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Gandaraditya

Gandaraditya Chola (r. c. 950–957 CE) was a king of the medieval Chola dynasty in southern India, the elder son and successor of Parantaka I.^[1]^[2] His brief reign marked a shift from expansionist policies to religious introspection, amid Chola subordination to the Rashtrakutas, with limited inscriptions reflecting subdued political activity.^[2] A devout Shaivite, Gandaraditya prioritized temple devotion over warfare, authoring Tamil hymns such as those in the Thiruvisaippa dedicated to Shiva at the Chidambaram Temple, earning him recognition as a religious poet rather than a conqueror.^[1]^[3] His queen, Sembiyan Mahadevi, shared this piety and later influenced temple endowments, while his young son Uttama would eventually ascend the throne.^[2] Known by titles like "Merkey elundarulina devar" (the king pleased to go west), he maintained maritime trade interests but avoided reclaiming lost territories such as Tondaimandalam, contributing to a perception of administrative reluctance.^[3]^[1] The scarcity of his records, some effaced by successors, underscores a transitional phase before the dynasty's later resurgence under Rajaraja I.^[1]

Background and Ascension

Family Lineage and Early Influences

Gandaraditya was the eldest son of Parantaka I, a prominent Chola ruler who reigned from approximately 907 to 955 CE and earned the epithet Madurakonda for his conquest of Madurai from the Pandyas around 921 CE.^[4] Parantaka I's expansions included incursions into Sri Lanka, where Chola forces sacked the Sinhalese capital of Anuradhapura, and defensive campaigns against northern powers like the Rashtrakutas, culminating in a major defeat at the Battle of Takkolam in 949 CE.^[4] As the heir apparent, Gandaraditya grew up in the royal court, likely at Thanjavur, amid these military endeavors that solidified Chola dominance in Tamil Nadu but also highlighted vulnerabilities to external invasions.^[5] The Chola lineage traced its origins to the ancient Tamil king Karikala Chola of the Sangam era and, mythologically, to the Suryavamsa or solar dynasty, a claim reiterated in inscriptions such as the Tiruvalangadu copper plates issued under Rajendra I in the 11th century.^[6] Gandaraditya's immediate predecessors included his grandfather Aditya I (r. c. 871–907 CE), who defeated the Pallavas and expanded Chola influence northward, and great-grandfather Vijayalaya (r. c. 848–871 CE), the dynasty's founder who captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars.^[7] This patrilineal heritage emphasized martial valor, administrative centralization through sabhas (local assemblies), and Shaivite devotion, with Parantaka I himself patronizing numerous Shiva temples that likely shaped Gandaraditya's religious inclinations from an early age.^[5] Gandaraditya's early influences were thus rooted in a court environment of strategic consolidations and cultural patronage, where he would have been groomed for kingship through exposure to Vedic learning, military strategy, and temple rituals, though specific details of his youth remain sparse in surviving records.^[1] His younger brother Arinjaya also vied for influence, foreshadowing the succession disputes that marked the dynasty's turbulent phase following Parantaka I's death.^[8]

Turbulent Succession After Parantaka I

Following the death of Parantaka I circa 955 CE, his second son Gandaraditya acceded to the Chola throne, as the eldest son Rajaditya had been killed six years earlier in the Battle of Takkolam against the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.^[2] This defeat had already eroded Chola authority, resulting in the loss of northern territories like Tondaimandalam to Rashtrakuta control and confining Chola influence primarily to the Kaveri delta region.^[2] Gandaraditya's succession was complicated by familial dynamics and the kingdom's weakened state, with inscriptions indicating his reign extended at least to a 17th regnal year but marked by limited territorial recovery and administrative focus over expansion.^[2] Having fathered a son, Uttama, only late in life, Gandaraditya designated his younger brother Arinjaya (also known as Arikulakesari) as crown prince to ensure continuity, reflecting concerns over immediate dynastic vulnerability amid ongoing external pressures from Rashtrakutas and resurgent Pandyas.^[2] Arinjaya's premature death prior to Gandaraditya's 8th year further disrupted stability, prompting the throne to pass to Arinjaya's son, Sundara Chola (later titled Parantaka II), around 964 CE.^[2] The ensuing decades from circa 955 to 985 CE exhibited irregular successions and internal feuds, evidenced by a paucity of contemporary inscriptions and the rapid turnover among rulers—Gandaraditya, Arinjaya, Sundara Chola (reigned approximately 10 years until 973 CE), and briefly Aditya II Karikala—before Uttama's ascension.^[2] This phase saw Chola power eclipsed regionally, with Rashtrakuta dominance preventing assertive campaigns, as corroborated by grants like the Tiruvalangadu and Anbil plates, which highlight ad hoc familial arrangements over established primogeniture.^[2] Such instability stemmed causally from the Takkolam debacle's lingering effects, including resource strain and elite factionalism, rather than outright civil war, underscoring a defensive interregnum before the resurgence under later kings.^[2]

