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LC circuit

An LC circuit, also known as a resonant circuit or tank circuit, is an electrical circuit consisting of an inductor (denoted by L) and a capacitor (denoted by C) connected together, either in series or parallel, that enables sustained electrical oscillations by exchanging energy between the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of the capacitor.^[1] In an ideal LC circuit without resistive elements, these oscillations occur indefinitely at a characteristic resonant angular frequency given by \omega = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}}, corresponding to a cyclic frequency of f = \frac{1}{2\pi \sqrt{LC}}.^[2] The behavior of an LC circuit is governed by a second-order linear differential equation, \frac{d^2 I}{dt^2} + \frac{1}{LC} I = 0, where I is the current, leading to sinusoidal solutions for both current and voltage that are 90 degrees out of phase.^[2] At resonance, the circuit's impedance reaches an extremum—minimum in series configuration and maximum in parallel—allowing it to selectively amplify or filter signals at the resonant frequency while attenuating others.^[3] This resonance phenomenon arises from the inductive reactance X_L = \omega L equaling the capacitive reactance X_C = \frac{1}{\omega C} at \omega = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}}, resulting in zero net reactance.^[3] LC circuits form the basis for numerous electronic applications due to their ability to generate, tune, and filter specific frequencies.^[4] They are widely used in radio transmitters and receivers for tuning to particular stations by adjusting the resonant frequency to match the carrier signal.^[5] In oscillator circuits, such as those in RF applications, LC tanks provide stable sinusoidal outputs with low phase noise.^[4] Additionally, they serve as bandpass or bandstop filters in audio systems, like crossover networks that direct low frequencies to woofers and high frequencies to tweeters, and in power electronics for harmonic suppression.^[2]

Fundamentals

Terminology

An inductor, denoted by the symbol L, is a passive electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. The inductance L is measured in henries (H), where one henry is defined as the inductance that induces an electromotive force of one volt when the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second.^[6] Inductors are typically constructed as coils of wire to enhance the magnetic field storage.^[7] A capacitor, denoted by the symbol C, is a passive electrical component that stores energy in an electric field between two conductive plates separated by an insulating dielectric material.^[8] The capacitance C is measured in farads (F), where one farad represents the capacitance of a capacitor that holds one coulomb of charge per volt of potential difference.^[9] In LC circuits, the interplay between the inductor and capacitor allows for the oscillation of energy between magnetic and electric fields. Resonance in an LC circuit refers to the condition where the circuit exhibits maximum response, analogous to the natural oscillation in mechanical systems like a pendulum, occurring at a specific frequency determined by the inductance and capacitance values.^[10] The natural frequency is the frequency at which the circuit oscillates freely without external driving forces.^[11] The angular frequency, denoted \omega, quantifies the oscillation rate in radians per second and is related to the natural frequency f by \omega = 2\pi f.^[12] Standard notations in LC circuit analysis include q for electric charge (in coulombs), i for electric current (in amperes), v or V for electric potential difference or voltage (in volts), and t for time (in seconds).^[13] The relationship between charge and current is given by i = \frac{dq}{dt}, reflecting the rate of charge flow.

Basic Operation

An LC circuit enables the continuous exchange of energy between an inductor and a capacitor connected in series, without the need for an external power source in the ideal case. The capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field between its plates, proportional to the square of the charge stored, while the inductor stores energy in the magnetic field created by the current flowing through it, proportional to the square of the current. The oscillation begins when the capacitor is charged to an initial voltage, causing it to discharge through the inductor, which initiates a current flow. As the capacitor discharges completely, all electric energy transfers to the inductor's magnetic field. The inductor then opposes the cessation of current due to its inherent property, continuing to drive charge onto the capacitor plates in the opposite direction, thereby recharging it with reversed polarity. This cyclic transfer of energy—electric to magnetic and back—sustains the oscillation indefinitely in the absence of losses.^[12] The period of this oscillation, which is the time for one complete cycle, depends solely on the inductance L (in henries) and capacitance C (in farads) of the components, with larger values of L or C resulting in a longer period. Specifically, the period is given by

T = 2\pi \sqrt{LC}.

This natural period corresponds to the circuit's resonant frequency. In an ideal LC circuit without resistance, the resulting behavior is purely sinusoidal and undamped, with both the capacitor's charge and the inductor's current varying harmonically at the oscillation frequency, analogous to simple harmonic motion in mechanical systems.^[14]

