimensions estimated primarily from skeletal elements such as femora, using allometric scaling algorithms derived from extant bird data. The largest species, such as those in the genus Aepyornis, reached heights of 2.5 to 3 meters when standing, based on extrapolations from leg bone lengths and comparisons to modern ratites.^[15] Weight estimates for Aepyornis maximus from recent genetic and eggshell analyses average around 700-1000 kg.^[1] In contrast, the genus Mullerornis represented the smaller end of the spectrum, with more gracile builds and estimated heights of 1.5 to 2 meters, inferred from proportionally shorter femora measuring 245 to 268 mm in length.^[2] Body mass for Mullerornis modestus averaged approximately 80-108 kg, ranging from 78 to 172 kg, reflecting its less robust skeletal structure compared to Aepyornis.^[2] These differences highlight the morphological diversity within the order Aepyornithiformes, where graviportal adaptations in larger forms supported their massive frames. Previous morphometric studies from 2018 debated the largest bird title between Aepyornis maximus and a proposed genus Vorombe titan, resolving Vorombe as distinct with estimated masses up to 860 kg based on femoral measurements. However, 2023 genetic analyses suggest Vorombe may be synonymous with Aepyornis, potentially representing sexual dimorphism rather than a separate genus.^[2] ^[1] Egg dimensions provide an additional proxy for body size, with Aepyornis eggs reaching up to 40 cm in length, underscoring the scale of these birds relative to modern species.^[21] Size estimates carry uncertainties due to incomplete skeletons, including missing holotype elements like the Aepyornis maximus tarsometatarsus, and challenges in allometric scaling beyond the range of living birds, which can lead to over- or underestimations without accounting for natural intraspecific variation.^[2] Three-dimensional reconstructions and advanced imputation techniques have helped mitigate these issues but emphasize the need for caution in interpreting absolute values.^[2]

Biology and Ecology

Diet and Foraging Behavior

Elephant birds exhibited a primarily herbivorous diet dominated by C3 plants, such as shrubs and trees, indicative of browsing behavior in forested or woodland environments, with limited incorporation of C4 grasses suggesting occasional grazing. A 2022 stable isotope analysis of bone and eggshell samples from multiple species revealed that most elephant birds, including Aepyornis maximus and Mullerornis modestus, consumed 73–99% C3 vegetation, with minor contributions from CAM plants (1–27%) in arid spiny bush and succulent woodland habitats. In contrast, Aepyornis hildebrandti from the central highlands displayed a mixed feeding strategy, with up to 48% of its diet comprising C4 grasses, marking it as the only known grazing elephant bird species.^[22] Dental microwear analysis further supports these dietary distinctions, classifying A. hildebrandti as a mixed feeder capable of processing both browse and grasses, while Mullerornis species were more specialized folivores, relying heavily on leaves and softer vegetation. Their beak morphology, featuring a robust, flattened structure suited for cropping vegetation, complemented this browsing-grazing niche without evidence of adaptations for hard-object feeding.^[23] Foraging behavior was likely crepuscular or nocturnal, inferred from reduced optic lobes in brain endocasts, which suggest reliance on olfaction and audition over vision to navigate and locate food in low-light conditions, similar to their closest living relatives, kiwis. As key seed dispersers, elephant birds facilitated the spread of forest plants like Uncarina species through endozoochory and trampling, maintaining pre-human woodland diversity before their extinction around 1,000 years ago.^[24]^[25]

Reproduction and Life History

Elephant birds followed a K-selected life history strategy, investing heavily in few offspring with slow development and extended parental investment to maximize survival in stable island environments. Eggs of Aepyornis species represented the largest known bird eggs, with volumes of approximately 7-9 liters based on measurements of intact and fragmentary specimens, and shell thicknesses reaching up to 3.7 mm to provide robust protection during incubation and against potential predators. These eggs weighed up to 10.47 kg on average for the thickest-shelled varieties, equivalent in volume to about 150 chicken eggs. In comparison, eggs attributed to Mullerornis were significantly smaller, with estimated masses around 0.86 kg and thinner shells of about 1.1 mm, reflecting the genus's more modest body size of roughly 41 kg.^[1]^[26]^[3] Clutch sizes were small, aligning with reproductive patterns observed in other large, flightless island ratites where high per-egg investment limits fecundity. Incubation periods are inferred to have been longer than in smaller ratites like ostriches (42 days) due to the eggs' greater mass, with models suggesting around 85 days, though direct evidence is absent. Body size influenced egg proportions, with larger Aepyornis species producing relatively smaller eggs relative to body mass compared to smaller ratites, optimizing incubation mechanics.^[27]^[28] Post-hatching growth followed a biphasic pattern, with rapid juvenile development evidenced by highly vascularized fibrolamellar bone tissue in long bones, transitioning to slower parallel-fibered bone in adults, indicative of an extended juvenile phase and overall slow maturation spanning several years. Bone histology reveals weakly expressed lines of arrested growth, suggesting continuous rather than seasonal growth spurts, consistent with a K-strategy adapted to low-predation habitats. Parental care was likely biparental, as inferred from comparisons with extant ratites and indirect evidence from associated fossil nest structures suggesting shared incubation duties.^[29]

