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Genetic fallacy

The genetic fallacy is an informal logical fallacy that occurs when an argument, belief, or claim is accepted or rejected solely on the basis of its origin, source, or historical context, rather than being evaluated on the strength of its content, evidence, or logical merits.^[1] This error confuses the causal or psychological origins of an idea (such as how it was discovered or who proposed it) with its justification or truth value, rendering the origin irrelevant to assessing the claim's validity.^[2] The term was coined by philosophers Morris Raphael Cohen and Ernest Nagel in their 1934 book Logic and Scientific Method, where they critiqued the misuse of historical or genetic explanations in scientific reasoning as a way to dismiss theories without addressing their substantive arguments.^[3] Common examples illustrate how the fallacy shifts focus from evidence to irrelevant associations; for instance, rejecting a public health policy like a smoking ban because it was first implemented by the Nazis in the 1930s ignores contemporary scientific data on tobacco's harms.^[4] Similarly, dismissing a mathematical theorem because it was developed by an individual from a disfavored cultural background, such as Pythagoras's theorem due to its ancient Greek origins, fails to engage with the proof's logical soundness.^[5] The fallacy often overlaps with other errors like ad hominem attacks (targeting the arguer's character) or appeals to irrelevant authority, but it specifically emphasizes the "genetic" aspect of tracing an idea's development or provenance.^[6] Philosophically, the genetic fallacy underscores the distinction between the context of discovery (how an idea arises, which may involve biases, accidents, or motivations) and the context of justification (whether the idea holds up under rational scrutiny), a separation central to epistemology and scientific methodology.^[2] While traditionally viewed as always erroneous, contemporary discussions in philosophy, such as those influenced by Nietzschean genealogy or cognitive science of religion, suggest that origins can sometimes undermine credibility when independent evidence is lacking—for example, if a belief stems from evolved cognitive biases without further support, it may warrant skepticism without committing a strict fallacy.^[3] Nonetheless, the core principle remains that valid evaluation prioritizes arguments' intrinsic qualities over extrinsic histories, promoting clearer reasoning in debates across ethics, science, and politics.^[7]

Core Concepts

Definition

The genetic fallacy is a fallacy of irrelevance in which a claim, argument, or idea is accepted or rejected based solely on its origin, history, or source, rather than on its intrinsic merits, evidence, or logical validity.^[8]^[9] This error occurs when the genesis or background of a proposition is treated as determinative of its truth value, disregarding the actual content and supporting reasons.^[2] For instance, dismissing a scientific theory because it was proposed by a controversial figure constitutes this fallacy, as the originator's character or circumstances do not inherently affect the theory's evidential basis.^[8] The irrelevance at the heart of the genetic fallacy stems from the logical disconnection between a claim's provenance and its substantive validity: the origin (such as who proposed it, when, or under what conditions) does not logically entail the truth or falsity of the claim itself.^[9]^[10] While origins may sometimes provide contextual insight, the fallacy arises when they are invoked as the sole or overriding criterion, bypassing evaluation of the argument's internal logic or empirical support.^[8] The term "genetic" in this context derives from "genesis," emphasizing the focus on the birth or origin of ideas, which distinguishes the fallacy from direct assessments of an argument's content or structure.^[11] This approach contrasts with proper critical reasoning, where the merits of a proposition stand independently of its historical or causal antecedents.^[12]

Characteristics

The genetic fallacy is characterized by the substitution of an evaluation based on the psychological, historical, or contextual origins of a belief or argument in place of a direct assessment of its logical merits. This involves appealing to factors such as the proponent's motives, biases, social background, or the idea's developmental history—often termed its "pedigree"—to reject or accept the claim, rather than examining the strength of its premises and evidence.^[8]^[2] At its core, the mechanism of the genetic fallacy operates through a redirection of argumentative focus, where the arguer shifts attention from the content's validity to extraneous causal or historical elements that do not bear on the truth or soundness of the position. For instance, instead of engaging with the reasons supporting a conclusion, the critic highlights the source's potential unreliability or the idea's evolution as if these alone suffice to discredit it, thereby conflating the context of discovery with the context of justification.^[13]^[2] This fallacy often manifests subtly, disguising itself as rigorous inquiry by leveraging intuitively relevant-seeming origins, such as a proponent's affiliations, which may prompt assumptions of bias without demonstrating how those origins undermine the argument's logic. Such subtlety arises because origins can sometimes provide contextual insight, but the fallacy persists when they are invoked irrelevantly, bypassing probative analysis.^[4]^[8]