Resonance

Resonance Phenomenon

In an LC circuit driven by an alternating voltage source, resonance is the condition where the driving frequency matches the circuit's natural frequency, leading to maximum energy exchange between the inductor's magnetic field and the capacitor's electric field. This phenomenon arises because the circuit efficiently stores and transfers energy between these two forms without significant losses in the ideal case, resulting in sustained oscillations at enhanced amplitude.^[15]^[12] Physically, resonance manifests differently depending on the circuit configuration. In a series LC circuit, the total impedance reaches its minimum value at the resonant frequency, permitting the maximum possible current to flow through the circuit for a given driving voltage. Conversely, in a parallel LC circuit, the impedance achieves its maximum at resonance, causing the voltage across the parallel combination to peak while the current from the source is minimized. These behaviors stem from the cancellation of inductive and capacitive reactances at the resonant frequency.^[16]^[17] The resonant angular frequency \omega_0 is derived by equating the magnitudes of the inductive reactance X_L = \omega L and capacitive reactance X_C = 1/(\omega C), which represent the opposing effects of the inductor and capacitor on the alternating current. Setting \omega L = 1/(\omega C) yields \omega^2 = 1/(LC), so \omega_0 = 1/\sqrt{LC}. This frequency corresponds exactly to the natural angular frequency of free oscillations in the undriven LC circuit.^[18]^[19] When the driving frequency equals \omega_0, the circuit's response is amplified, with current and voltage oscillating in phase and achieving peak amplitudes, enabling applications like frequency selection in filters. Off-resonance, the response amplitude diminishes, and a phase difference emerges between the driving voltage and the circuit current, reducing energy transfer efficiency. The sharpness of the resonance peak is quantified by the quality factor Q.^[20]^[21]

Quality Factor

The quality factor, denoted as Q, quantifies the efficiency of energy storage versus dissipation in an LC circuit, defined as Q = 2\pi \times \frac{\text{energy stored}}{\text{energy dissipated per cycle}}. This measure arises from the oscillatory behavior where reactive components (inductor and capacitor) store energy, while resistive elements cause losses.^[22] For a series RLC configuration, the quality factor simplifies to Q = \frac{\omega_0 L}{R}, where \omega_0 is the resonant angular frequency, L is the inductance, and R is the series resistance; an equivalent form applies to parallel configurations as Q = \frac{R}{\omega_0 L}.^[23] Higher values of Q indicate less damping and longer energy persistence in oscillations.^[24] In practical LC circuits, the quality factor is primarily limited by the resistance R, which includes both intentional components and unintended ohmic losses in wires or connections.^[23] Parasitic losses further degrade Q, such as skin effect in inductors at high frequencies, eddy currents in magnetic cores, or dielectric dissipation in capacitors.^[25] These factors collectively reduce the effective Q, with minimizing R and optimizing component materials being key to achieving higher values, often through the use of high-conductivity conductors or low-loss dielectrics.^[26] The quality factor directly governs the resonance bandwidth, given by \Delta \omega = \frac{\omega_0}{Q}, where \Delta \omega represents the full width at half-maximum of the power response curve.^[23] This relation implies that a larger Q results in a narrower bandwidth, yielding a sharper resonance peak centered at the resonant frequency \omega_0.^[27] High-Q circuits thus provide greater frequency selectivity, enabling discrimination between closely spaced signals, while low-Q circuits exhibit broader bandwidths, which may be preferable for applications tolerating wider frequency ranges but offer reduced discrimination.^[28] For instance, typical air-core inductors can achieve Q > 100, contrasting with ferrite-core types where Q might fall below 50 due to higher losses.^[26]

Circuit Configurations

Series LC Circuit

A series LC circuit consists of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) connected in series, typically driven by an alternating current (AC) voltage source. This configuration forms a basic resonant network where the inductive and capacitive elements interact to influence the overall circuit behavior. The total impedance Z of the ideal series LC circuit, neglecting any parasitic resistance, is the phasor sum of the inductive reactance j\omega L and the capacitive reactance \frac{1}{j\omega C}, yielding

Z = j\omega L + \frac{1}{j\omega C} = j\left( \omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C} \right).

This purely imaginary impedance indicates that the circuit is reactive, with no real power dissipation in the ideal case. The magnitude of the impedance is |Z| = \left| \omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C} \right|, which varies with the angular frequency \omega of the applied voltage.^[29] Resonance in a series LC circuit occurs at the angular frequency \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}}, where the inductive reactance equals the capacitive reactance (\omega_0 L = \frac{1}{\omega_0 C}). At this resonant frequency, the net reactance cancels out, resulting in Z = 0 and |Z| = 0, effectively making the circuit behave like a short circuit. Consequently, for a fixed source voltage V, the current I = \frac{V}{Z} reaches its maximum value, theoretically infinite in the ideal lossless case. This condition maximizes power transfer through the circuit and is fundamental to applications requiring selective frequency response. The resonance phenomenon underscores the series LC circuit's role as a bandpass filter, where current peaks sharply at \omega_0.^[30] The voltage distribution across the components in a series LC circuit exhibits a notable characteristic known as voltage magnification, particularly at resonance. The voltage across the inductor is V_L = I \cdot j\omega L, and across the capacitor is V_C = I \cdot \frac{1}{j\omega C}. At \omega = \omega_0, both magnitudes are |V_L| = |V_C| = I \cdot \omega_0 L = I \cdot \frac{1}{\omega_0 C}, which can significantly exceed the source voltage V due to the amplified current. In the ideal scenario, this magnification is unbounded, as I becomes infinite; however, practical limitations from inherent resistances prevent true infinity but still allow voltages several times larger than the input. This effect arises because the reactive voltages oppose each other, with their vector sum equaling the source voltage, enabling energy to oscillate efficiently between the inductor's magnetic field and the capacitor's electric field.^[3] The phasor diagram for a series LC circuit at resonance illustrates the phase relationships clearly. The source voltage phasor \mathbf{V} aligns in phase with the current phasor \mathbf{I}, as the impedance is purely real (zero reactance). The inductor voltage phasor \mathbf{V_L} leads \mathbf{I} by 90°, pointing upward in the phasor plane, while the capacitor voltage phasor \mathbf{V_C} lags \mathbf{I} by 90°, pointing downward. Since |\mathbf{V_L}| = |\mathbf{V_C}|, these two phasors are equal in length but 180° out of phase, canceling each other such that their sum is the horizontal \mathbf{V}. This diagram highlights the balanced opposition of reactive voltages, confirming the in-phase condition and minimum impedance at resonance. Below resonance (\omega < \omega_0), the diagram shows \mathbf{V_L} shorter than \mathbf{V_C}, resulting in a net capacitive circuit with current leading voltage; above resonance, the reverse holds for an inductive response.^[31]

