Government shutdown
A government shutdown in the United States occurs when federal appropriations lapse due to Congress failing to enact funding legislation—either the 12 annual appropriations bills or a continuing resolution—by the October 1 start of the fiscal year, compelling executive agencies to suspend non-essential operations and furlough non-critical personnel under the Antideficiency Act.[1] This results in the temporary idling of services such as national parks, passport processing, and regulatory reviews, while essential functions like air traffic control and military operations continue with limited funding from prior-year balances or fee authorities.[2] The mechanism enforces the constitutional mandate that no money be drawn from the Treasury without legislative appropriation, highlighting tensions in divided government where partisan impasses over spending levels or policy riders prevent consensus.[3] Shutdowns emerged as a structured response in the early 1980s after Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti's opinions clarified that funding gaps required halting unauthorized expenditures, contrasting with prior informal continuations of operations.[4] Since then, there have been more than a dozen significant instances, including the 21-day shutdowns of 1995–1996 over welfare reform and spending cuts, the 16-day 2013 impasse tied to the Affordable Care Act implementation, and the record 35-day 2018–2019 closure stemming from disputes on border security funding.[3] These events typically arise from brinkmanship in budget negotiations, where one chamber or party conditions funding on concessions like debt ceiling hikes, entitlement reforms, or extraneous policy demands, reflecting deeper fiscal disagreements amid rising deficits.[4] The consequences include furloughs for up to 800,000 federal workers, disruptions to contractors and vendors, and broader ripple effects on private sector activity, with the Congressional Budget Office estimating the 2018–2019 shutdown reduced real GDP by approximately $11 billion through deferred spending and output losses, though much recovers post-resolution.[5] Prolonged shutdowns amplify uncertainty, delaying tax refunds, research grants, and inspections, while underscoring the U.S. system's vulnerability to sequential bargaining failures absent automatic carryovers common in parliamentary regimes.[6] Critics argue they serve as leverage against fiscal profligacy, compelling scrutiny of mandatory spending that dwarfs discretionary outlays, whereas proponents of uninterrupted funding decry the self-inflicted harm to public trust and efficiency.[7]United States
Definition and Legal Framework
A government shutdown in the United States occurs when Congress fails to enact appropriations legislation or a continuing resolution to fund federal agency operations, resulting in a lapse of appropriations that requires the cessation of non-essential government functions.[8] This lapse typically arises at the start of a fiscal year on October 1 or when temporary funding expires, compelling agencies to furlough employees and halt activities not supported by prior-year funds, mandatory spending, or other legal exceptions.[2] Essential services, such as active-duty military operations, air traffic control, and law enforcement activities protecting life and property, continue under authorities permitting expenditures for emergencies or fee-funded programs.[9] The constitutional foundation for shutdowns lies in Article I, Section 9, Clause 7 of the U.S. Constitution, known as the Appropriations Clause, which states: "No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law."[10] This provision vests Congress with exclusive "power of the purse," mandating that all federal expenditures receive legislative authorization before funds can be disbursed from the Treasury, thereby preventing executive discretion in spending without congressional approval.[11] Violations of this principle historically prompted stricter enforcement, evolving from 19th-century practices allowing limited carryover operations to mandatory shutdowns by the late 20th century.[2] Statutory enforcement primarily stems from the Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. §§ 1341–1342, 1511–1519), which prohibits federal officers from obligating or expending government funds in excess of available appropriations, in advance of appropriations, or accepting voluntary services that could obligate future funds.[1] Enacted in stages since 1870 and amended notably in 1950 and 1982, the Act imposes criminal and civil penalties for violations, including fines up to $5,000 or imprisonment, to ensure fiscal discipline and prevent agencies from pressuring Congress through unauthorized operations.[9] The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) issues contingency plans directing agencies on classifying functions as excepted or non-excepted, with furloughed employees entitled to retroactive pay upon funding restoration, as affirmed by law since 2011.[12][13]Historical Development