Reign and Rule

Reluctant Governance and Administrative Priorities

Gandaraditya, who reigned approximately from 950 to 957 CE, exhibited a marked reluctance toward active kingship, prioritizing spiritual and devotional activities over vigorous imperial expansion or military endeavors. Historical assessments portray him as a monarch disinclined to empire-building, devoting significant time to religious discourse and temple-related patronage rather than political assertiveness.^[9] This disposition contributed to a period of relative stasis in Chola territorial ambitions following the conquests of his father, Parantaka I. In administrative matters, Gandaraditya relied heavily on familial support, particularly from his younger brother Arinjaya, who assisted in managing kingdom affairs amid the king's ascetic inclinations.^[10] The governance structure inherited from prior reigns—encompassing centralized oversight of provinces (mandalams), districts (valanadus), and autonomous village assemblies (sabhas)—persisted without notable innovations or reforms attributable to his rule. Priorities leaned toward maintaining internal stability, revenue collection for religious endowments, and defensive consolidation rather than offensive campaigns, reflecting a conservative approach to sustain the realm's cohesion during a transitional phase. Inscriptions from the era indicate continuity in local self-governance mechanisms, such as those in Uttaramerur, which emphasized elected committees for dispute resolution and resource allocation, though no unique administrative decrees from Gandaraditya himself are prominently recorded.^[11] This focus on preservation over proactive policy underscores a governance style aligned with personal piety, potentially delegating routine fiscal and judicial functions to feudatories and officials like the Kodumbalur chiefs, who held sway through marital alliances with the royal family.^[10] Such delegation ensured operational continuity but limited bold administrative advancements, setting the stage for subsequent rulers to revitalize Chola authority.

Military Challenges and Defensive Posture

Gandaraditya's accession around 949–957 CE occurred in the aftermath of the Chola defeat at the Battle of Takkolam circa 949 CE, where his elder brother Rajaditya was killed by Rashtrakuta forces led by the vassal Butuga II, resulting in significant territorial contraction, particularly in Tondaimandalam.^[12] This setback under his father Parantaka I left the empire vulnerable to further northern incursions by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III, who consolidated control over lost Chola districts without facing decisive counteroffensives during Gandaraditya's brief tenure.^[13] In the south, the Pandyas under Vira Pandya exploited Chola weakness, reportedly defeating Gandaraditya and asserting independence, which disrupted prior Chola hegemony over Madurai and surrounding regions.^[13]^[12] Inscriptions and contemporary accounts indicate no recorded major conquests or retaliatory expeditions by Gandaraditya, reflecting a posture of consolidation rather than aggression, as the empire prioritized stabilizing its core Tamil heartland amid these dual fronts.^[13] This defensive orientation is evidenced by the absence of martial eulogies in surviving prasastis from his reign, contrasting with predecessors' expansionist records, and aligns with later recoveries under successors like Parantaka II, who reconquered Pandya territories in battles circa 957–973 CE.^[12] Such restraint likely stemmed from internal dynastic pressures and resource constraints post-Takkolam, enabling survival but deferring offensive restoration until more stable leadership emerged.^[13]

Co-Regency and Dynastic Transition

Joint Rule with Arinjaya

Gandaraditya Chola, recognizing his own inclination toward religious devotion over active governance, associated his younger brother Arinjaya in the administration during the final phase of his reign, establishing a brief period of joint rule circa 956–957 CE.^[14] This co-regency enabled Arinjaya to manage military defenses and administrative duties amid ongoing threats from neighboring powers like the Rashtrakutas and Pandyas, while Gandaraditya focused on Shaivite patronage and literary composition.^[15] Historical reconstructions, drawn from overlapping regnal dates in Chola genealogical records and later inscriptions, indicate that Arinjaya bore the title of heir-apparent and exercised effective control over secular affairs.^[16] The arrangement reflected pragmatic dynastic strategy to maintain stability, given Gandaraditya's son Uttama's minority and the kingdom's vulnerable position following Parantaka I's conquests. Upon Gandaraditya's death in 957 CE, Arinjaya transitioned to sole rule but succumbed shortly thereafter, paving the way for his son Sundara Chola's ascension.^[17]