Historical Context

Origin and Etymology

The term "genetic fallacy" was coined by philosophers Morris Raphael Cohen and Ernest Nagel in their 1934 book An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method, where they defined it as the error of evaluating a belief or theory based on its psychological or historical origins rather than its logical justification.^[2] This introduction occurred in the context of broader discussions on scientific methodology, critiquing the conflation of the "context of discovery" (how an idea arises) with the "context of justification" (whether it holds true).^[14] An earlier articulation of the underlying concept appeared in 1926, when philosopher Mortimer J. Adler, in a review of Will Durant's The Story of Philosophy published in The Nation, described the error as the "fallacy of genetic interpretation" and characterized it generally as "the substitution of psychology for logic."^[15] Adler's critique targeted Durant's approach to philosophical history, which Adler saw as prioritizing biographical and psychological explanations over rigorous logical analysis. The etymology of "genetic fallacy" draws from the adjective "genetic," rooted in the Greek genesis (γένεσις), meaning "origin," "creation," or "birth," to emphasize the fallacy's emphasis on an idea's developmental history or "genesis" at the expense of its present validity. This naming reflects early 20th-century philosophical concerns with distinguishing causal histories from evidential merits in arguments.

Development in Philosophy

Following its initial formulation in the 1930s, the genetic fallacy was integrated into mid-20th-century informal logic texts as part of a broader revival in the study of fallacies, shifting emphasis from formal syllogistic analysis to everyday argumentation. Irving M. Copi's Introduction to Logic (1953) prominently featured the genetic fallacy as an informal error of irrelevance, where judgments based on an idea's historical or causal origins fail to engage its substantive merits, thereby influencing subsequent pedagogical approaches to critical thinking. This development aligned with the post-World War II resurgence of informal logic, as seen in works like Charles L. Hamblin's Fallacies (1970), which critiqued traditional treatments and elevated contextual errors like the genetic fallacy in philosophical discourse on reasoning.^[13] The concept received further elaboration in late-20th and early-21st-century guides to argumentative practice. In T. Edward Damer's Attacking Faulty Reasoning (4th edition, 2001), the genetic fallacy is categorized under relevance fallacies, with detailed criteria for detection: it occurs when an argument's validity is assessed via its genesis rather than evidence, often leading to irrelevant dismissals in debates.^[16] Similarly, Madsen Pirie's How to Win Every Argument: The Use and Abuse of Logic (2006) expands on its rhetorical misuse, defining it as rejecting or endorsing claims based on tainted associations (e.g., linking a policy to an unpopular historical figure), and warns of its prevalence in persuasive contexts without addressing core issues (p. 82). Within philosophical discourse, the genetic fallacy ties to critiques of psychologism and historicism in the philosophy of science, where overemphasizing psychological origins or historical trajectories risks conflating explanation with justification.^[17] It is characterized in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (1995) as the fallacy of origins, distinct from valid developmental tracing, emphasizing that a belief's causal history does not determine its truth value. This framing gained prominence in analytic philosophy's debates on objectivity, reinforcing the discipline's focus on evaluating arguments by their logical content and evidence, independent of contextual or etiological factors.^[13]

Variations

Negative Form

The negative form of the genetic fallacy occurs when a claim, argument, or belief is rejected or deemed invalid solely on the basis of its origin, source, or historical development, without regard to the substantive evidence or merits supporting it.^[2] This subtype is characterized by an illegitimate inference that a flawed, biased, or disreputable genesis necessarily undermines the truth or viability of the idea itself, conflating causal history with epistemological warrant.^[18] A core aspect of this form involves guilt by association, where the claim is tainted by its association with an undesirable origin, such as a controversial proponent or a historically suspect context, leading to outright invalidation regardless of independent verification.^[19] For instance, this manifests in dismissing a scientific theory because it was initially proposed by a figure with a tainted reputation, overlooking empirical data that might affirm it.^[8] Unlike broader irrelevance in fallacious reasoning, the negative form specifically targets invalidation through origin-based condemnation, distinguishing it from mere distraction by emphasizing the source as a direct grounds for dismissal.^[2] This subtype underscores the fallacy's emphasis on historical or causal irrelevance, where the origin's perceived flaws are treated as sufficient to negate the claim's standalone validity.^[19]

