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Intracluster medium

The intracluster medium (ICM) is the hot, diffuse plasma that fills the vast spaces between galaxies within galaxy clusters, comprising primarily ionized hydrogen and helium enriched with heavier elements such as oxygen and iron.^[1] This plasma, with temperatures ranging from 10⁷ to 10⁸ K (corresponding to 1–10 keV), represents the dominant baryonic component of clusters, often exceeding the total stellar mass in mass.^[2]^[3] The ICM's low density, typically 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻² particles cm⁻³, renders it tenuous yet pervasive, extending over scales of 1–2 Mpc and trapped within the cluster's gravitational potential well.^[2] Its composition reflects both primordial nucleosynthesis and subsequent enrichment from supernova ejecta driven out of galaxies by processes like ram pressure stripping and galactic winds, yielding a mean metallicity of approximately 0.3 times the solar value.^[1]^[3] Additionally, the medium harbors weak magnetic fields on the order of 0.1–a few μG, which influence thermal conduction and synchrotron emission.^[2] Observationally, the ICM is primarily detected through its thermal X-ray emission, arising from bremsstrahlung continuum and atomic line processes, which reveal spatial variations in temperature, density, and chemical abundance.^[2]^[3] Instruments like Chandra and XMM-Newton have mapped these properties, highlighting phenomena such as cooling flows in cluster cores and shocks from mergers. The ICM's thermodynamic state—often in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium—encodes critical information on cluster formation, non-gravitational heating from active galactic nuclei, and the overall baryon budget in the universe, making it a key probe for cosmology and galaxy evolution.^[2]^[3]

Definition and Properties

Overview

The intracluster medium (ICM) is the diffuse, ionized plasma that permeates the vast spaces between galaxies in galaxy clusters, constituting a hot (10⁷–10⁸ K) and low-density (10^{-4}–10^{-2} particles cm⁻³) gas phase. This plasma, primarily consisting of hydrogen and helium ions and free electrons, emits X-rays through thermal bremsstrahlung and accounts for approximately 10–15% of a cluster's total mass, making it the dominant baryonic component in these environments. Unlike the cooler intergalactic medium found in less dense cosmic structures, the ICM is heated by the gravitational collapse during cluster formation and maintained at high temperatures by ongoing dynamical processes. The ICM was first inferred through X-ray observations in the early 1970s, marking a pivotal advancement in understanding cluster structure. The Uhuru satellite, the first dedicated X-ray observatory launched in 1970, detected extended, diffuse thermal X-ray sources associated with rich galaxy clusters such as Virgo and Coma during its all-sky survey from 1970 to 1973, suggesting the presence of a hot, diffuse gaseous component rather than emission solely from individual galaxies. Subsequent detailed imaging and spectral analysis by the Einstein Observatory from 1978 to 1981 provided high-resolution maps confirming the thermal spectrum of the ICM and revealing its spatial extent across cluster cores. Galaxy clusters, the largest gravitationally bound structures in the universe with diameters spanning several megaparsecs, host the ICM as a pervasive filler of their potential wells, where it contains 85–90% of the total baryonic mass—far exceeding the contribution from stars and galaxies. This contrasts sharply with the intergalactic medium in filamentary structures or voids, which is cooler and less massive relative to dark matter. The total ICM mass, typically on the order of 10¹³–10¹⁴ solar masses for massive clusters, is estimated observationally from X-ray data but can be contextualized via the virial theorem, relating the plasma temperature to the cluster's gravitational potential; a basic form yields the virial mass as M_\mathrm{vir} \approx \frac{3 k T r_\mathrm{vir}}{G \mu m_\mathrm{H}}, from which M_\mathrm{gas} follows as roughly 10–15% of M_\mathrm{vir}, with k the Boltzmann constant, T the temperature, r_\mathrm{vir} the virial radius, G the gravitational constant, \mu the mean molecular weight, and m_\mathrm{H} the hydrogen atom mass.^[4]

Physical Characteristics

The intracluster medium (ICM) exhibits a hot thermal state, with temperatures typically spanning 2–10 keV (equivalent to 2.3×10^7–1.2×10^8 K), reflecting the gravitational potential of galaxy clusters.^[5] These temperatures decrease radially outward from the cluster core, often following a power-law decline characterized by the β-model fit with index β ≈ 0.6–0.8.^[6] This profile arises from the balance between heating from cluster formation and radiative cooling, resulting in hotter gas in the central regions where infalling material shocks more intensely. The density structure of the ICM is commonly modeled using the isothermal β-model, expressed as