Parallel LC Circuit

A parallel LC circuit consists of an inductor L and a capacitor C connected in parallel across a voltage source. This configuration allows the same voltage to appear across both components, while the total current from the source divides between the branches. The total admittance Y of the ideal parallel LC circuit is the sum of the individual admittances:

Y = j\omega C + \frac{1}{j\omega L} = j\left(\omega C - \frac{1}{\omega L}\right),

where \omega is the angular frequency of the applied voltage. This admittance expression highlights the purely imaginary nature of the circuit's response in the absence of resistance.^[32]^[3] Resonance occurs in the parallel LC circuit when the inductive and capacitive susceptances cancel each other, resulting in zero imaginary part of Y (purely real admittance approaching zero for ideal components). The resonant angular frequency \omega_0 is given by

\omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}},

which is identical to that of the series LC configuration. At \omega = \omega_0, the circuit exhibits maximum impedance magnitude |Z| = 1/|Y|, approaching infinity in the ideal case, leading to minimum total current drawn from the source for a given applied voltage. This high-impedance state makes the parallel LC circuit behave like an open circuit at resonance.^[32]^[3] At resonance, the current through the inductor I_L = V / (j\omega_0 L) and through the capacitor I_C = j\omega_0 C V are equal in magnitude but 180° out of phase, effectively canceling each other in the total current. Each branch current can significantly exceed the source current I, with the magnification factor equal to the quality factor Q = \omega_0 L / R (where R represents any small series resistance in practice). This phenomenon, known as current magnification or circulating current, amplifies the energy exchange between L and C without increasing the input current.^[32] The phasor diagram for parallel resonance illustrates the source voltage \vec{V} as the reference phasor. The total current \vec{I} is in phase with \vec{V} and minimal in magnitude. The inductor current \vec{I_L} lags \vec{V} by 90°, while the capacitor current \vec{I_C} leads \vec{V} by 90°; their vector sum equals \vec{I}, demonstrating the cancellation that results in high impedance.^[33]

Time-Domain Analysis

Differential Equation

In the analysis of an ideal LC circuit, it is assumed that there is no resistance or other dissipative elements, allowing for undamped oscillations without energy loss.^[2] For a series LC circuit, Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) is applied around the loop, stating that the sum of the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor equals zero in the absence of an external source.^[34] The voltage across the inductor is given by v_L = L \frac{di}{dt}, where L is the inductance and i is the current, while the voltage across the capacitor is v_C = \frac{1}{C} \int i \, dt, where C is the capacitance.^[35] Applying KVL yields the integro-differential equation:

L \frac{di}{dt} + \frac{1}{C} \int i \, dt = 0.

^[2] To convert this into a standard differential equation, define the charge q on the capacitor such that i = \frac{dq}{dt}. Substituting gives \frac{di}{dt} = \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} and \int i \, dt = q, resulting in the second-order ordinary differential equation:

L \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + \frac{q}{C} = 0,

or equivalently,

\frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + \frac{1}{LC} q = 0.

^[34] This equation is a second-order linear homogeneous ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients, characterizing the oscillatory behavior of the circuit.^[35]

General Solution

The differential equation governing the charge q(t) on the capacitor in an ideal LC circuit is \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + \omega_0^2 q = 0, where \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} is the natural angular frequency. To solve this second-order linear homogeneous differential equation, assume a solution of the form q(t) = e^{rt}, leading to the characteristic equation r^2 + \omega_0^2 = 0.^[34] The roots of this equation are purely imaginary: r = \pm j \omega_0.^[34] Consequently, the general solution for the charge is q(t) = A \cos(\omega_0 t) + B \sin(\omega_0 t), where A and B are constants determined by the system's initial conditions. This solution can also be expressed in amplitude-phase form as q(t) = Q \cos(\omega_0 t + \phi), where Q = \sqrt{A^2 + B^2} is the amplitude and \phi = \tan^{-1}(B/A) is the phase angle, both likewise set by initial conditions.^[34] The corresponding current i(t) = \frac{dq}{dt} in the phase form is i(t) = -\omega_0 Q \sin(\omega_0 t + \phi), reflecting the 90-degree phase shift between charge and current in the oscillation. The period of oscillation is T = \frac{2\pi}{\omega_0} = 2\pi \sqrt{LC}, independent of the amplitude.^[34]