Positive Form

The positive form of the genetic fallacy involves accepting a claim or argument as valid solely because of its esteemed origin, such as an authoritative source, traditional lineage, or perceived purity, while neglecting to assess its actual evidence or logical merits.^[20] This subtype contrasts with the broader genetic fallacy by focusing on undue endorsement rather than dismissal, where the pedigree of the idea is treated as sufficient justification for belief.^[4] For instance, one might endorse a policy proposal uncritically because it originates from a prestigious university, assuming its institutional reputation guarantees soundness without examining the supporting data.^[21] This form is sometimes termed the "fallacy of virtue," highlighting how an origin viewed as morally or intellectually untainted—such as a revered historical figure or ethical tradition—imparts automatic credibility to the idea itself.^[22] In philosophical terms, it represents an over-reliance on the causal history or genesis of a belief (ratio credentis) as a proxy for its truth (ratio veritatis), which fails when the origin does not causally connect to the claim's validity.^[23] An example is accepting the structure of the benzene molecule as proposed by Friedrich August Kekulé because it reportedly came to him in a dream, prioritizing the anecdote of its discovery over empirical verification.^[20] The key distinction within this variation lies in its affirmative nature: it promotes acceptance through positive attribution to the source's status, bypassing scrutiny that would reveal potential flaws in the argument.^[8] This can manifest in appeals to tradition, where an idea is upheld because it has "always been that way" in a valued cultural context, or in uncritical deference to expert testimony without verifying its relevance to the specific claim.^[2] Such reasoning becomes fallacious precisely when the origin's positive attributes are irrelevant to the proposition's truth.

Examples and Illustrations

Hypothetical Scenarios

One hypothetical scenario illustrating the genetic fallacy involves dismissing a valid mathematical proof solely because it was developed by a member of a historically oppressed group. In this case, a critic might argue that the proof lacks credibility due to the developer's marginalized background, implying inherent bias or inferiority in their work. However, the validity of the proof rests entirely on its internal logic, axioms, and deductive steps, which remain unaffected by the creator's personal history or social status. This example highlights the negative form of the genetic fallacy, where the origin of an idea leads to its unwarranted rejection, shifting evaluation from the argument's merits to irrelevant source characteristics.^[4] A contrasting scenario demonstrates the positive form: accepting a policy proposal without examination because it originated from a prestigious university. Here, an advocate might endorse the proposal as inherently superior, citing the institution's elite reputation as sufficient justification. Yet, the proposal's worth must be judged on its substantive content, empirical support, potential impacts, and alignment with objectives, not the prestige of its source. By prioritizing genesis over evidence, this approach commits the genetic fallacy, allowing superficial associations to override critical assessment.^[9] These constructed examples serve to isolate and demonstrate the core mechanics of the genetic fallacy, revealing how both its negative and positive variants distort reasoning by conflating an idea's origin with its intrinsic truth or value, independent of real-world complexities.^[8]

Real-World Cases

One prominent historical instance of the genetic fallacy occurred in the reception of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Following the 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, critics in the United States, a deeply religious nation, often dismissed the theory not on empirical grounds but due to its association with atheism.^[24] In 1874, Princeton theologian Charles Hodge explicitly argued in his book What is Darwinism? that the theory equated to atheism, concluding, "It is atheism," thereby rejecting Darwin's scientific claims based on their perceived threat to religious doctrine rather than evaluating the evidence for species variation and adaptation.^[24] This misuse of origin focused on the theory's naturalistic implications, originating from a secular scientific framework, while ignoring its explanatory power supported by observations of geological and biological change. Another documented case appears in discussions of symbolic practices, as illustrated in T. Edward Damer's analysis of logical fallacies. Damer provides the example: "You’re not going to wear a wedding ring, are you? Don’t you know that the wedding ring originally symbolized the ankle chains women wore to prevent them from running away from their husbands? I wouldn’t have thought you would be a party to such a sexist practice."^[25] Here, the ring is rejected as inherently sexist based on its historical patriarchal origins—linked to symbols of ownership and subjugation in ancient cultures—without considering its contemporary meaning as a mutual emblem of commitment and partnership in modern marriages.^[25] This represents the negative form of the genetic fallacy, where the artifact's past context is deemed sufficient to invalidate its present value, disregarding evolving social norms and individual interpretations. In modern debates on climate science, the genetic fallacy manifests in denialist arguments that dismiss research findings due to their funding sources. For instance, some skeptics reject anthropogenic climate change evidence by alleging that government-funded scientists fabricate or exaggerate data to secure grants, portraying the research as inherently biased from its institutional origins.^[26] This tactic, identified in analyses of conspiracy theories surrounding climate denial, misuses the origin of funding—often from public agencies like NASA or NOAA—as grounds for rejection, without engaging the peer-reviewed data on rising CO2 levels and temperature anomalies since the late 20th century.^[26] Such reasoning overlooks the scientific consensus built on diverse, independently verified methodologies.