Preparations for Succession

Gandaraditya Chola's preparations for succession centered on ensuring dynastic stability amid his own limited engagement in political affairs, primarily through the association of his younger brother Arinjaya as co-regent around 956 CE. This arrangement, evidenced by the overlapping regnal years—Gandaraditya's rule extending to 957 CE and Arinjaya's brief tenure from 956–957 CE—served to bridge potential gaps in leadership, particularly as Gandaraditya's son, Uttama (also known as Madhurantaka), was born late in his father's life and remained an infant at the time of Gandaraditya's death.^[18] Historical analysis attributes this step to Gandaraditya's greater focus on religious and literary endeavors, which diminished his involvement in expansive governance or military campaigns, necessitating a reliable interim figure to maintain administrative continuity.^[18] The co-regency with Arinjaya effectively positioned the latter as heir-apparent, allowing for a hereditary transition within the immediate family while deferring direct rule by Uttama until later contingencies. Upon Gandaraditya's death in 957 CE, Arinjaya ascended fully but reigned only briefly before his own demise, paving the way for his son Sundara Chola (Parantaka II) from 957–973 CE.^[18] This sequence underscores the pragmatic foresight in Gandaraditya's arrangements, which prioritized fraternal alliance over immediate patrilineal succession, averting potential instability during a period of territorial contraction, including the loss of Tondaimandalam to Rashtrakuta incursions under Krishna III. Uttama's eventual accession in 973 CE, following the assassination of Sundara's son Aditya II, further highlights how these early preparations preserved the broader Chola lineage despite subsequent rivalries.^[18]

Personal Life

Marriage to Sembiyan Mahadevi

Sembiyan Mahadevi, daughter of Malavaraiya—a chieftain who governed Tirukkovilur as a subordinate to the Chola rulers—entered into marriage with Gandaraditya Chola, likely as a strategic alliance to consolidate control over regional vassals.^[19] The union positioned her as queen consort during the early phase of his reign, approximately from 949 CE onward, though the precise date of the marriage remains unrecorded in epigraphic sources.^[20] Inscriptions from Gandaraditya's second regnal year explicitly reference endowments made by the queen, affirming her active status as his wife and her involvement in temple patronage even prior to his death in 957 CE.^[21] These records, such as those detailing contributions to Shaivite shrines, highlight her piety and administrative role within the royal household, which foreshadowed her later prominence as a dowager.^[22] The marriage yielded at least one documented son, Uttama Chola (also called Madhurantaka), born during Gandaraditya's lifetime and who succeeded to the throne after a brief interregnum, ensuring continuity in the Chola lineage.^[19] ^[22] No evidence survives of additional children or concubines specifically tied to this union, and the couple's personal dynamics are not elaborated beyond her enduring devotion to Shaivism, which inscriptions portray as integral to her queenship.^[21]

Character Traits and Daily Life

Gandaraditya exhibited traits of deep piety and scholarly inclination, prioritizing devotion to Shaivism over expansive political or military ambitions. Historical accounts portray him as a reluctant monarch who delegated much of the governance to his brother Arinjaya, reflecting a preference for spiritual pursuits amid dynastic pressures following the defeat at Takkolam.^[3] ^[23] His character emphasized religious fervor, as evidenced by his authorship of Thiruvisaippa, a collection of Tamil hymns dedicated to Shiva, which underscores a contemplative and devotional temperament rather than assertive leadership.^[1] This focus on bhakti literature suggests an introspective disposition, with contemporaries and later chroniclers noting his lack of military zeal and talents directed toward cultural and spiritual endeavors.^[23] Details on Gandaraditya's daily life remain sparse in surviving inscriptions, which primarily record administrative grants and temple endowments rather than personal routines. Nonetheless, his documented engagements imply a routine centered on religious discourse, poetic composition, and oversight of Shaivite institutions, often conducted from royal centers like Thanjavur or through viceroys.^[24] Such activities aligned with the ascetic leanings attributed to him, including possible later affiliations with Jainism, though these remain debated among historians due to limited epigraphic corroboration.^[25]