Initial Conditions

In an LC circuit, the initial conditions are specified by the initial charge Q_0 on the capacitor and the initial current I_0 through the inductor at time t = 0. These conditions are essential for determining the arbitrary constants in the general solution of the circuit's differential equation, ensuring the solution matches the physical state at the start of oscillation. The general solution for the charge on the capacitor can be expressed in the form q(t) = A \cos(\omega_0 t) + B \sin(\omega_0 t), where \omega_0 = 1 / \sqrt{LC} is the angular resonant frequency. Applying the initial charge gives q(0) = A = Q_0. The initial current relates to the time derivative: i(t) = dq/dt, so i(0) = \omega_0 B = I_0, yielding B = I_0 / \omega_0. Alternatively, in amplitude-phase form, q(t) = Q \cos(\omega_0 t + \phi), the conditions determine Q_0 = Q \cos \phi and I_0 = -\omega_0 Q \sin \phi, allowing solution for Q and \phi.^[14].pdf) Common scenarios illustrate these applications. For a fully charged capacitor with no initial current (Q_0 nonzero, I_0 = 0), \phi = 0 and Q = Q_0, so the charge oscillates as q(t) = Q_0 \cos(\omega_0 t), starting from maximum and discharging through the inductor. Conversely, if the capacitor starts uncharged (Q_0 = 0) but the inductor carries initial current I_0, then \phi = -\pi/2 and Q = I_0 / \omega_0, giving q(t) = (I_0 / \omega_0) \sin(\omega_0 t), with the current initiating the charging process. These cases highlight how initial conditions dictate the phase and amplitude of the oscillation.^[11]^[36] The initial conditions also verify energy conservation in the ideal LC circuit, where total energy remains constant as it exchanges between electric form in the capacitor and magnetic form in the inductor. The initial total energy is \frac{1}{2} L I_0^2 + \frac{Q_0^2}{2C}, which equals the peak energy in either component during oscillation, such as \frac{Q^2}{2C} at maximum charge. This conservation confirms the constants' values align with the system's undamped dynamics.^[37]

Frequency-Domain Analysis

Impedance Calculation

In the frequency domain, analysis of LC circuits under sinusoidal steady-state conditions employs phasor representation to compute impedance, facilitating the determination of voltage-current relationships without solving time-dependent differential equations. The phasor impedance of an inductor is given by Z_L = j \omega L, where j is the imaginary unit, \omega is the angular frequency in radians per second, and L is the inductance in henries; this purely imaginary value reflects the 90-degree phase lead of voltage over current.^[38] Similarly, the phasor impedance of a capacitor is Z_C = \frac{1}{j \omega C}, where C is the capacitance in farads, indicating a 90-degree phase lag of voltage behind current.^[38] For a series LC circuit, the total phasor impedance is the vector sum of the individual components:

Z_s = Z_L + Z_C = j \left( \omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C} \right).

This expression shows that the impedance is purely reactive and varies with frequency, becoming zero at the resonance condition where \omega L = \frac{1}{\omega C}, or \omega = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}}; at this point, the magnitude |Z_s| \to 0 and the phase angle is zero, allowing maximum current for a given voltage.^[39] The phase of Z_s is +90 degrees for frequencies below resonance (inductive dominance) and -90 degrees above resonance (capacitive dominance).^[39] In a parallel LC circuit, the total phasor impedance is derived from the parallel combination of admittances (reciprocals of impedances):

Z_p = \frac{1}{\frac{1}{Z_L} + \frac{1}{Z_C}} = \frac{1}{j \left( \omega C - \frac{1}{\omega L} \right)} = -\frac{j}{\omega C - \frac{1}{\omega L}}.

At resonance, the term in the denominator vanishes, yielding |Z_p| \to \infty, which corresponds to minimum current for a given voltage and a zero phase angle; the phase is +90 degrees below resonance (inductive) and -90 degrees above resonance (capacitive).^[40]^[3] These impedance formulations underpin AC circuit analysis by enabling the application of Kirchhoff's laws in phasor domain, where voltages and currents are treated as complex numbers, and Ohm's law extends to \mathbf{V} = \mathbf{I} \mathbf{Z}.^[41] They are particularly vital for deriving transfer functions, such as voltage gain or current response, in frequency-domain models of filters and tuned circuits, providing insight into bandwidth and selectivity without transient considerations.^[41]