Relationships to Other Fallacies

Links to Ad Hominem

The genetic fallacy and the ad hominem fallacy share significant overlaps as fallacies of relevance, both involving the dismissal of an argument based on extraneous factors related to its source rather than its substantive merits.^[13]^[8] In particular, the genetic fallacy can be viewed as a subtype of ad hominem when the criticism targets the origin of the idea in a way that indirectly impugns the arguer, such as by questioning the genesis of their views instead of engaging with the content. This connection arises because both fallacies divert attention from the argument's logical structure to irrelevant personal or historical elements, potentially undermining rational discourse.^[8] A key point of convergence occurs with the ad hominem circumstantial variant, which attacks an argument by highlighting the arguer's personal circumstances or interests that might bias their position.^[13] This form closely resembles the negative genetic fallacy when the origin of the idea is tied to the arguer's situational motives, as both reject the claim on the grounds of its potentially tainted provenance without assessing its independent validity.^[12] For instance, philosophers like Douglas Walton have analyzed how circumstantial ad hominem operates by insinuating self-interest, much like a genetic critique that condemns an idea's source as compromised by the creator's context. Such overlaps highlight how the genetic fallacy extends ad hominem principles beyond direct character attacks to broader origin-based skepticism. An illustrative example of this linkage is dismissing a policy proposal on environmental regulations because the advocating organization receives funding from industry stakeholders, implying the idea's origin in self-interested motives invalidates it, regardless of the proposal's evidence or logic.^[13] This tactic mirrors negative genetic reasoning by equating the source's circumstances with inherent flaw, akin to circumstantial ad hominem's focus on potential bias from financial stakes.^[12] In philosophical analysis, such arguments are fallacious unless the origin provides relevant evidence against the claim, but they often exploit the intuitive appeal of source distrust to bypass substantive evaluation.^[8] The genetic fallacy is classified as a type of fallacy of irrelevance, where the historical origin or genesis of an idea, belief, or argument is invoked as a decisive reason to accept or reject it, without evaluating its substantive merits.^[27] However, this classification does not imply that all origin-based critiques are inherently fallacious; genetic reasoning becomes valid when the causal or historical factors are logically relevant to assessing the claim's truth, such as in bias evaluations where socioeconomic influences or alternative explanations undermine the belief's reliability.^[2] For example, arguing that a moral theory's conclusions are shaped by cultural biases can constitute legitimate critique if those origins directly pertain to the argument's evidential foundation, rather than serving as a blanket dismissal.^[2] A key distinction exists between the genetic fallacy and the appeal to authority, which involves accepting or rejecting a claim based on the perceived expertise or status of its proponent, even when that authority is irrelevant to the subject matter.^[27] In the genetic fallacy, the focus is not on the current credentials of the source but on the irrelevant historical development or context of the idea itself, such as dismissing a scientific theory solely because it emerged from a controversial institution, irrespective of supporting evidence.^[27] The genetic fallacy further differs from the appeal to motive, a form of circumstantial ad hominem that discredits an argument by speculating on the personal intentions, self-interest, or ulterior purposes of the person advancing it, without engaging the argument's content.^[28] Whereas the appeal to motive probes contemporary incentives behind the proposal—such as accusing a policymaker of bias due to financial gain—the genetic fallacy hinges on the broader, often historical irrelevance of the idea's origins, like rejecting a philosophical view because it traces back to an ancient tradition, regardless of the advocate's present motivations.^[28] Finally, unlike the tu quoque fallacy, which deflects a valid criticism by pointing to the critic's hypocrisy or inconsistent behavior (e.g., rejecting an environmentalist's plea because they own a car), the genetic fallacy does not rely on personal inconsistency but on the supposed taint of the argument's source or history.^[27] This makes tu quoque a strategy of evasion through counter-accusation, while the genetic fallacy broadly attributes invalidity to provenance alone.^[27]

