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Kaidu


Kaidu (c. 1230–1301), grandson of and great-grandson of , was a Mongol ruler who led the Ögedeid house and served as khan of the , controlling territories in including and minting coins with his tamgha as evidence of sovereignty.
His most defining conflict was the (1268–1301), a protracted struggle against Kublai Khan's that challenged centralized Mongol authority, allied with figures like to consolidate the , and ultimately contributed to the irreversible division of the empire into autonomous khanates following his death from battle wounds near .

Origins and Early Career

Ancestry and Family Background

Kaidu belonged to the Ögedeid lineage within the clan, as the grandson of (c. 1186–1241), who succeeded as the second Great Khan of the in 1229. Ögedei's reign expanded the empire's administrative and military systems, but his line faced systematic elimination under subsequent Toluid rulers, particularly (r. 1251–1259), who purged many Ögedeid princes to consolidate power. As the son of Kashin—one of Ögedei's lesser-known younger sons—Kaidu (c. 1230–1301) inherited claims to the Ögedeid in , including regions around Almalik (modern area). This paternal descent linked him directly to (c. 1162–1227) as a great-grandson, embedding him in the core imperial aristocracy despite the factional decline of his branch. Historical accounts, including those drawing from Persian chroniclers like Rashid al-Din, portray Kashin's obscurity as a factor in Kaidu's early evasion of purges, allowing the family to retain nomadic bases in the and Ili valleys. Kaidu's maternal background involved Shabkana , a from a Naiman tribal affiliation, which provided alliances amid the empire's multi-ethnic ; however, primary lineages emphasized the paternal descent for legitimacy in khanal claims. This ancestry fueled Kaidu's later assertions of universal Mongol sovereignty against Kublai Khan's reforms, positioning the Ögedeids as guardians of traditional governance over sedentary influences.

Entry into Post-Great Khan Succession Struggles

Kaidu, as a grandson of and heir to the lineage's appanages in Semirechye and adjacent Central Asian territories, initially maintained a position of relative autonomy during the immediate outbreak of the following Möngke Khan's death on August 11, 1259. However, the war's extension into the drew him into direct confrontation with Kublai Khan's expanding authority. In 1261, Alghu, recently installed as by but who rebelled and aligned with Kublai, sought to consolidate control over eastern Chagatai lands, including those bordering Kaidu's holdings; Kaidu resisted this encroachment, leading to armed clashes that positioned him as an opponent to Kublai's proxies. After Alghu's death around 1265–1266 and the ascension of the anti-Kublai Baraq Khan in the , Kaidu forged an initial alliance with Baraq to counter influence, marking a strategic escalation in his involvement in the post-succession fragmentation. This partnership, rooted in shared resistance to Toluid dominance, enabled Kaidu to expand his military reach into Turkistan by 1263, though tensions with Baraq soon emerged. By 1268, Kaidu's raids on frontiers, including incursions into territories and Beshbaliq, provoked direct counteroffensives, solidifying his role as a central figure in the ongoing struggles against Kublai's claim to universal khanate overlordship. These actions reflected Kaidu's commitment to restoring Ögedeid primacy amid the empire's decentralizing dynamics.

Rise to Power in Central Asia

Claim to Turkistan and Initial Conquests

Kaidu, grandson of , first asserted his claim to Turkistan around 1264–1265, drawing on his lineage's traditional appanage in the region and securing military support from Khan of the to counter rivals within the . This alliance enabled him to challenge Alghu, the appointed by , whom Kaidu defeated circa 1265, facilitating his expansion into eastern . Following Alghu's death in 1266, Kaidu seized control of Almalik, the former capital of the Ögedeid ulus located in Semirechye, thereby consolidating his hold over key territories in Turkistan including areas eastward toward Uighuria. By 1268, he had reasserted dominance over Almalik after temporary setbacks, marking an initial conquest that strengthened his base against incursions. Conflicts escalated with , who had usurped the Chagatai throne in 1266 and invaded Kaidu's domains; Kaidu repelled Baraq near Khojand circa 1269, aided by reinforcements from Möngke-Temür of the , and decisively defeated him at on July 22, 1270. These victories allowed Kaidu to gain partial control over , including one-third of its territories by 1269, and extend influence up to the Oxus River. In August–September 1271, Kaidu was proclaimed at a qurultai in the , formalizing his authority over Semirechye, Almalik, and eastern Chagatai lands through alliances with Chagatai princes and the installation of puppet rulers. Subsequent efforts regained after 1273 by supporting Negübei as , further entrenching his conquests in western Turkistan despite ongoing skirmishes, such as with Negübei in early 1274.