Laplace Transform Approach

The Laplace transform provides a powerful method for analyzing LC circuits by converting time-domain differential equations into algebraic equations in the s-domain, facilitating the incorporation of initial conditions and the study of transient responses.^[42] For a series LC circuit, the governing differential equation in terms of charge q(t) on the capacitor is L \frac{d^2 q}{dt^2} + \frac{q}{C} = v(t), where v(t) is the applied voltage.^[43] Applying the unilateral Laplace transform yields L s^2 Q(s) - L s q(0) - L i(0) + \frac{Q(s)}{C} = V(s), where Q(s) = \mathcal{L}\{q(t)\}, i(0) = \frac{dq}{dt}(0), and the initial conditions q(0) and i(0) are directly embedded in the transformed equation.^[44] This form simplifies solving for Q(s) as Q(s) = \frac{V(s) + L s q(0) + L i(0)}{L s^2 + 1/C}, highlighting the circuit's response to both input and initials.^[45] In driven LC circuits, the transfer function H(s) = \frac{V_\text{out}(s)}{V_\text{in}(s)} can be derived from the s-domain equivalent circuit, where inductors and capacitors become impedances sL and $1/(sC), respectively.^[42] For a series LC configuration with output across the capacitor, H(s) = \frac{1/(sC)}{sL + 1/(sC)} = \frac{1}{s^2 LC + 1}, representing a second-order low-pass filter in the Laplace domain.^[43] Similarly, for output across the inductor, H(s) = \frac{sL}{sL + 1/(sC)} = \frac{s^2 LC}{s^2 LC + 1}, a high-pass form.^[46] To obtain the time-domain solution, the inverse Laplace transform is applied to Q(s) or the relevant output. The denominator s^2 + \omega_0^2 = 0, where \omega_0 = 1/\sqrt{LC}, yields poles at s = \pm j \omega_0, resulting in a sinusoidal response q(t) = A \cos(\omega_0 t) + B \sin(\omega_0 t) for zero input, with constants A and B determined by initial conditions.^[44] For driven cases, partial fraction decomposition around these poles reveals both transient oscillatory terms and steady-state components matching the input.^[45] This approach excels in handling initial conditions seamlessly through the transform properties, avoiding the need for separate homogeneous and particular solutions as in direct time-domain methods.^[47] It also readily extends to RLC circuits by adding a resistive term R s in the denominator, enabling analysis of damped transients without reformulating the core framework.^[48]

Applications

Tuned Circuits

Tuned circuits employ LC configurations to selectively respond to specific frequencies, leveraging the resonance principle where the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other out. In radio receivers, this selectivity is achieved by adjusting either the capacitance or inductance to tune the circuit to the desired station frequency, given by the formula f = \frac{1}{2\pi \sqrt{LC}} where f is the resonant frequency in hertz, L is the inductance in henrys, and C is the capacitance in farads.^[49]^[50] Variable capacitors, often with rotating plates, allow users to continuously vary C and thus shift the resonant frequency across the AM or FM band, enabling the circuit to pick out a particular broadcast signal from the multitude received by the antenna.^[51]^[52] As a bandpass filter, the LC tuned circuit acts as a selective element in receivers by passing signals near the resonant frequency while attenuating others, with the bandwidth determined by the circuit's quality factor Q. Parallel LC configurations, known as tank circuits, exhibit high impedance at resonance, effectively isolating the desired frequency band in applications like superheterodyne receivers where intermediate frequency stages rely on such filtering for signal clarity.^[52]^[49] For instance, in a typical AM receiver, the tuned LC front-end rejects adjacent channel interference, ensuring the demodulator processes only the targeted signal.^[50] Crystal radios exemplify simple tuned LC applications, where a parallel LC circuit connected to a long-wire antenna and a diode detector receives AM broadcasts without external power. Tuning is accomplished by varying the capacitor or tapping the inductor coil to adjust the resonant frequency to match a station's carrier, typically in the 530–1610 kHz range, allowing weak radio waves to induce detectable audio in a high-impedance earphone.^[50] These passive devices highlight the LC circuit's ability to achieve frequency selection solely through resonance, with practical examples using homemade inductors of around 250 μH and variable capacitors of 365 pF to cover the broadcast band.^[53] In modern RF circuits, LC tuned networks remain essential for impedance matching and frequency selection in wireless systems, such as cellular base stations and Wi-Fi transceivers, where they optimize signal transfer between antennas and amplifiers.^[51] Integrated into antenna designs, these circuits tune to operational frequencies like 2.4 GHz for Bluetooth or 5G bands, enhancing efficiency by minimizing reflections and ensuring the antenna resonates at the transmit or receive wavelength.^[54] For example, quarter-wave antennas paired with LC matching networks achieve broadband performance in handheld devices, supporting multiple standards without retuning.^[51]