Extinction

Timeline and Evidence

Elephant bird remains dating to approximately 10,500 years ago (8,500 BCE) indicate their abundance across Madagascar long before the primary wave of human arrival between 500 and 1000 CE, though no direct evidence links these early fossils to human activity.^[30] Subfossil sites in southwestern Madagascar, such as Itampolo, have preserved elephant bird bones and eggshells associated with early medieval settlements, highlighting their persistence in coastal and near-coastal environments into the first millennium CE.^[31] Radiocarbon dating applied to bones and eggshells from these southwestern localities provides the most recent verified evidence of elephant birds, with calibrated ages spanning roughly 800 to 1050 CE.^[32] A 2021 analysis by Hansford et al. employed Bayesian modeling on 93 radiocarbon dates from elephant bird specimens to reconstruct extinction dynamics, demonstrating a sharp population decline after 800 CE across multiple taxa and biomes.^[32] Unverified historical accounts from the 17th century, notably those by French governor Étienne de Flacourt describing "vouropatra" as large, ostrich-like birds inhabiting remote forests, imply potential survival beyond the dated remains, but these reports lack corroboration and conflict with radiometric evidence.^[33]

Causes and Human Role

The extinction of elephant birds is primarily attributed to intensified human activities during the medieval period, following a long phase of coexistence with minimal impact from earlier human arrivals. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans first reached Madagascar around 10,500 years ago, as evidenced by perimortem chop marks and cut marks on elephant bird bones, suggesting sporadic hunting without widespread population decline.^[30] However, a consensus emerges that the birds' demise accelerated around 800–1000 CE, coinciding with a human population boom and a shift from foraging to agriculture and pastoralism, which dramatically increased pressure on endemic megafauna. This "subsistence shift" led to extensive habitat alteration, as slash-and-burn agriculture and livestock grazing cleared dry forests and woodlands essential for elephant bird foraging and nesting. Direct human exploitation further exacerbated vulnerability, with evidence of hunting from butchery marks on bones recovered from medieval archaeological sites across southern and southwestern Madagascar. Egg harvesting is also implicated, as fragmented eggshells have been found in similar contexts, indicating collection for food or tools after viable populations declined. These practices targeted the birds' low reproductive rates—characterized by slow maturation and infrequent breeding, typical of large ratites—which limited population recovery from losses. Introduced species, such as rats accompanying human settlers, may have preyed on eggs or chicks, though their impact was likely secondary given the eggs' massive size.^[34] While human actions were dominant, environmental factors played a supporting role in amplifying extinction risks. Climate shifts, including prolonged droughts around 1000 CE, reduced available vegetation and water sources, stressing elephant bird habitats already fragmented by deforestation.^[35] Low genetic diversity, inferred from eggshell analyses, further diminished resilience to these combined pressures.^[1] Overall, the synergy of intensified human exploitation and subtle climatic changes proved catastrophic for these slow-reproducing giants.

Cultural and Scientific Legacy

Mythological Representations

The mythological representations of elephant birds (Aepyornithiformes) have profoundly influenced folklore across cultures, particularly through tales of colossal avian beings. In Arabian mythology, the legendary roc—a massive bird of prey capable of lifting elephants—appears prominently in the One Thousand and One Nights, including the adventures of Sinbad the Sailor, where sailors encounter enormous eggs on distant islands. Scholars posit that this myth was inspired by Arab and European mariners discovering oversized eggshells from elephant birds on Madagascar's shores during medieval trade voyages, mistaking fragments for evidence of living giants.^[36]^[37] In Malagasy oral traditions, elephant birds are evoked as "vorombe," meaning "big bird" or "giant bird," symbolizing ancient, powerful fauna in narratives among ethnic groups such as the Antandroy in southern Madagascar. These stories portray vorombe as elusive spirits or ancestral entities visible only to otherworldly beings, embodying strength and mystery within local cosmologies. Such folklore underscores the birds' enduring presence in cultural memory, representing lost elements of Madagascar's biodiversity and the island's prehistoric heritage.^[38]^[39] During the 19th century, European explorers and collectors amplified these myths by acquiring elephant bird eggshells as exotic curiosities, often displayed in museums like the British Museum and sparking speculation about surviving monstrous avians. These artifacts, with volumes up to 9 liters, fueled romanticized accounts of "living giants" in travelogues and scientific journals, bridging ancient legends with Victorian-era fascination. While no evidence indicates direct worship of elephant birds, ethnographic records note that eggshell fragments were fashioned into beads, serving as markers of ritual, social exchange, and wealth in Malagasy communities.^[40]^[41]