Talas Qurultai and Formation of Alliances

In 1269, Kaidu convened the Talas Qurultai, a Mongol assembly held in the vicinity of the Talas River (modern , near sites associated with Yangi ), to address ongoing disputes among the descendants of following Möngke Khan's death in 1259 and the ensuing civil wars. Participants included representatives from the uluses of Ögedei (led by Kaidu), Chagatai (Baraq Khan), (Berkechar with 50,000 troops), and nominally Kublai and Hülegü, though the gathering primarily served Kaidu's aim to consolidate opposition to Kublai's centralizing authority and sinicized rule from the . The qurultai formalized a covenant through oaths sworn on gold tablets, establishing legal borders, dividing pastures, and prohibiting interference in each other's urban appanages beyond tax collection, thereby marking the effective fragmentation of the into semi-independent states. Central to the proceedings was Kaidu's alliance with Baraq Khan, who had repudiated Kublai's suzerainty around 1266; the Talas Covenant divided the , granting Baraq control over and Mawarannahr while Kaidu secured Semirechye, the eastern steppes, and influence over Turkistan, enabling joint resistance against incursions. Kaidu also leveraged ties with the Jochid ulus (), where Berkechar's military presence underscored mutual interests against the and , fostering a coalition that preserved nomadic traditions against Kublai's imperial ambitions. These pacts, while nominally recognizing Tuluid branches like Kublai's, empowered Kaidu as khan of Ögedeid and Chagataid territories by 1269, setting the stage for prolonged warfare. The alliances proved pragmatic but unstable; Kaidu's defeat of Baraq in subsequent clashes (aided by Jochid forces) by 1271 highlighted internal frictions, yet the Talas framework endured, bolstering Kaidu's control over Central Asia until alliances shifted with Duwa's installation as Chagataid khan in 1282. This assembly's outcomes reflected causal dynamics of Mongol politics—kinship rivalries and resource competition—overriding Kublai's universal khanate claims, as evidenced by the rapid devolution into autonomous uluses rather than renewed unity.

Conflict with the Yuan Dynasty

Outbreak of the Kaidu-Kublai War

The Kaidu–Kublai War erupted from longstanding tensions over authority within the fracturing Mongol Empire, particularly Kaidu's rejection of Kublai Khan's centralizing reforms and claims to overlordship following the Toluid Civil War's conclusion in 1264. Kaidu, representing the House of Ögedei, viewed Kublai's Yuan dynasty innovations—such as adopting Chinese administrative practices and relocating the capital to Dadu (modern Beijing)—as deviations from traditional steppe nomadic governance, prioritizing instead decentralized ulus autonomy for Ögedeid and Chagatai lineages. By 1266, Kublai's appointment of Baraq as Chagatai Khan aimed to secure loyalty in Central Asia, yet Baraq, initially allied with Kaidu, defied Yuan directives, launching attacks on Kublai's governors in the Ili River valley and Tarim Basin. Open warfare commenced in 1268 with Kaidu's initiation of raids into Yuan frontiers, targeting outposts near and disrupting trade routes essential to Kublai's western communications. These incursions, involving Ögedeid tumens reinforced by Chagatai dissidents, numbered in the thousands and exploited the Yuan's overextension amid southern campaigns against the . Kublai countered by fortifying the with Han Chinese and Muslim troops under generals like An Tong, but logistical strains from the and mountains limited rapid responses, allowing Kaidu to consolidate gains in Semirechye (modern southeastern ). The raids escalated mutual reprisals, with Yuan forces retaliating against Kaidu's Almalik base, though neither side achieved decisive victories in the initial phase. The Talas Qurultai of spring 1269 crystallized the breach, as Kaidu convened Ögedeid, Chagatai, and even nominal representatives to affirm his leadership over the Mongol "right wing" (western territories), explicitly denying Kublai's universal khanate and rejecting a to the Yuan court. This assembly, held on the Talas River meadows, forged a excluding Toluid loyalists and marked Kaidu's shift from proxy resistance to direct claims, prompting Kublai to declare Kaidu a rebel and mobilize ilkhans like Abaqa for joint operations. The event's defiance, attended by approximately 20,000 warriors, transformed sporadic border clashes into a protracted ideological and territorial struggle, fragmenting Mongol unity irreparably.