The concept of U.S. federal government shutdowns emerged from the Antideficiency Act of 1884, which prohibited federal agencies from obligating or expending funds in excess of appropriations, but prior to the late 1970s, funding lapses typically resulted in continued operations without formal shutdowns, as executive branch interpretations allowed temporary continuation of essential activities.[3] This changed with Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti's 1980 and 1981 opinions, which interpreted the Antideficiency Act and related laws as barring agencies from incurring obligations during lapses, necessitating furloughs of non-essential personnel and cessation of non-mandatory functions until Congress enacted funding. The first recorded shutdown occurred from September 30 to October 1, 1976, lasting one day amid a brief appropriations delay under President Gerald Ford, though its scope was limited due to pre-Civiletti practices.[6] Subsequent short shutdowns in the late 1970s and early 1980s, often lasting hours to a few days, stemmed from partisan disputes over spending priorities but were resolved quickly without significant economic disruption.[3] Examples include a two-day shutdown in November 1981 under President Ronald Reagan over a continuing resolution dispute, and single-day lapses in 1982, 1983, and 1984 tied to congressional delays in passing omnibus appropriations.[4] A 1986 shutdown lasted three days due to conflicts over deficit reduction measures, while a 1987 event endured 21 hours amid debates on spending cuts.[14] These early incidents highlighted the procedural risks of the post-1974 Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act, which formalized annual budget resolutions and appropriations timelines, but shutdowns remained rare and brief until the 1990s. The 1990s marked a shift toward prolonged shutdowns driven by intensified partisan battles over fiscal policy following the Republican takeover of Congress in 1994.[6] Under President Bill Clinton, a three-day shutdown from October 6-9, 1990, arose from disagreements on a budget reconciliation package incorporating tax increases and spending cuts.[3] More significantly, two shutdowns in 1995-1996—November 14-19, 1995 (six days) and December 16, 1995-January 6, 1996 (22 days)—resulted from clashes between Clinton and House Speaker Newt Gingrich's Republican majority over Medicare reforms, welfare cuts, and balanced budget demands, furloughing 800,000 workers and costing an estimated $1.4 billion in economic activity.[4] These events elevated shutdowns as a political tactic, with public opinion largely blaming congressional Republicans, contributing to Gingrich's resignation.| Shutdown Period | Duration | President | Primary Cause |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sep 30-Oct 1, 1976 | 1 day | Gerald Ford | Appropriations delay[3] |
| Nov 23-25, 1981 | 2 days | Ronald Reagan | Continuing resolution dispute[4] |
| Dec 18, 1981 | 1 day | Ronald Reagan | Funding lapse[3] |
| Sep 30-Oct 2, 1982 | 1 day | Ronald Reagan | Budget impasse[14] |
| Nov 10-14, 1983 | 3 days | Ronald Reagan | Appropriations disagreement |
| Oct 3-5, 1984 | 1 day | Ronald Reagan | Fiscal year-end delay[3] |
| Oct 16-18, 1986 | 3 days | Ronald Reagan | Deficit reduction talks[4] |
| Dec 18, 1987 | 1 day | Ronald Reagan | Omnibus spending bill[14] |
| Oct 5-9, 1990 | 3 days | George H.W. Bush | Budget reconciliation package[3] |
| Nov 14-19, 1995 | 6 days | Bill Clinton | Balanced budget demands |
| Dec 16, 1995-Jan 6, 1996 | 22 days | Bill Clinton | Medicare and welfare reforms[6] |
| Oct 1-17, 2013 | 16 days | Barack Obama | Affordable Care Act funding[4] |
| Dec 22, 2018-Jan 25, 2019 | 35 days | Donald Trump | Border wall funding[14] |
| Oct 1-Nov 12, 2025 | 43 days | Donald Trump | Appropriations lapse amid partisan budget disputes[15] |