Religious Devotions

Patronage of Shaivism and Temple Endowments

Gandaraditya's patronage of Shaivism emphasized personal devotion over extensive recorded endowments, aligning with the sparse epigraphic corpus from his reign (c. 950–957 CE), which prioritizes military organization and hero-stones over temple grants.^[26] Inscriptions attributable to him, such as those referencing regiments under his command, do not detail royal donations of land or resources to Shiva temples, suggesting a focus on stabilizing the kingdom amid external threats rather than monumental building or gifting programs.^[27] This contrasts with the broader Chola tradition of Shaiva support, yet indirect evidence points to court-sanctioned activities benefiting temples. For instance, records from Shiva temples like Lalgudi in Trichy district mention land transactions for temple use during Gandaraditya's rule, indicating administrative facilitation of local endowments.^[28] His consort Sembiyan Mahadevi emerged as a key patron in this context, initiating donations for temple maintenance—such as perpetual lamps and offerings—that reflected the royal household's commitment to Shaivism, with some infrastructure like irrigation canals named after the couple aiding temple-adjacent agrarian economies.^[29] These efforts, while not directly inscribed under Gandaraditya's name, underscore the era's continuity in privileging Shiva worship amid dynastic transitions.^[30]

Apparent Vaishnava Associations and Scholarly Debates

Gandaraditya's personal religious devotion centered on Shaivism, as demonstrated by his authorship of a pāṇṭu (hymn) in the Tiruvisaippa, a compilation of Tamil Shaiva bhakti poetry integrated into the Tevaram canon, and his adoption of the epithet Śivapādaśekhara ("crown of Shiva's feet"), signifying profound reverence for Shiva.^[31] Surviving inscriptions from his reign, such as those dated to his 8th regnal year at the Adimūleśvara temple in Tiruppalatturai, record land grants exclusively to Shiva temples, including tax exemptions for offerings to Pārameśvara (Shiva) at sites like Tiruppaṉambuṭūr.^[32] These epigraphic records, numbering at least two in accessible collections, emphasize perpetual endowments for Shaiva rituals without reference to Vishnu or Vaishnava deities. Apparent Vaishnava associations arise primarily from the Chola dynasty's established pattern of patronage toward multiple sects, including Vishnu temples endowed by Gandaraditya's father Parantaka I and later rulers like Parantaka II (Sundara Chola).^[33] This ecumenical approach, evident in donations to both Shaiva and Vaishnava shrines across Chola territories from the 9th to 11th centuries, has prompted some interpretations attributing similar tolerances to Gandaraditya personally, particularly given his queen Sembiyan Mahadevi's oversight of temple affairs post-widowerhood, though her own endowments remained Shaiva-focused.^[29] No direct epigraphic or literary evidence, however, attributes Vaishnava-specific grants or rituals to Gandaraditya himself. Scholarly debates center on the distinction between dynastic policy and individual piety, with some historians arguing that Gandaraditya's administrative inertia and focus on religious introspection—rather than expansion—may have amplified perceptions of sectarian neutrality, potentially blurring lines with Vaishnavism amid the era's bhakti syncretism. Others contend such views overstate eclecticism, citing the absence of Vishnu iconography in his known artistic or architectural commissions and the primacy of Shaiva motifs in contemporary Chola bronzes and hymns. These interpretations rely on cross-referencing inscriptional data with later medieval accounts, highlighting interpretive variances due to sparse regnal records (ca. 950–957 CE) and the retrospective lens of imperial Chola historiography. Primary evidence tilts toward unalloyed Shaivism for Gandaraditya, with "Vaishnava" linkages better ascribed to familial continuity than personal inclination.