Key Military Campaigns and Strategies

Kaidu's military engagements against the were characterized by protracted raids, defensive maneuvers, and opportunistic alliances rather than large-scale pitched battles, leveraging the mobility of Mongol nomadic cavalry to harass Yuan garrisons in northwestern territories. Beginning in the late 1260s, Kaidu initiated invasions into Yuan-controlled regions of , with an early assault on disrupting supply lines and administrative control. These operations exploited the Yuan's overextended frontiers, where Kublai's forces struggled with logistics across vast distances from their Chinese heartland. Throughout the 1270s and 1280s, Kaidu's forces conducted repeated incursions into the , undermining Yuan fortifications established between 1276 and 1283 and preventing full consolidation of authority in . His strategy emphasized , drawing on traditional Mongol composite bows and horse archery to outmaneuver slower Yuan infantry-heavy armies supplemented by Central Asian levies. By allying with Chagatai khans and occasionally the , Kaidu divided Yuan attention, forcing Kublai to divert resources from eastern campaigns and maintain multiple fronts. In the 1290s, following Kublai's death in 1294, Kaidu intensified pressure with offensives that achieved temporary successes against armies in 1300, including advances toward the . However, these gains were reversed in 1301 when forces under inflicted a decisive defeat on Kaidu near the Tarbagatai Mountains, exploiting superior numbers and coordinated assaults to shatter his . Kaidu's overall approach prioritized territorial denial and economic disruption over conquest, sustaining resistance for over three decades through decentralized command and adaptation to steppe terrain advantages.

Zenith of Influence

Territorial Control and Governance

Kaidu exercised de facto authority over the eastern Chagatai Khanate, including Semirechye (modern Zhetysu region), the Ili River valley, Kashgaria (eastern Turkistan), and parts of Transoxania, after defeating Chagatai khan Baraq Khan in 1270 and reducing the Chagatai dynasty to nominal vassalage. His initial territorial base was Qayaliq, from which he expanded into the Almalik (Almaliq) region, establishing his court there and incorporating areas like the Tarim Basin, Tarbagatai mountains, and the upper Irtysh River basin through military campaigns and alliances with local Turkic and Mongol tribes. At its zenith around 1280–1290, Kaidu's domain extended westward to challenge Yuan influence in Mongolia proper, briefly capturing Karakorum in 1277–1278 and asserting control over Ilibalik and surrounding steppe territories, though these gains were contested and temporary due to ongoing warfare. Governance under Kaidu blended traditional Mongol nomadic hierarchies with pragmatic adaptations to sedentary Central Asian societies, emphasizing military loyalty over centralized . He installed puppet Chagatai khans, such as Negübei (r. 1269–1271) and later Mubarak Shah, to legitimize rule without claiming the khanate's throne himself, thereby preserving alliances with Chagatai ulus members while wielding personal command through Ogedeid kin and tribal assemblies (qurultais). Administrative roles were delegated to relatives and trusted noyans (nobles), with Muslim officials—predominantly Hanafi jurists—managing fiscal and judicial affairs in urban centers like Samarqand and , reflecting a tolerance for local Islamic elites to ensure tax collection and stability in conquered territories. Economic control was evidenced by Kaidu's issuance of silver dirhams bearing his name and (seal), minted in Samarqand (dated AH 685/AD 1285–1286) and (AH 685/AD 1286), which standardized and asserted amid fragmented Mongol polities. His regime sustained a mobile ordus (court camp) that facilitated rapid military mobilization, drawing on pastoral resources from domains and tribute from cities, though internal revolts and reliance on limited long-term institutionalization. This structure prioritized anti-Yuan coalitions over deep administrative reform, contributing to the state's viability until Kaidu's death in 1301.