Modern Research and Implications

Recent advances in stable isotope analysis have provided new insights into the dietary habits and habitat preferences of elephant birds. A 2022 study utilizing δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotopes from bone collagen of multiple species revealed that most elephant birds, such as Aepyornis maximus and Vorombe titan, were primarily browsers consuming C₃ plants (73–99% of diet) in arid spiny bush and succulent woodlands, with limited intake of CAM plants (1–27%). In contrast, Aepyornis hildebrandti from central Madagascar exhibited a significant dietary shift, incorporating up to 48% C₄ grasses, indicating a grazing ecology adapted to highland grasslands. These findings highlight ecological niche partitioning among species and suggest that native C₄-dominated ecosystems existed in the island's interior prior to human arrival.^[22] Genetic analyses of fossil eggshells have further clarified the taxonomy and population dynamics of elephant birds. In 2023, researchers sequenced mitochondrial genomes from 21 eggshell samples collected across Madagascar, identifying four distinct clades and supporting the separation of Mullerornithidae and Aepyornithidae as distinct families, with an 11.9% genetic divergence in the COI gene. Within Aepyornithidae, low genetic diversity (0.27–1.01% inter-clade distance) indicated limited speciation, with southern populations likely representing a single species (A. maximus) and a novel northern lineage suggesting cryptic diversity possibly due to geographic isolation. This work proposes synonymizing the genus Vorombe with Aepyornis, attributing morphological variations to sexual dimorphism rather than separate taxa, and underscores how low genetic variation may have reduced resilience to environmental changes.^[1] Ongoing field collections in the 2020s have expanded the fossil record, enabling detailed studies of elephant bird ontogeny. The 2023 eggshell study incorporated over 960 fragments from 291 localities, including previously unexplored northern sites, which facilitated analyses of eggshell thickness (ranging from <1.5 mm for Mullerornis to >1.5 mm for Aepyornis) and estimated egg masses (0.86–10.47 kg). These materials, combined with rare juvenile bone discoveries from southern Madagascar sites, have allowed reconstructions of growth patterns, revealing rapid early development in larger species to support their massive adult sizes (up to 1000 kg). Such efforts continue to fill gaps in the subfossil record, providing a foundation for understanding life history traits.^[1] These discoveries carry significant implications for understanding island gigantism and human-mediated extinctions. Elephant birds exemplify insular gigantism, where isolation on Madagascar led to extreme body sizes among ratites, but a 2023 global analysis of 350 extinct island mammals demonstrated that such giants face over 10-fold higher extinction risks upon human arrival, as seen with elephant birds and giant lemurs (e.g., Palaeopropithecus spp.) in Madagascar. Analogies to modern species highlight vulnerabilities: just as habitat alteration and hunting drove these megafauna to extinction around 1000 CE, contemporary threats like deforestation endanger surviving Malagasy endemics, including lemurs, which share similar ecological dependencies on intact forests. Conservation lessons from elephant birds emphasize protecting extant ratites, such as kiwis in New Zealand, through habitat preservation and invasive species control to avert parallel fates, given their shared low genetic diversity and flightlessness.^[42]^[43]

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Jul 1, 2021 · Simultaneous extinction of Madagascar's megaherbivores correlates with late Holocene human-caused landscape transformation. Author links open ...
[32]
(PDF) Elephant birds under the Sun King ? Etienne de Flacourt and ...
May 11, 2019 · In the mid-17th century, the French colonial administrator Etienne de Flacourt gave a brief description of an ostrich-like bird which,.
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To Kill an Elephant Bird: The Extinction of Madagascar's Avian Giants
May 20, 2019 · Humans and elephant birds are now known to have coexisted on Madagascar for several thousand years. This finding has far-reaching implications.
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roc | AMNH
According to legend, the roc was a giant bird large and strong enough to carry an elephant in its claws. As incredible as it may seem, long ago people ...
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The elephant bird's tale | New Humanist
May 31, 2007 · Unlike the legendary roc (which used its 16– metre wingspan to carry Sinbad aloft as well as elephants) the real elephant bird could not fly, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Extinct Madagascar: Picturing the Island's Past 9780226156941
Today elephant birds remain in local folklore have many different names, which in the Antandroy dialect of Malagasy include vorombe or vorom-bey (large bird) ...
[37]
Colonial memory, hospitality and tourism in southwestern Madagascar
According to this story, Lahatra explained, the vorombe are large birds that can only be seen by other spirits. They are very powerful, and considered by ...
[38]
Rare elephant bird egg could fetch more than $70,000 at auction
Apr 28, 2015 · In the 19th century they were greatly prized as sort of natural history curios by collectors, so a lot of them were collected then.Missing: fascination | Show results with:fascination
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Birds and Beads: Understanding Recent Extinctions in Madagascar
Today researchers studying these extinctions are examining the role that humans might have played in the birds' disappearance. Intensive hunting, human-caused ...
[40]
Dwarfism and gigantism drive human-mediated extinctions on islands
Mar 9, 2023 · We found that the likelihood of extinction and of endangerment are highest in the most extreme island dwarfs and giants.
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View of Current conservation status of Ratites
... extinction similarly to the extinct moasand elephant-birds. Whereas ostriches and emus, except for specific populations, are not seen as being endangered ...