Legitimate Genetic Reasoning

Contexts Where Origin Is Relevant

In certain philosophical and methodological contexts, evaluating the origin of a belief, argument, or piece of evidence can provide valid probabilistic support for assessing its reliability or truth, thereby avoiding the genetic fallacy. For instance, in reliabilist epistemology, the causal processes leading to a belief—such as perception or testimony—are directly relevant to determining whether the belief is justified, as reliable origins increase the likelihood of accuracy.^[2] Similarly, when origins offer explanatory hypotheses about belief formation, genetic reasoning serves as a legitimate abductive tool, inferring truth from the best causal explanation of how the belief arose.^[2] One key legitimate context is assessing potential bias in empirical studies, where the funding source can systematically influence data interpretation or study design, warranting scrutiny of origins to evaluate evidential strength. Sponsorship bias, for example, occurs when industry funding correlates with outcomes favoring the sponsor, providing prima facie evidence of distortion that must be weighed against the results themselves.^[29]^[30] This approach is not fallacious because the origin directly bears on the study's internal validity, as systematic errors from financial incentives deviate from objective truth. In historical analysis and textual criticism, origins reveal the evolution, intent, or authenticity of ideas and documents, making genetic reasoning essential for interpretation. Genetic criticism, a method in literary scholarship, examines drafts, variants, and archival materials to trace a text's development, thereby illuminating authorial intentions without conflating process with final justification.^[31] In historiography, the causal history of events or beliefs provides probabilistic evidence; for example, tracing a historical claim's testimonial origins assesses reliability by evaluating the chain of transmission and potential distortions over time.^[2] Thus, such reasoning is valid when origins contribute explanatory power to understanding belief formation or historical veracity.^[2]

Strategies for Avoidance

To avoid committing the genetic fallacy, reasoners should refocus discussions on the substantive evidence and premises supporting a claim, rather than its origin or source.^[8] This involves systematically evaluating whether the proposed idea holds up under scrutiny based on its logical structure and empirical support, independent of how or by whom it was developed.^[32] For instance, one key strategy is to question the probative value of the origin by asking whether it truly affects the claim's truth or validity, such as determining if a source's background introduces verifiable bias that undermines the evidence itself.^[8] Practical checklists can aid in this process, such as the directive to "separate source from substance" by explicitly isolating the claim's content and justification from extraneous historical or motivational details.^[32] In debates or analyses, a specific redirection technique is to respond with a query like, "Regardless of the origin, does the evidence support the claim?" This shifts attention back to merit-based assessment and prevents sidetracking into irrelevant critiques.^[33] Such approaches promote objective evaluation by encouraging independent verification of evidence, ensuring conclusions are drawn only after sufficient substantive review rather than premature dismissal based on genesis.^[32] These strategies are recommended in modern logic education to foster critical thinking, as outlined in resources like the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy's guide to fallacies, which emphasizes evaluating arguments on their own terms to avoid irrelevant appeals.^[8] While origins may legitimately inform assessments in contexts like witness credibility, avoidance methods stress discerning when such factors are truly relevant to prevent erroneous judgments.^[8]