Oscillators and Filters

LC circuits play a crucial role in oscillators by providing the resonant frequency for sustained signal generation through feedback mechanisms. In the Colpitts oscillator, an amplifier is coupled to a parallel LC tank circuit via a capacitive voltage divider, where positive feedback at the resonant frequency \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} sustains sinusoidal oscillations by compensating for energy losses in the tank.^[55] Similarly, the Hartley oscillator employs an inductive voltage divider in series with the LC tank, delivering feedback to the amplifier to maintain oscillations at \omega_0, leveraging the mutual inductance for efficient energy transfer.^[56] These configurations ensure stable operation by aligning the phase shift from the feedback network with the amplifier's requirements, producing clean sinusoidal outputs suitable for high-frequency applications.^[57] In filter applications, LC circuits are configured in series and parallel combinations to selectively pass or attenuate frequency bands, enabling precise signal processing. A low-pass LC filter typically features a series inductor followed by a shunt capacitor, allowing low-frequency signals to pass while presenting high impedance to higher frequencies for attenuation.^[58] Conversely, a high-pass LC filter uses a series capacitor and shunt inductor to block low frequencies and transmit high ones, with the capacitor's low impedance at high frequencies facilitating signal passage.^[58] Band-pass filters combine elements of both, often with series LC for the passband resonance and parallel LC for rejection outside the desired range, creating a narrow transmission window centered at \omega_0.^[58] The effectiveness of LC filters in signal processing stems from their ability to achieve sharp cutoffs, particularly when the circuit exhibits a high quality factor (Q), which narrows the bandwidth and enhances selectivity by minimizing energy dissipation.^[59] In practical electronics, LC oscillators serve as clock generators in digital systems, providing stable high-frequency references for timing circuits in processors and communication devices.^[60] Additionally, LC filters are integral to audio systems, such as in class-D amplifiers where they suppress electromagnetic interference and reconstruct analog signals from switched outputs for clear sound reproduction.^[61]

History

Early Developments

The development of LC circuits originated with the separate inventions of their core components: capacitors and inductors. The Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor capable of storing electrical charge, was independently discovered in 1745 by German jurist Ewald Georg von Kleist and further developed in 1746 by Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek at the University of Leiden.^[62] This device, consisting of a glass jar coated with metal foil inside and out, allowed scientists to accumulate and discharge static electricity, laying the groundwork for electrical experimentation, though integration into resonant circuits occurred much later.^[63] Inductors emerged from 19th-century studies of electromagnetic induction. In the early 1830s, American physicist Joseph Henry discovered self-inductance while constructing powerful electromagnets at Albany Academy; by 1832, he had observed and published on the phenomenon in long spiral coils, where a changing current induces a voltage opposing the change in that same coil.^[64] Independently, in 1834, Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz formulated Lenz's law during his investigations of induced currents, stating that the direction of an induced electromotive force opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it, which provided a key principle for understanding inductive effects in circuits.^[65] The theoretical basis for electromagnetic waves, essential to LC resonance, was established by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s through his equations unifying electricity and magnetism.^[66] The first observation of resonance in what would become known as LC circuits occurred in the late 1880s through experiments with Leyden jars and inductive coils. British physicist Oliver Lodge demonstrated electrical resonance in 1887–1888 during lectures on lightning conductors and electrical oscillations, noting that the discharge of a Leyden jar through an inductive circuit produced standing waves along wires, with nodes and loops indicating resonant behavior at specific frequencies.^[67] These findings arose in the context of early telegraphy advancements and wireless experiments, where researchers sought to protect telegraph lines from lightning-induced surges and explore electrical wave propagation for signaling.^[68]

Key Milestones

In 1887–1888, Heinrich Hertz conducted groundbreaking experiments using LC resonators to generate and detect electromagnetic waves, thereby confirming James Clerk Maxwell's theoretical predictions about their existence and propagation.^[69] In the early 1900s, Guglielmo Marconi incorporated LC circuits into his wireless telegraphy systems, patenting in 1900 designs that utilized tuned LC elements for improved signal selectivity and transmission efficiency.^[70] In the early 1900s, Oliver Lodge advanced tuned circuit technology by demonstrating synchronized tuning between transmitter and receiver LC circuits around 1898, while John Ambrose Fleming contributed to their practical implementation through collaborative work on resonant systems for wireless communication.^[71] The 20th century saw significant refinements in LC circuit applications, particularly with the advent of vacuum tube oscillators in the 1910s, which enabled stable sinusoidal generation using feedback in LC tanks, as pioneered in early designs like those explored by Edwin Armstrong.^[72] By the 1950s, the transistor era introduced compact LC oscillators, with Bell Labs and RCA developing reliable solid-state versions that replaced vacuum tubes for frequency control in radios and early electronics.