Diplomatic Maneuvers and Internal Challenges

Kaidu solidified his influence through strategic alliances, particularly by installing Duwa as Chagatai Khan in 1282 to resolve ongoing strife among Baraq's sons, who had destabilized Transoxiana after Baraq's death in 1271; this arrangement granted Kaidu de facto oversight while allowing Duwa nominal sovereignty, fostering joint military efforts against shared foes. Duwa's loyalty proved instrumental, as he supplied troops for Kaidu's campaigns and coordinated raids into Yuan territories, extending their coalition's reach across Central Asia by the late 1280s. Diplomatic overtures to the further bolstered Kaidu's position, with forging a pact around 1267 following Baraq's failed incursion into lands; this entente, rooted in mutual opposition to Kublai's centralizing reforms and the Ilkhans' expansion, enabled resource sharing and diverted attention northward. Even after 's death in 1280, successors like maintained cordial ties until broader peace negotiations in the 1290s, allowing Kaidu to focus southward without eastern threats. Internally, Kaidu grappled with recurrent succession disputes in the , where puppet khans like Negübei rebelled against his dominance in the 1270s, prompting swift suppression and replacement with Būqa Temür to restore order amid nomadic infighting. These upheavals, compounded by local emirs' resistance to Ögödeid overreach, strained administrative control over sedentary regions like Samarqand and , where tax revolts and tribal defections eroded cohesion during prolonged warfare. Kaidu's reliance on familial networks mitigated some fractures, but the integration of diverse Turkic and Mongol factions under his rule often devolved into proxy conflicts, limiting the durability of his governance until Duwa's stabilizing influence took hold.

Decline, Death, and Succession

Mounting Defeats and Yuan Counteroffensives

Following Kublai Khan's death in 1294, assumed the Yuan throne amid Kaidu's opportunistic incursions into Mongolian territories, including repeated threats to the capital at . Temür prioritized stabilizing the northern frontiers, dispatching commanders to fortify defenses and launch targeted counteroperations against Kaidu's raiding forces. These efforts, leveraging superior logistics and fortified positions in the region and frontiers, began eroding Kaidu's momentum by the late 1290s, as his prolonged campaigns strained alliances and resources among Ögedeid and Chagatai contingents. In 1300, Kaidu achieved a temporary success by defeating a Yuan detachment under Prince Khayishan south of the , which emboldened him to mobilize a coalition army exceeding 100,000 warriors, including reinforcements from ally Khan of Chagatai, for a bold offensive aimed at seizing and undermining legitimacy. However, Yuan counteroffensives, coordinated from Helin () under experienced generals familiar with warfare, intercepted Kaidu's advance. The ensuing clash near in 1301 resulted in heavy losses for Kaidu's forces, with the khan himself sustaining mortal wounds amid the rout. Kaidu's retreat exposed fractures in his coalition, as Duwa withdrew to face Ilkhanid pressures in the west, leaving Ögedeid remnants vulnerable to Yuan pursuit. Temür's forces capitalized on this, reclaiming disputed borderlands and compelling submissions from Kaidu's subordinate commanders by mid-1301. These victories stemmed from Yuan advantages in sustained supply lines and integration of engineering for sieges and fortifications, contrasting Kaidu's reliance on nomadic mobility that faltered against entrenched defenses. The khan's death later that year precipitated the collapse of organized resistance, enabling Temür to negotiate truces with surviving khanates by 1304.