Literary Contributions

Composition of Thiruvisaippa

Gandaraditya Chola is attributed with the composition of Thiruvisaippa, a set of Tamil devotional hymns dedicated to the god Shiva, particularly those enshrined at the Chidambaram temple.^[1] These verses exemplify the king's engagement with Shaivite bhakti poetry, emphasizing themes of divine grace, cosmic form, and personal surrender to Shiva as the supreme deity.^[1] The work aligns with the Tamil poetic tradition of pathikam (prefatory hymns) and antadi (linked verses), though specific structural details such as the exact number of stanzas remain undocumented in primary inscriptions.^[34] Composed during Gandaraditya's reign, approximately 955–970 CE, Thiruvisaippa reflects the Chola monarch's role as both ruler and poet-priest, integrating royal patronage of Shaivism with literary expression.^[1] Inscriptions from the period, such as those referencing his titles like Sivajnana-cemmal (master of Shiva's knowledge), corroborate his authorship of sacred hymns, positioning Thiruvisaippa as a product of his direct temple affiliations rather than courtly anthology.^[34] While the precise date of composition eludes firm epigraphic evidence, scholarly consensus among Tamil literature researchers affirms Gandaraditya's primary authorship, distinguishing it from collective works in the later Tirumurai compilations.^[1] The hymns' content focuses on Shiva's aniconic linga form and nataraja (cosmic dancer) iconography at Chidambaram, urging devotees toward liberation through unwavering faith, a motif recurrent in 10th-century Chola Shaivism.^[1] Unlike the earlier Tevaram hymns of the Nayanars, Thiruvisaippa incorporates monarchical introspection, blending praise with subtle acknowledgments of temporal duties subordinated to divine will.^[5] Some historical analyses note minor disputes over whether elements might trace to his predecessor Parantaka I, but epigraphic and literary attributions consistently favor Gandaraditya, underscoring his personal devotion amid dynastic challenges.^[1] This composition underscores the Cholas' synthesis of political authority and religious artistry, preserving Shaivite orthodoxy through vernacular Tamil expression.

Influence on Tamil Bhakti Tradition

Gandaraditya's Thiruvisaippa, comprising devotional hymns dedicated to Shiva, exemplifies royal participation in the Tamil Shaiva Bhakti movement, extending the tradition beyond itinerant saints to include monarchs during the 10th century CE. Composed circa 950–957 CE, these verses adhere to traditional Tamil poetic meters (pā), echoing the stylistic and thematic elements of earlier Nayanar compositions such as the Tevaram.^[1] By producing such works, Gandaraditya demonstrated how Bhakti devotion could align with political authority, potentially inspiring subsequent Chola rulers to embed Shaiva hymns in temple liturgies and cultural patronage.^[35] The inclusion of Thiruvisaippa in the ninth volume of the Tirumurai—the standardized 12th-century compilation of Shaiva sacred texts—orchestrated under Chola auspices, underscores its role in canonizing post-Nayanar contributions to the Bhakti corpus. This integration preserved and disseminated Gandaraditya's hymns alongside those of saints like Appar and Sundarar, reinforcing the tradition's emphasis on personal surrender (bhakti) to Shiva through vernacular Tamil expression.^[35] Scholars note that such royal compositions helped sustain the movement's momentum amid evolving dynastic contexts, bridging early medieval saintly fervor with institutionalized temple worship.^[36] Gandaraditya's portrayal as a king-turned-Saivite saint in hagiographic accounts further amplified the Bhakti tradition's egalitarian ethos, portraying devotion as transcending social hierarchies and encouraging emulation among elites. This facet likely contributed to the Cholas' broader promotion of Shaivism, including endowments and ritual recitations that embedded Bhakti poetry in daily religious life across Tamil regions.^[35] However, his influence appears more symbolic than transformative, as the core Bhakti framework had been established by the 63 Nayanars centuries earlier, with later Chola emperors like Rajaraja I effecting more structural advancements through temple complexes and hymn mandating.^[36]

Legacy and Assessment

Achievements in Cultural Preservation

Gandaraditya's efforts in cultural preservation centered on bolstering Shaivite institutions during his brief reign (c. 950–957 CE), a period marked by limited military expansion but sustained religious patronage. Inscriptions from his era record endowments to temples, including land grants and provisions for rituals, which sustained the performance of Tamil bhakti hymns and the upkeep of sacred sites central to regional identity.^[37] For instance, a record from his second regnal year details donations by his consort Sembiyan Mahadevi to support temple functions, reflecting royal oversight that preserved liturgical traditions and artisanal skills in iconography and epigraphy.^[21] These initiatives ensured the continuity of Shaivite practices amid dynastic transitions, fostering environments where sculptors, poets, and priests maintained Tamil cultural motifs—such as Dravidian architectural elements and devotional iconography—that influenced subsequent Chola advancements. By prioritizing temple economies over territorial conquests, Gandaraditya's policies indirectly safeguarded intangible heritage like oral recitations of Tevaram verses, embedding them in institutional frameworks resistant to erosion.^[37] Such endowments, verifiable through epigraphic evidence, underscore a strategic focus on cultural resilience rather than innovation, laying groundwork for the expansive artistic legacy of later rulers like Rajaraja I.^[21]