\rho(r) = \rho_0 \left[1 + \left(\frac{r}{r_c}\right)^2\right]^{-3\beta/2},

where ρ_0 is the central electron density, r is the radial distance from the cluster center, r_c is the core radius (typically 50–200 kpc), and β governs the slope.^[6] This functional form captures the observed flat density cores in relaxed clusters, transitioning to a steeper decline in the outskirts, and provides a framework for interpreting X-ray surface brightness profiles. Thermodynamic properties such as pressure and entropy further define the ICM's equilibrium. The thermal pressure is given by P = n k T, where n is the particle number density, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is temperature; this pressure confines the gas and counters gravitational infall.^[5] Entropy, a key indicator of thermal history, follows a radial profile S(r) \propto T / n^{2/3}, with observed "entropy floors" in cluster cores likely resulting from mergers that inject non-gravitational energy and suppress cooling.^[7] Kinematically, the ICM displays bulk velocities reaching up to 1000 km/s during major mergers, driving large-scale gas motions. Turbulent velocities range from 200–500 km/s, generated by mergers, active galactic nuclei feedback, and stirring of the plasma. Additionally, the ICM hosts weak, tangled magnetic fields with strengths of 1–10 μG, probed through synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons and Faraday rotation measures. High-resolution X-ray spectroscopy from the XRISM mission (launched 2023) has mapped velocity dispersions of ~200–400 km/s in cluster cores and fronts, highlighting turbulent support in these regions.^[8]

Composition

Primary Components

The intracluster medium (ICM) is dominated by a hot, diffuse plasma primarily composed of fully ionized hydrogen and helium, reflecting the primordial abundances of the universe with minor modifications from stellar enrichment. Hydrogen constitutes approximately 70–75% of the ICM mass, while helium accounts for about 25–28%, with the remaining fraction consisting of trace heavier elements.^[9] This composition yields a mean molecular weight \mu \approx 0.6, which is characteristic of a fully ionized primordial gas where hydrogen contributes roughly 76% by mass.^[9] The free electrons from this ionization, numbering roughly equal to the proton density (n_e \approx n_p) in the hydrogen-dominated plasma, provide the primary thermal pressure support against gravity.^[10] The high temperatures of the ICM, typically exceeding $10^7 K, ensure complete ionization of hydrogen and helium, resulting in a plasma state where electrons are unbound and available for interactions such as thermal bremsstrahlung emission.^[10] This process, in which accelerated electrons decelerate in the Coulomb field of ions, produces the characteristic X-ray continuum observed from clusters, with the emission efficiency scaling with the square of the electron density.^[11] The ICM thus represents the dominant baryonic component in galaxy clusters, containing 85–90% of the total baryonic mass, while the remainder resides primarily in stars within cluster galaxies.^[12] This gas fraction aligns closely with the cosmic baryon fraction f_b \approx 0.15–0.17, consistent with \Omega_b / \Omega_m \approx 0.16 derived from Planck measurements.^[12] In addition to the thermal plasma, the ICM includes minor non-gaseous components such as relativistic particles, which contribute approximately 1–10% of the total energy density and provide a supplementary non-thermal pressure.^[13] Cosmic rays, primarily relativistic protons and electrons, are a key subset of these particles, injected via processes like supernova remnants and active galactic nuclei, and they can influence the dynamics of the plasma through scattering and heating.^[13] Their energy density relative to the thermal gas decreases toward cluster centers but remains significant in the outskirts, potentially altering the overall pressure balance.