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14.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit – University Physics Volume 2
The energy transferred in an oscillatory manner between the capacitor and inductor in an LC circuit occurs at an angular frequency ω = 1 L C . The charge and ...Missing: terminology | Show results with:terminology
[12]
[PDF] EE 42/100 Lecture 2: Charge, Current, Voltage, and Circuits
I = q v∆tNA. ∆t. = q(NA)v where N is the density of electrons per unit volume. A. M. Niknejad. University of California, Berkeley. EE 100 / 42 Lecture 2 p. 4/26.
[13]
LC Circuit
The oscillations of an LC circuit can, thus, be understood as a cyclic interchange between electric energy stored in the capacitor, and magnetic energy stored ...Missing: natural | Show results with:natural
[14]
Resonance in LCR Circuit (Theory) - Amrita Virtual Lab
Resonance occur when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two or more different storage modes (such as kinetic energy and potential ...
[15]
[PDF] Impedance & Resonance in an RLC Circuit - sites@gsu
In this exercise, you'll study an important phenomenon, AC resonance in a circuit. The notion of impedance is a critical concept. Impedance is an extension ...
[16]
Parallel LC Circuits (Theory) - Amrita Virtual Lab
At the resonant frequency of the parallel LC circuit, we know that XL = XC. At this frequency, according to the equation above, the effective impedance of the ...
[17]
[PDF] Physics 2415 Lecture 24: Circuits with AC Source
Notice this is the same value of ω at which a pure LC circuit oscillates. This is resonance: the driving frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the ...
[18]
[PDF] Chapter 31: RLC Circuits
→Thus both charge and current oscillate. ◇Angular frequency ω, frequency f = ω/2π. ◇Period: T = 2π/ω. ◇Current and charge differ in phase by 90°.
[19]
[PDF] Driven LRC
At resonance (ω = 1 LC ) the frequency is such that these two effects balance and the current will be largest in the circuit. Also at this frequency the ...Missing: derivation | Show results with:derivation
[20]
[PDF] Lecture 13 - Physics 121
a) Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit as a function of time. L = 30 mH, C = 100 μF. The capacitor is charged to Q. 0.
[21]
Resonant Circuits: Resonant Frequency and Q Factor - TechWeb
Jul 23, 2024 · The key factor in determining the Q factor is the ratio of the circulating current flowing through the inductor to the effective current flowing ...
[22]
Q Factor and Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit | Electronics Textbook
A low resistance, high Q circuit has a narrow bandwidth, as compared to a high resistance, low Q circuit. Bandwidth in terms of Q and resonant frequency: BW ...
[23]
lecture 38.pptx
▫ The capacitor in a LC circuit ... An oscillating LC circuit consists of a 75mH inductor and a 3.60 μF capacitor. ... ▫ Quality factor of a series RLC circuit: P ...
[24]
Q Factor and its Relevance in Electrical Circuits - Electronics For You
Aug 15, 2016 · Bandwidth: With increasing Q or quality factor, so the bandwidth of the tuned circuit filter is reduced. As losses decrease so the tuned ...Missing: LC factors affecting<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
[PDF] Q Factor Measurements on L-C Circuits - ARRL
For oscillators, higher Q also means that lower phase noise is produced. In the case of antennas, a lower. Q is generally preferred, giving a larger. SWR ...Missing: definition relation
[26]
LCR Circuit
We conclude that if a small amount of resistance is introduced into an LC circuit ... Quality Factor Contents.
[27]
Q-factor - RP Photonics
Definition via resonance bandwidth: the Q-factor is the ratio of the resonance frequency and the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) bandwidth of the resonance:
[28]
LC Circuits - GeeksforGeeks
Jul 19, 2024 · LC Circuit is a simple electrical circuit that consists of two main components: an inductor and a capacitor. These components can further be ...What is LC Circuit? · Resonance in LC Circuit · Energy Stored in LC Circuit
[29]
Resonance in Series-Parallel Circuits | Electronics Textbook
In a parallel (tank) LC circuit, this means infinite impedance at resonance. In a series LC circuit, it means zero impedance at resonance: However, as soon ...
[30]
[PDF] Resonant Circuits • Phasors (2-dim vectors, amplitude and phase)
• The phasor diagram for the driven series RLC circuit always has the voltage across the capacitor lagging the current by 90°. The vector sum of the V. C and V.Missing: configuration | Show results with:configuration
[31]
Parallel Resonance Circuit - Electronics Tutorials
Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage magnification of the circuit, whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.
[32]
[PDF] Resonance in Series and Parallel Circuits
How to draw the complete phasor diagram under the resonance condition of the above circuits, showing the currents and voltage drops in the different components?
[33]
LC natural response - derivation (article) | Khan Academy
Summary. We derived the natural response of an LC ‍ circuit by first creating this homogeneous second-order differential equation: d 2 i d t 2 + 1 LC i = 0 ‍.
[34]
LC natural response - derivation | Spinning Numbers
Use the i i i- v v v equations for L \text L L and C \text C C to write a Kirchhoff's Voltage Law equation. · Take the derivative of the equation to eliminate ...Strategy · Differential equation · Characteristic equation · Test the proposed solution
[35]
[PDF] 31. LC oscillator and mechanical analogue. Electric/magnetic ...
Nov 30, 2020 · The LC circuit with two inductors and three capacitors can oscillate in two different ways (named modes), depending on what the initial state ...
[36]
[PDF] 1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator - Xie Chen