Criticisms of Political Inactivity and Dynastic Vulnerabilities

Gandaraditya's reign, spanning approximately 954 to 970 CE, has drawn criticism from historians for its marked political passivity amid external threats and internal consolidation needs. Following the Chola defeat at the Battle of Takkolam in 949 CE, where Rashtrakuta forces under Krishna III captured key northern territories including Tondaimandalam, Gandaraditya mounted no recorded counteroffensives to reclaim lost domains or deter further incursions. Inscriptions from his era emphasize temple donations and Shaivite endowments, such as grants to the Tiruvorriyur temple, rather than administrative or military reforms, suggesting a prioritization of personal piety over empire-building. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri describes this phase as politically obscure, with scant evidence of vigorous governance, implying that Gandaraditya's immersion in composing devotional hymns like Thiruvisaippa contributed to administrative inertia and delayed Chola resurgence until Rajaraja I's accession. Dynastic fragilities compounded these issues, as Gandaraditya's death precipitated a lateral succession to his brother Arinjaya, whose rule lasted merely two to three years (c. 957–959 CE) before passing to Arinjaya's young son Parantaka II, who died prematurely without heirs around 970 CE. This chain of short reigns exposed the absence of a robust primogeniture system, reliant instead on familial consensus vulnerable to intrigue. Sembiyan Mahadevi, Gandaraditya's widow and a staunch Shaivite patron, assumed regency and elevated her nephew Uttama Chola to the throne, sidelining Gandaraditya's own son Madhurantaka—allegedly due to the latter's perceived Vaishnava sympathies clashing with the court's Shaiva dominance.^[38] Such religiously inflected choices, while stabilizing the immediate line, sowed seeds of contention, as later Chola records like the Tiruvalangadu plates hint at suppressed rival claims, underscoring how personal devotions intersected perilously with succession politics and eroded dynastic cohesion.

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Gandaraditya Chola was the son of Parantaka I and became a king of the Chola Dynasty during 955 Century CE. He was also a renowned Tamil poet who composed ...
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(?) Aditya I-891–907 Parantaka I-907–950 Gandaraditya-950–957 Arinjaya-956–957 Sundara (Parantaka II)-957–970 Aditya II-(co-regent) Uttama-970–985 Rajaraja I ...
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Below is a merged summary of all the information on Gandaraditya Chola, consolidating details from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize the key aspects (Reign, Co-regency/Association with Arinjaya, Preparations for Succession, Dynastic Transition, Evidence, and Useful URLs) across the different sources. Following the table, I will provide additional narrative context and quotes where applicable.
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devi, the wife of Gandaraditya Chola, was the first Chola lady to found innumerable Siva temples in Cholamandalam and to donate freely for the maintenance ...Missing: Shiva evidence
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Noteworthy is the apparently catalyzing role played by Chola queens in the evolution of the. Cholas toward the artistic practices of incorporative kingship.
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Aug 2, 2020 · ... Vaishnava, Buddhist, and even Jaina shrines. Rajakesari Gandaraditya's ... His title “Sivapadasekharan” testifies that he was a devout Shaivite ...
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Tiruvallam. Part - II. Kulottunga-Chola I · Vikrama Chola · Virarajendra I · Kulottunga-Chola III. Part - III. Aditya I · Parantaka I · Gandaraditya · Parantaka ...
[33]
Chola Dynasty & the Chola Empire - Tamilnation.org
He is famous for his conquest of the Pandyas, the Cheras and the King of Ceylon. He is credited with the invasions of Malaya and Burma. This coin has ...
[34]
Jaina temple rituals - Tamil Arts Academy
There is a very close unity between the Saiva, Vaishnava, and Jain and Buddhist temple worship and they are almost identical. ... Gandaraditya's queen was ...
[35]
https://fr.scribd.com/document/385166787/Thirumurai
[36]
Tamil Shaiva Bhakti Tradition: Worship of Lord Shiva - SRIRAM's IAS
Jul 25, 2025 · The Cholas, particularly Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, actively promoted Shaivism. They constructed grand temples like the Brihadisvara ...
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Cholas - South Indian Inscriptions - Whatisindia.com
The record which is dated in the 4th year in the reign of a Rajakesarivarman may be assigned to Gandaraditya or Sundara-chola on grounds Paleography. Uttama ...Missing: governance | Show results with:governance<|separator|>
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Who killed Aditya Karikala? A millennium-old mystery ... - The Hindu
Mar 31, 2023 · Historians, including K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Sadasiva Pandarathar and K.K. ... Gandaraditya (Sundara Chola's uncle), replaced Sundara Chola.