Metals and Enrichment

The intracluster medium (ICM) exhibits a metallicity of approximately 0.2–0.5 times the solar value (Z ≈ 0.2–0.5 Z_⊙), reflecting the accumulation of heavy elements synthesized in stellar nucleosynthesis processes.^[14] This enrichment is dominated by elements such as oxygen (O), iron (Fe), silicon (Si), and magnesium (Mg), which originate primarily from supernova ejecta dispersed into the ICM.^[15] Alpha-elements like O, Si, and Mg show enhancements relative to Fe, a signature of contributions from core-collapse supernovae (Type II), which produce these elements in massive star explosions.^[15] The primary sources of ICM metal enrichment are Type Ia and core-collapse supernovae occurring within cluster member galaxies, with the bulk of enrichment taking place at early cosmic epochs (redshift z > 2).^[15] Central dominant (cD) galaxies play a role in enrichment through outflows driven by active galactic nuclei (AGN) activity and galactic winds.^[15] These processes transport enriched gas from stellar populations into the ICM, establishing the observed chemical composition over cosmic time. The bulk of metal enrichment occurred predominantly at high redshifts (z > 2), as indicated by observations and simulations.^[16] Metals in the ICM display a spatially varying distribution, with abundances peaking in cluster cores due to localized outflows from central galaxies and AGN, and becoming flatter toward the outskirts.^[15] Cluster mergers introduce gradients that dilute these peaks by stirring and mixing metal-rich gas on large scales.^[15] Iron abundance maps, expressed as [Fe/H] ≈ -0.5 to 0 (in logarithmic units relative to solar), illustrate this inhomogeneity.^[14]

Observational Methods

X-ray Emission

The X-ray emission from the intracluster medium (ICM) primarily arises from thermal processes in the hot, diffuse plasma, with temperatures typically ranging from 2 to 10 keV. At energies corresponding to kT > 2 keV, thermal bremsstrahlung dominates the spectrum, produced by collisions between electrons and ions in the ionized gas.^[17] Line emission from metals, such as iron and silicon, contributes significantly at lower energies and helps trace chemical enrichment, though its details are covered elsewhere.^[18] The observed X-ray surface brightness S_X is proportional to the square of the electron density n_e and the cooling function \Lambda(T), which encapsulates the temperature-dependent emissivity: S_X \propto n_e^2 \Lambda(T).^[19] This relation allows deprojection to infer gas density profiles from imaging data, linking directly to the ICM's physical characteristics. Spectral fitting of cluster X-ray data using models like APEC (Astrophysical Plasma Emission Code) or MEKAL (Mewe-Kaastra-Liedahl) provides precise measurements of temperature T and metallicity Z, with typical ICM metallicities around 0.3–0.5 solar.^[20] Unresolved point sources, such as active galactic nuclei, can contribute 20–30% to the total flux, requiring careful subtraction for accurate ICM parameters.^[21] Key X-ray observatories have revolutionized ICM studies through high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy. The Chandra X-ray Observatory, operational since 1999, offers sub-arcsecond resolution (down to 0.5") for mapping fine-scale structures like shocks and cavities in the ICM. XMM-Newton, launched in 1999, excels in high-throughput spectroscopy with its Reflection Grating Spectrometers, enabling detailed line diagnostics across cluster extents. The XRISM mission, active since 2023, introduces microcalorimeter technology via its Resolve instrument, achieving energy resolutions of 5 eV and resolving gas velocities down to ~100 km/s to probe turbulent motions in the ICM.^[22] X-ray observations enable mass measurements of galaxy clusters by assuming hydrostatic equilibrium (HSE) for the ICM, where the gas pressure gradient balances gravity. The enclosed mass within radius r is given by

M(<r) = -\frac{r^2}{G \rho} \frac{dP}{dr},

with pressure P derived from the X-ray temperature T and density \rho profiles.^[23] This method typically recovers total masses to within 10–20% accuracy for relaxed clusters, though biases arise in merging systems due to non-thermal support.^[24] Recent advances, including ultra-deep Chandra observations of Abell 2744 in 2024, have detected merger shocks with temperatures up to approximately 10 keV, illuminating the dynamics of multiple subcluster collisions and refining HSE mass estimates in complex environments.^[25] XRISM's early results further constrain shock properties by resolving velocity shifts, enhancing understanding of ICM heating during mergers.^[8]

Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect

The Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (SZ) effect arises from the inverse Compton scattering of cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons by hot electrons in the intracluster medium (ICM), resulting in a distortion of the CMB temperature. In the thermal SZ (tSZ) component, the random thermal motions of the electrons transfer energy to the photons, producing a decrement in the CMB brightness temperature at frequencies below approximately 220 GHz and an increment at higher frequencies. The magnitude of this distortion is given by