Final Years and Demise

In the closing years of his reign, Kaidu intensified military pressure on the dynasty's northwestern frontiers, leveraging alliances with the under to launch coordinated offensives. By 1300, these efforts yielded tactical victories, enabling Kaidu to assemble a substantial force aimed at penetrating deeper into Yuan-controlled Mongolian territories. This escalation reflected Kaidu's persistent strategy of exploiting Yuan overextension, though it strained his resources amid ongoing internal dissent among Ögedeid and allied factions. The decisive turning point came in 1301 during a major confrontation near , where armies under repelled Kaidu's invasion. Kaidu sustained mortal wounds in the engagement and perished soon after while attempting to retreat, marking the effective end of his three-decade resistance. His ally was also gravely injured in the same battle, weakening the coalition's immediate command structure. Kaidu's demise precipitated a leadership vacuum within the Ögedeid House and its supporters; although sons such as Sarban initially vied for influence, assumed control of the broader anti- front. However, without Kaidu's unifying authority, the coalition fragmented, culminating in Duwa's submission to Yuan overlordship by 1304 and the gradual incorporation of Kaidu's territories into Yuan administration by 1310. This outcome underscored the fragility of Kaidu's nomadic power base, reliant on personal charisma and transient alliances rather than institutionalized governance.

Family and Personal Life

Immediate Kin and Household

Kaidu was the son of Kashin (also spelled Qashin or Kashi), the fifth son of (r. 1229–1241). Kashin had married Sanga , by whom Kaidu was born around 1235. Details on Kaidu's siblings remain sparse in historical records, with no prominent brothers or sisters documented as playing significant roles in Mongol politics. As a Mongol of the Ögedeid line, Kaidu maintained a household typical of khanly courts, featuring multiple wives and concubines, though specific names and numbers are not recorded in primary sources. His most noted immediate kin was his daughter (c. 1260–after 1306), celebrated for her physical strength and military acumen; she reportedly wrestled suitors for her hand, demanding they defeat her to win her of 100 horses, and accompanied Kaidu on campaigns. Kaidu fathered several sons, including (d. c. 1301), who briefly led Ögedeid forces after his father's death before being defeated by forces. Another son, Chapar, succeeded Kaidu as nominal of the Ögedeid-Chagatayid coalition in 1301, though his rule lasted only until 1309 amid ongoing pressures. These offspring helped perpetuate Ögedeid influence in into the early 14th century.

Notable Offspring and Their Roles

Kaidu fathered numerous offspring, including multiple sons who played roles in the succession struggles and inter-Mongol conflicts following his death in 1301. His eldest son, Chapar, assumed leadership of the Ögedeid faction with the support of , who enthroned him in 1303 as a counterweight to influence; Chapar continued his father's resistance but faced defeats by 1309, leading to his eventual flight and the fragmentation of Ögedeid power. Another son, Orus, was Kaidu's preferred successor, backed by his sister , who guarded their father's tomb and advocated for him amid rival claims; however, bypassed Orus in favor of Chapar, sidelining him from immediate leadership. Sarban, stationed by Kaidu south of the Oxus River around 1290, commanded forces in regional campaigns and later sought refuge in the under Öljeitü after 1301, participating in invasions against Duwa's Chagataids in 1295 alongside his father. Among Kaidu's daughters, (c. 1260–post-1306) stood out for her military involvement, reportedly fighting in her father's armies, advising on strategy, and challenging suitors to wrestling matches as a condition for marriage; historical accounts, drawing from Persian chroniclers like Rashid al-Din, note Kaidu's intent to name her heir, which she declined in favor of a male successor, though her exploits may include legendary elements amplified in later narratives. Later descendants included Danishmendji, who briefly ruled as Chagatai khan from 1346 to 1348, extending the family's influence into the fractured post-imperial khanates.