References

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### Definition of Genetic Fallacy
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[PDF] When Is Genetic Reasoning Not Fallacious?
ABSTRACT: Attempts to evaluate a belief or argument on the basis of its cause or origin are usually condemned as committing the genetic fallacy.
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Why the Genetic Fallacy is Not a Fallacy - Blog of the APA
Jun 24, 2021 · The genetic fallacy judges a belief based on its origin. However, knowing the origin is irrelevant if there's independent justification, and ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|control11|><|separator|>
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What Is the Genetic Fallacy? | Definition & Examples - Scribbr
May 21, 2023 · The genetic fallacy is the act of rejecting or accepting an argument on the basis of its origin rather than its content.Why does the genetic fallacy... · Genetic fallacy exampleMissing: philosophy | Show results with:philosophy
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4. Genetic Fallacy - Lucid Philosophy
The genetic fallacy is dismissing a claim due to its origin or history, confusing reasons with causes, and using evolutionary reasons to explain away beliefs.
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Genetic Fallacy – Migration: A Philosophical Toolkit
The genetic fallacy is confusing something's origin with its justification, using its source to justify or deny it.
[7]
Fallacies | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
A fallacy is a kind of error in reasoning, often involving arguments, but can also be a false belief or cause of a false belief.
[8]
Logical Fallacies - Purdue OWL
Genetic Fallacy: This conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth.
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8.8: Genetic Fallacy - Humanities LibreTexts
Mar 9, 2021 · A critic commits the genetic fallacy by attempting to discredit a claim because of its origin (genesis) when such a criticism is irrelevant to ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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The genetic fallacy: When is it okay to criticize a source?
Jan 18, 2016 · A critic uses the Genetic Fallacy if the critic attempts to discredit or support a claim or an argument because of its origin (genesis) when ...
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Ad Hominem - Philosophy Home Page
“Genetic Fallacy: The misapplication of the genetic method resulting in the depreciatory appraisal of the product of a historical or evolutionary process ...
[12]
Fallacies - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 29, 2015 · The fallacy is defined as occurring when “it is claimed that some attribute belongs similarly to the thing and to its accident” (SR 5 166b28).
[13]
When Is Genetic Reasoning Not Fallacious? | Argumentation
Attempts to evaluate a belief or argument on the basis of its cause or origin are usually condemned as committing the genetic fallacy.
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None
Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
https://www.unz.com/print/Nation-1926sep29-00338/
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Psychologism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 21, 2007 · Psychologism is the mistake of identifying non-psychological with psychological entities, or applying psychological techniques to philosophical ...
[17]
None
Below is a merged summary of the genetic fallacy based on all provided segments, consolidating the information into a comprehensive response. To retain all details efficiently, I will use a table in CSV format for key aspects (definitions, forms, examples, context, and URLs) followed by a narrative summary that ties everything together. This approach ensures maximum density and clarity while preserving all mentioned information.
[18]
[PDF] The Genetic Fallacy and a Living Constitution
Dec 23, 2019 · 3, 2019) (characterizing the genetic fallacy as “basing the truth claim of an argument on the origin of its claims or premises”). The term also ...
[19]
Logical Fallacy: Genetic Fallacy
The Genetic Fallacy is the most general fallacy of irrelevancy involving the origins or history of an idea. It is fallacious to either endorse or condemn an ...
[20]
Genetic Fallacy - An Illustrated Book of Bad Arguments
Conversely, one may also invoke the genetic fallacy in a positive sense, by saying, for example, Jack's views on art cannot be contested; he comes from a long ...
[21]
Genetic Fallacy - Logically Fallacious
Description: Basing the truth claim of an argument on the origin of its claims or premises. Logical Form: The origin of the claim is presented.
[22]
Forms of the Genetic Fallacy
But if reasons for belief are used as though they are reasons for truth, this has been recognized for most of the history of logic as an informal fallacy (i.e. ...
[23]
Charles Darwin's American Adventure: A Melodrama in Three Acts
Feb 3, 2010 · In his 1874 book, he asked What is Darwinism? and concluded: "It is atheism." In a deeply religious nation, Darwin offended the faithful. By ...Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[24]
[PDF] Attacking Faulty Reasoning - Yardstick International College LMS
T. Edward Damer is Professor of Philosophy, the Rowlett Chair of Creative ... Genetic Fallacy Evaluating a thing in terms of its earlier context and then ...
[25]
[PDF] Climate Change Conspiracy Theories
Dec 5, 2020 · fake data to receive research funding, or that climate change is a hoax perpetrated by leftist ... origin are debated, this rejection of the ...
[26]
4 Theories on Satoshi Nakamoto's Identity: Unmasking Bitcoin's ...
Discover four leading theories on who could be Satoshi Nakamoto, the enigmatic creator of Bitcoin. Investigate claims, evidence, and the enduring mystery.
[27]
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Philosophy/Logic_and_Reasoning/Introduction_to_Logic_and_Critical_Thinking_2e_(van_Cleave)/04%3A_Informal_Fallacies/4.03%3A_Fallacies_of_Relevance
[28]
[PDF] Logical Fallacies Philosophical logic - University of Iowa
Aug 25, 2020 · Appeal to motive. Attacking the arguer instead of the argument, dismissing an idea by questioning the motives of its proposer. The word motive ...
[29]
What is epistemically wrong with research affected by sponsorship ...
Mar 7, 2020 · Research affected by sponsorship bias is epistemically wrong if and only if the researchers in question make false claims about the (degree of) evidential ...Introduction · Types of sponsorship bias... · Applying the evidential... · References
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Inquiry into the "Funding Effect" Hypothesis - jstor
correlation between research outcome and funding source, is not definitive evidence of bias, but is prima facie evidence that bias may exist. Additional.<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
Genetic Criticism with Textual Criticism: From Variant to Variation
Textual criticism aims to establish the text by eliminating variants, while genetic criticism destabilizes the text by confronting it with its versions.
[32]
[PDF] Logical Reasoning - Sacramento State
May 15, 2020 · ... How to Avoid Errors when Creating Definitions ... Genetic Fallacy ...
[33]
Chapter Eight: Fallacies – A Guide to Good Reasoning
The ad hominem fallacy is a special case of a broader sort of mistake called the genetic fallacy. ... avoidance of force is the practical advantage of a belief.