\frac{\Delta T}{T_{\rm CMB}} = -2 \left( \frac{kT}{m_e c^2} \right) (\sigma_T n_e l),

where kT is the electron temperature, m_e c^2 is the electron rest energy, \sigma_T is the Thomson cross-section, n_e is the electron density, and l is the path length through the ICM.^[26] This effect provides a direct probe of the ICM electron pressure integrated along the line of sight. The SZ effect encompasses two primary types: the thermal SZ (tSZ), which dominates in relaxed clusters and reflects the ICM temperature and density, and the kinetic SZ (kSZ), which arises from the Doppler shift due to the bulk motion of the cluster relative to the CMB rest frame. The tSZ is quantified by the Compton y-parameter, defined as y \propto \int P_e \, dl, where P_e = n_e k T is the electron pressure; this parameter measures the integrated pressure without dependence on the cluster's distance.^[26] In contrast, the kSZ signal is proportional to the cluster's peculiar velocity and optical depth, \Delta T / T_{\rm CMB} \approx - (v_r / c) \tau, where v_r is the radial velocity and \tau = \sigma_T \int n_e \, dl, making it sensitive to large-scale motions but typically weaker than the tSZ by factors of 10–100. Key observations of the SZ effect have been enabled by dedicated CMB experiments. The Planck satellite, operating from 2009 to 2013, produced the largest SZ-selected cluster catalog to date, the Planck SZ2 (PSZ2) catalog, containing over 1,000 confirmed clusters with integrated y-parameters exceeding $10^{-4}.^[27] Ground-based surveys like the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) and South Pole Telescope (SPT) have extended detections to higher redshifts, identifying clusters up to z \approx 1.5 through their tSZ signatures in targeted fields.^[28] Future facilities, such as the CMB Stage-4 (CMB-S4) experiment, faced major funding challenges in 2025 from U.S. agencies and whose start date remains uncertain, were expected to detect over 10,000 clusters across 40% of the sky, leveraging enhanced sensitivity to faint tSZ signals.^[29] The SZ signal offers unique applications in studying ICM thermodynamics, as its surface brightness is independent of redshift, allowing uniform detection of clusters across cosmic time unlike flux-limited X-ray surveys. This property makes integrated SZ observables, such as the spherically integrated Y_{SZ} = \int y \, d\Omega, powerful mass proxies, with cluster mass scaling as M \propto Y_{SZ}^{5/3} under self-similar assumptions, enabling hydrostatic mass estimates with scatter of 10–20%.^[30] Additionally, resolved SZ profiles constrain ICM pressure distributions, often modeled with the beta profile P(r) \propto [1 + (r/r_c)^2]^{-3\beta/2 + 1/2}, where \beta \approx 0.8 and r_c is the core radius, revealing deviations from isothermality in cluster outskirts.^[31] Recent analyses of the IllustrisTNG simulations in 2025 show good agreement with observed tSZ integrated signals (Compton-y parameter) from clusters, supporting the simulation's fidelity for ICM properties in massive halos.^[32]

Dynamical Processes

Cooling Flows

The intracluster medium (ICM) in the cores of galaxy clusters undergoes radiative cooling primarily through thermal bremsstrahlung and line emission from ionized metals, leading to significant energy losses in dense, hot environments. The cooling timescale is given by t_{\rm cool} = \frac{3/2 \, n k T}{n^2 \Lambda(T)}, where n is the particle density, k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the temperature, and \Lambda(T) is the cooling function; in cluster cores, this typically ranges from $10^8 to $10^9 years, shorter than the Hubble time, implying ongoing gas cooling unless balanced by other processes.^[33] For temperatures above 2 keV, the cooling function approximates \Lambda(T) \approx 10^{-22} (T / 10^7 \, \rm K)^{0.5} \, \rm erg \, cm^3 \, s^{-1}, dominated by bremsstrahlung but modulated by metal abundance through line contributions.^[34] The classical cooling flow model posits an inward radial flow of ICM gas to replenish material that cools and drops out of the hot phase, with mass deposition rates \dot{M} \approx 100{-}1000 \, M_\odot \, \rm yr^{-1} inferred from isobaric cooling assumptions. This model emerged in the 1970s and was substantiated by X-ray observations from the Einstein Observatory, which revealed steep surface brightness profiles in cluster cores indicative of cooling gas. In this framework, gas cools conductively and radiatively as it flows subsonically toward the central galaxy, accumulating metals and potentially fueling star formation or black hole accretion. Observational evidence for cooling flows includes excess soft X-ray emission in cluster cores, such as in the Perseus cluster, where deprojected spectra show temperature gradients consistent with ongoing cooling. Additionally, optical Hα filaments trace cooled gas at temperatures below $10^4 K, often aligned with X-ray structures and spanning scales of tens of kiloparsecs in cool-core clusters like Perseus and Centaurus.^[35]^[36] These signatures correlate spatially, with Hα brightness enhancing in regions of elevated soft X-ray surface brightness, suggesting multiphase cooling.^[37] Despite these indicators, the classical model faces the overcooling catastrophe, where predicted mass deposition rates exceed observations by more than an order of magnitude, with measured \dot{M} often less than 10% of expectations based on X-ray cooling luminosities. Star formation rates in central galaxies are similarly suppressed, at \sim 1{-}10 \, M_\odot \, \rm yr^{-1}, far below cooling predictions. Recent high-resolution spectroscopy from the XRISM mission has revealed multiphase ICM gas spanning $10^4{-}10^7 K in cool cores, indicating fragmented cooling into cooler components rather than a steady monolithic flow. As of 2025, XRISM/Resolve analyses confirm effective mass deposition rates below 10 M_\odot \, \rm yr^{-1} in clusters like Perseus.^[38]^[33]^[39]