Historical Assessments and Legacy

Role in Mongol Empire Fragmentation

Kaidu's defiance against Kublai Khan's claim to universal sovereignty exemplified and accelerated the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into autonomous khanates. Emerging as leader of the around 1263, Kaidu allied with dissident factions, including Chagatai princes, to challenge the court's authority following the (1260–1264). His refusal to submit enabled him to consolidate control over Central Asian territories, effectively partitioning the eastern Chagatai ulus from influence and preventing Kublai's full reunification efforts. The protracted (1268–1301) entrenched these divisions by diverting Mongol resources into internecine conflict rather than external expansion or centralization. Kaidu's military successes, such as victories in 1270s campaigns against Yuan forces in the Ili Valley, allowed him to install puppet rulers like Mubarak Shah (r. 1266–1266, wait no, dates) and convene rival kurultais that legitimized alternative successions outside Kublai's lineage. This rivalry weakened the Great Khan's nominal overlordship, as Kaidu's ulus operated independently, issuing coinage and administering justice without oversight, as evidenced by mints in and Samarqand producing dated issues under his name from the 1280s. By sustaining opposition until his death in 1301, Kaidu ensured the irreversible solidification of four primary khanates—Yuan, Golden Horde, Ilkhanate, and Chagatai—with his Central Asian domain functioning as a de facto fifth power center that resisted integration. Although brief reconciliation occurred in 1304 under Kublai's successor Temür, the structural autonomy of peripheral uluses persisted, marking the end of unified Mongol imperial governance. Historians attribute this outcome partly to Kaidu's strategic alliances and nomadic mobility, which exploited the empire's vast geography against centralized Yuan administration.

Modern Historiographical Debates

Modern historiography on Kaidu has shifted from dismissing him as a mere insurgent to appraising his establishment of a durable amid the Mongol Empire's dissolution. Earlier European and Chinese-influenced accounts, often reliant on pro-Yuan materials, depicted Kaidu's protracted conflict with (1268–1301) as emblematic of destructive fratricide that hastened imperial fragmentation, attributing his success to guerrilla tactics rather than statecraft. These interpretations, shaped by sources sympathetic to the Yuan court, underscored Kaidu's alleged violations of Chinggisid norms, such as manipulating puppets, while downplaying his consolidation of eastern from the to . In contrast, post-1990s scholarship emphasizes Kaidu's institutional innovations and resilience, portraying him as a pragmatic architect of an "independent Mongol state" that blended mobility with taxation and trade. Michal Biran's 1997 monograph reconstructs Kaidu's rule through , , and numismatic evidence, arguing he sustained by allying with diverse groups—including Ögedeids, Chagataids, and even temporary Ilkhanid foes—while issuing standardized coinage from mints like Samarqand (dated AH 685/AD 1286) and , signaling fiscal autonomy absent in purely nomadic warlordism. Biran contends this challenges the rebel archetype, positing Kaidu's longevity (ruling effectively from 1269 to 1301) reflected ideological commitment to Ögedeid primacy and nomadic against Kublai's centralized, China-oriented , though she cautions that adversarial sources like al-Din (writing under Ilkhanid patronage allied to ) inflate his opportunism. Ongoing debates center on causality in empire decline: did Kaidu's defiance preserve a viable steppe alternative, delaying full sedentarization and influencing later polities like the Chagatai Khanate's eastern branch, or did it irreparably entrench ulus divisions post-1269 Talas qurultai? Pro-traditionalist views credit him with resisting "sinicization" that alienated core Mongol elites, evidenced by his avoidance of urban capitals and reliance on mobile ordus, yet critics highlight self-interested maneuvers, such as installing puppet khans (e.g., Baraq Khan, 1266–1269), as evidence of raw ambition over principled conservatism. The scarcity of pro-Kaidu chronicles—destroyed or unwritten due to his non-sedentary court—necessitates triangulating biased Persian/Chinese texts with artifacts like tamga seals, fostering caution against over-romanticizing his legacy while affirming his pivotal role in rendering Mongol unity nominal after Möngke's 1259 death.

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