Heating Mechanisms

The primary heating mechanism balancing radiative cooling in the intracluster medium (ICM) is feedback from active galactic nuclei (AGN), driven by accretion onto supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at the centers of brightest cluster galaxies. These AGN episodically inject vast amounts of mechanical energy, typically 10^{60}–10^{62} erg over the cluster's lifetime, primarily through relativistic jets that inflate radio lobes and create buoyant bubbles in the ICM.^[40] This energy offsets the cooling luminosity in cluster cores, where gas temperatures can drop below 2 keV without such intervention. Observational evidence for AGN heating comes from Chandra X-ray observations revealing cavities and weak shocks in cool-core clusters. In the Perseus cluster, for instance, inner X-ray cavities associated with the central AGN in NGC 1275 have total energies of approximately 10^{57} erg, with the bubbles rising buoyantly on timescales t_\mathrm{bub} \approx \sqrt{r^3 / (G M(r))}, which align closely with local cooling times of 10^8 years.^[35] These structures demonstrate how jet-driven outflows displace and mix cooler, low-entropy gas, coupling the feedback energy to the ICM through a process akin to "weather" in the cluster atmosphere.^[41] Secondary heating sources play lesser roles. The total energy released by supernovae in cluster member galaxies is approximately 10^{59} erg per cluster, but their effective heating contribution to the ICM is limited due to low coupling efficiency with the diffuse plasma, making it insufficient to balance core cooling rates exceeding 10^{44} erg s^{-1}.^[40]^[42] Thermal conduction from the hotter ICM outskirts can transport heat inward at rates up to 10^{44} erg s^{-1} in massive clusters, but requires high efficiency to prevent core collapse.^[40] Galaxy cluster mergers generate shocks that heat roughly 10–20% of the ICM gas via ram pressure and dissipation, as seen in simulations of events like the Bullet Cluster, though this is transient compared to steady AGN input.^[43] The efficiency of AGN feedback is encoded in the heating rate \dot{E} \approx \epsilon \dot{M} c^2, where \epsilon \approx 0.1 is the accretion efficiency and \dot{M} is the inflow rate, which balances the cooling rate \dot{E}_\mathrm{cool} = \int n_e n_H \Lambda(T) \, dV over the core volume. Recent high-resolution simulations indicate that intermittent AGN outbursts supply about 70% of the required energy, uplifting low-entropy gas parcels and inducing turbulence that sustains quasi-steady heating without overpressurizing the ICM.^[44] This self-regulated process ensures the ICM entropy profile steepens appropriately, matching observations of relaxed clusters.^[40]

Role in Galaxy Clusters

Cluster Evolution

The intracluster medium (ICM) assembles primarily through accretion of intergalactic gas and hierarchical mergers of smaller structures, beginning in protoclusters at redshifts z \approx 2--3. During this early phase, infalling gas from cosmic filaments undergoes virialization as it collapses into the deepening gravitational potential of the forming cluster, leading to shock heating that raises temperatures to kT \sim 1--10 keV. The temperature scales with cluster mass as T \propto M^{2/3}, reflecting the virial theorem for self-gravitating systems where thermal energy balances gravitational potential energy.^[45]^[46]^[47] A landmark observation of this nascent stage came in 2023 with the detection of thermal Sunyaev--Zel'dovich emission from hot gas in the Spiderweb protocluster at z=2.16, marking the earliest confirmed ICM in a forming cluster and indicating partial virialization around 10 billion years ago.^[48] Major mergers between subclusters profoundly reshape the ICM, injecting kinetic energy that drives shocks and turbulence, which mix and reheat the gas while increasing its entropy by 10--30% through dissipation of turbulent motions. These shocks propagate at Mach numbers of 1.5--3, compressing and heating gas to create sharp edges in density and temperature profiles, while turbulence with velocities up to several hundred km s^{-1} stirs the plasma on scales from kiloparsecs to the cluster core. In some cases, such as the merging cluster Abell 2142, sloshing motions induced by minor mergers or core passages generate cold fronts—contact discontinuities where cooler, denser gas from a subcluster core is stripped and displaced but remains intact due to magnetic pressure support.^[49]^[50]^[51] The ICM exhibits multiphase structure throughout its evolution, with cooler phases emerging via thermal instability in regions where cooling times drop below dynamical times, condensing hot gas (T \sim 10^7 K) into $10^4 K clouds that can survive for \sim 10^8 yr before further cooling or disruption. These clouds form preferentially in low-entropy cores or filamentary inflows, contributing to the observed multiphase gas in cluster outskirts and centers. Recent TNG-Cluster simulations, analyzing 352 massive clusters, reveal that the ICM was cooler and more multiphase at z > 1, with cool gas fractions up to 10--20% of total mass, decreasing toward the present due to cumulative heating from mergers and feedback.^[52]^[53]^[54]^[34] Post-merger relaxation occurs over timescales of t_{\rm relax} \approx 1 Gyr, during which shocks and bulk flows dampen, allowing the ICM to approach hydrostatic equilibrium while preserving merger "fossils" such as radial metal abundance gradients from disrupted subclusters. These gradients, with iron peaking at 0.5--1 solar abundances in the core and declining outward, serve as tracers of past enrichment events, as mixing by turbulence is incomplete even after Gyr-scale evolution.^[55]^[56]

Cosmological Implications

The intracluster medium (ICM) serves as a critical probe for cosmological parameters through cluster mass proxies derived from its properties. Hydrostatic mass estimates, M_\mathrm{hydro}, inferred from X-ray observations of the ICM assuming thermal pressure support, systematically underestimate the true cluster mass by 10–20% due to contributions from non-thermal pressure sources such as turbulence and magnetic fields.^[57] This bias, quantified as b \approx 0.2–$0.3 (where true mass M = M_\mathrm{hydro} / (1 - b)), arises from deviations in hydrostatic equilibrium within the ICM. Combining X-ray, Sunyaev–Zel'dovich (SZ), and gravitational lensing measurements mitigates this bias, enabling robust mass calibration that yields constraints on the matter density parameter \Omega_m \approx 0.3, consistent with the \LambdaCDM model.^[58]^[59] The ICM also informs the cosmic baryon budget via its gas mass fraction, f_\mathrm{gas} = M_\mathrm{gas} / M_\mathrm{tot} \approx 0.13 within r_{500}, which approaches the universal baryon fraction at large radii and provides an independent measure of \Omega_b h^2. This value aligns with Big Bang nucleosynthesis predictions and complements cosmic microwave background constraints, such as \Omega_b h^2 = 0.0224 \pm 0.0001 from Planck analyses, ensuring consistency in the baryonic content of the universe.^[60]^[61] At high redshifts (z > 1), ICM properties in galaxy clusters test the growth of structure in \LambdaCDM, with SZ-selected samples constraining the amplitude of matter fluctuations to \sigma_8 \approx 0.81. Recent 2025 studies leveraging SZ cluster catalogs from surveys like eROSITA and ACT further explore resolutions to the Hubble constant (H_0) tension by refining distance indicators and growth rate measurements through ICM pressure profiles.^[58]^[62] ICM entropy profiles exhibit a characteristic "floor" at low temperatures, validating hydrodynamical simulations of cluster formation and calibrating feedback processes. This entropy floor, arising from merger shocks and pre-heated gas, implies efficient early enrichment by supernovae, with metals dispersed into the ICM influencing reionization-era physics.^[63] The abundance of clusters, n(M,z), as traced by ICM observables, follows a form n(M,z) \propto \exp\left(-M / M_* (1+z)^\alpha\right), where M_* and \alpha encode cosmological dependence; fitting this to ICM-selected samples constrains parameters like \Omega_m and \sigma_8.^[59]

n(M,z) \propto \exp\left( -\frac{M}{M_* (1+z)^\alpha} \right)

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[PDF] Revised CMB-S4 Project Plan - Indico Global
Jun 4, 2025 · Science Requirement 3.1: CMB-S4 shall detect at ≥ 5σ all galaxy clusters at z ≥ 1.5 with an integrated. Compton YSZ,500 ≥ 2.4 × 10−5 arcmin2 ...
[31]
X-RAY PROPERTIES OF THE FIRST SUNYAEV–ZEL'DOVICH ...
Using the YX-derived mass estimates, we fit a YSZ–M500 relation and find a slope consistent with the self-similar expectation of YSZ∝M5/3 with a normalization ...
[32]
Sunyaev-Zel'dovich-Measured Pressure Profiles from the Bolocam X ...
Nov 7, 2012 · We describe Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (SZ) effect measurements and analysis of the intracluster medium (ICM) pressure profiles of a set of 45 massive galaxy clusters.
[33]
Mass proxy quality of massive halo properties in the illustrisTNG and ...
Oct 1, 2025 · 2.1.5 Hot gas thermal energy. The tSZ effect is a distortion of the CMB spectrum that arises from inverse Compton scattering of CMB photons off ...
[34]
[PDF] X-ray Spectroscopy of Cooling Clusters
The inferred radiative cooling time of the gas in that peak, where the temperature drops to the center, is much shorter than the age of the cluster, suggesting ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[35]
Physical cool-core condensation radius in massive galaxy clusters
For the hot ICM (kT > 2 keV), the bremsstrahlung emission dominates and the approximation Λ(T)∝T1/2 is usually adopted. When temperatures are low, the number of ...
[36]
deeper X‐ray study of the core of the Perseus galaxy cluster
Given the range in the temperature in the filaments, we try fitting a cooling‐flow model to the spectra, as the gas may be cooling within the filament. We used ...
[37]
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE EXTENDED Hα FILAMENTS IN COOLING ...
We present a high spatial resolution Hα survey of 23 cooling flow clusters using the Maryland Magellan Tunable Filter, covering 1–2 orders of magnitude in ...
[38]
Formation of cold filaments in cooling flow clusters [*]
... Perseus cluster shows a clear correlation between the soft X-ray emission (between 0.5 and $1~{\rm keV}$ ) and the optical filamentary H $\alpha$ structures ...
[39]
SIMULATING THE COOLING FLOW OF COOL-CORE CLUSTERS
Feb 10, 2012 · In addition, the observed star formation rate (e.g., Cardiel et al. 1998) is typically a factor of ∼10–100 times lower than the mass deposition ...
[40]
XRISM reveals complex multi-temperature structures in the Abell ...
Sep 5, 2025 · Abstract. The Resolve micro-calorimeter onboard XRISM is set to significantly advance our understanding of the complex intracluster medium ...
[41]
[0712.0824] Thermal Balance in the Intracluster Medium: Is AGN ...
Dec 6, 2007 · These results strongly suggest that a more dynamic heating process such as feedback from a central black hole is required to generate the properties of ...Missing: Ciotti | Show results with:Ciotti
[42]
Dissecting the turbulent weather driven by mechanical AGN feedback
We dissect the 3D turbulent 'weather' in a high-resolution Eulerian simulation of active galactic nucleus (AGN) feedback, shown to be consistent with multiple ...
[43]
[astro-ph/0701335] Modelling Shock Heating in Cluster Mergers
Jan 11, 2007 · In this paper we focus on the shock heating of the ICM during cluster mergers, with the eventual aim of incorporating this mechanism into semi- ...
[44]
Fountains and storms: the effects of AGN feedback and mergers on ...
AGN feedback is able to quench star formation by reducing gas cooling at ∼10–30 kpc scales and steepen the entropy profile while co-existing with a low entropy ...Missing: weather uplifting
[45]
Galaxy populations of protoclusters in cosmological hydrodynamical ...
This study analyzes galaxy populations in protoclusters at z=2.2 using DIANOGA simulations, comparing them to an average universe, and using 14 re-simulations ...2. Methods · 3. Results · 3.4. Quenched Galaxy...
[46]
Star formation and chemical enrichment in protoclusters
We examine star formation and chemical enrichment in protoclusters (PCs) using cosmological zoom-in hydrodynamic simulations.
[47]
[PDF] The Evolution of X-ray Clusters of Galaxies
cluster virial mass, Mvir, and the ICM temperature: kBT = 1.38 β. Mvir ... Observational data on the Mvir–T relation show consistency with the T ∝ M. 2/3 vir.
[48]
Forming intracluster gas in a galaxy protocluster at a redshift of 2.16
Mar 29, 2023 · This result indicates the presence of a nascent ICM within the Spiderweb protocluster at redshift z = 2.156, around 10 billion years ago.
[49]
Turbulent gas motions in galaxy cluster simulations - Oxford Academic
A crucial issue in describing turbulent fields in the ICM is the distinction between large-scale coherent velocity field and small-scale 'random' motions.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[50]
II. The statistical properties of turbulent motions in massive galaxy ...
Turbulence is found to account for ~20−30 per cent of the thermal energy in merging clusters, and ~5 per cent in relaxed clusters. We compare the energies of ...
[51]
A HIGH FIDELITY SAMPLE OF COLD FRONT CLUSTERS FROM ...
This sample is the subject of an ongoing study aimed at relating cold fronts to cluster merger activity, and understanding how the merging environment affects ...
[52]
cooler past of the intracluster medium in TNG-cluster
We analyse the evolution of cool gas (temperatures ≲ 10 4.5 K) in the ICM of 352 galaxy clusters from the TNG-Cluster simulations, with present-day mass.
[53]
The abundance and origin of cool gas in galaxy clusters in the TNG ...
In this work, we quantify the abundance, spatial distribution, and origin of the cool (T ≤ 104.5 K) gas within clusters. To do so, we combine the TNG-Cluster ...
[54]
Thermal instability and the feedback regulation of hot haloes in ...
Using simple observationally motivated heating prescriptions, we show that local thermal instability (TI) can produce a multiphase medium - with ~ 10 4K cold ...
[55]
[PDF] the impact of merger shocks on cluster gas and galaxy evolution
galaxy groups, events which release into the ICM enormous amounts of energy up to the order of 1064 erg on time scales of 1–2 Gyr (e.g., Sarazin 2002). In ...
[56]
[PDF] Chemical enrichment in groups and clusters - arXiv
Feb 14, 2022 · Other than processes displacing gas from galaxies into the ICM, metals can be freshly produced and mixed into the ICM by the intracluster ...
[57]
Measuring the hydrostatic mass bias in galaxy clusters by combining ...
Deviations from hydrostatic equilibrium are commonly quantified via the hydrostatic mass bias parameter, b, defined as the fractional difference between the ...
[58]
[PDF] Cosmology with Galaxy Clusters - arXiv
May 12, 2025 · Galaxy clusters, the most massive objects, are used in cosmology to study cosmological parameters like matter density and density fluctuations. ...
[59]
COSMOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS FROM GALAXY CLUSTERS IN ...
Nov 18, 2016 · the measured cluster abundance as a function of mass and redshift. ... using cluster samples selected at X-ray (e.g., Vikhlinin et al ...
[60]
Constraining the mass and redshift evolution of the hydrostatic mass ...
We also compare these fgas values to the universal baryon fraction Ωb/Ωm = 0.156±0.03 from Planck 2018 results (Planck Collaboration VI 2020). 2.2 ...
[61]
[PDF] 25. Cosmological Parameters - Particle Data Group
Dec 1, 2023 · Simply adding the. Planck lensing measurement, and with the assumption that the dark energy is a cosmological constant, yields a 68% confidence ...
[62]
The SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey - Astronomy & Astrophysics
The SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey uses cluster number counts to measure structure evolution and investigate cosmological discrepancies, measuring the cosmic ...
[63]
[PDF] The phase-diagram of the IGM and the entropy floor of ... - arXiv
In the same spirit, we suggest the intracluster medium. (ICM) to be a mixture of galaxy-recycled, metal enriched gas and intergalactic gas, shock-heated by the ...