For all examples, we see that the total energy depends on system properties (m, l, C, L etc.), angular frequency (ω) and initial conditions (A, B), but not on ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Complex Impedance - HyperPhysics
This depicts the phasor diagrams and complex impedance expressions for RL and RC circuits in polar form. They can also be expressed in cartesian form.Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis
[38]
Series LC Circuits (Theory) - Amrita Virtual Lab
At resonance, since XL = XC, it is also true that XL - XC = 0. Therefore, there is absolutely no reactive component to Z at the resonant frequency.Missing: configuration | Show results with:configuration
[39]
Parallel LC Circuits (Theory) - Amrita Virtual Lab
The calculation for the combined impedance of L and C is the standard product-over-sum calculation for any two impedances in parallel, keeping in mind that ...
[40]
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=3&brch=75&sim=318&cnt=1
[41]
[PDF] Lecture 7 Circuit analysis via Laplace transform
this gives a explicit solution of the circuit. • these equations are identical to those for a linear static circuit. (except instead of real numbers we have ...
[42]
[PDF] Chapter 13 The Laplace Transform in Circuit Analysis
▫ For a parallel RLC circuit, replace the current source by a sinusoidal one: The algebraic equation changes: (. ) (. )[. ] (. )[. ] . )( )( )( )( ,. )( )( )( ,.
[43]
[PDF] Laplace transform
Table 1 lists a few functions and their unilateral Laplace transforms commonly encountered in circuit analysis. Properties of Laplace Transform. Linearity: ( ).
[44]
Solve Differential Equations of RLC Circuit Using Laplace Transform
You can use the Laplace transform to solve differential equations with initial conditions. For example, you can solve resistance-inductor-capacitor (RLC) ...
[45]
Analyzing 2nd-Order Circuits in Laplace Space Using Python
Aug 7, 2022 · Learn about simplifying the mathematics of circuit analysis using the Laplace transform, Python, and SymPy using a series RLC circuit as an example.<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] laplace transform and its application in circuit analysis
The elegance of using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis lies in the automatic inclusion of the initial conditions in the transformation process,.
[47]
Introduction to the Laplace Transform - Bit Driven Circuits
Advantages of using the Laplace transform: Can be applied to a wider variety of inputs than phasor analysis. Works well with circuit problems that have initial ...
[48]
None
### Summary on Tuned Circuits, LC in Radio Tuning, and Resonance Formulas
[49]
[PDF] (BUILDING A SIMPLE AM RADIO RECEIVER)
1. Build an LC circuit, making use of your experience in past labs to find the inductance and capacitance from the geometry of the devices.
[50]
What is Resonance Phenomenon? Mechanism of tuning circuits.
4. LC Filters and Noise Control: Tuned circuits are a form of LC filters, used not only to extract signals but also to block unwanted high-frequency noise ...
[51]
Resonant Filters | Filters | Electronics Textbook - All About Circuits
Series LC circuits give minimum impedance at resonance, while parallel LC (“tank”) circuits give maximum impedance at their resonant frequency. Knowing this, ...
[52]
[PDF] Reconstructing the Radio - ODU Digital Commons
The LC circuit connected with the antenna provides a way of receiving radio waves by tuning the tank circuit to resonate at the same frequency as a local AM ...
[53]
Antennas and Resonant Circuits (Tank Circuits) | Textbook
Resonant circuits, like tank circuits, can function as antennas. Tank circuits convert DC to oscillating waves, while antennas radiate or capture AC waves.
[54]
Colpitts Oscillator (Theory) : Harmonic Motion and Waves Virtual Lab
Colpitts, is a device that generates oscillatory output (sinusoidal). It consists of an amplifier linked to an oscillatory circuit, also called LC circuit or ...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[55]
[PDF] Oscillator Circuits - Oregon State University
Tuned Oscillators use a parallel LC resonant circuit (LC tank) to provide the oscillations. ... Op-amp Colpitts oscillator. Page 16. 16. Hartley Tuned Oscillator ...
[56]
[PDF] Thursday 2/14/19 Simplified Circuit Analysis of BJT Colpitts and ...
Feb 14, 2019 · The Clapp oscillator is also a derivative of the Colpitts oscillator, except that a 3rd capacitor, C3, is used in series with the inductor ( ...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation
[57]
[PDF] Passive LC Filter Design and Analysis
Passive electronic LC filters are used to block noise from circuits and systems. Ideal filters pass the required signal frequencies with no insertion loss ...
[58]
[PDF] resonators and Q - UCSB ECE
Loaded Q. The significance of this is that QL can be used to predict the bandwidth of a resonant circuit. We can see that higher QL leads to narrower bandwidth ...
[59]
[PDF] AoE_Timer.pdf
At high frequencies the favorite method of sine-wave generation is an LC-controlled oscillator, in which a tuned LC is con- nected in an amplifier-like circuit ...
[60]
21.3 A -106.3dB THD+N Feedback-After-LC Class-D Audio Amplifier ...
For applications such as automotive, the stringent EMI requirement necessitates the use of an LC filter, which can add significant bulk and cost.
[61]
Leyden jar | Electric Condenser, Capacitor & Storage Device
Leyden jar, device for storing static electricity, discovered accidentally and investigated by the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek of the University ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Leyden Jars – 1745 - Magnet Academy - National MagLab
Because they could store significant amounts of charge, Leyden jars allowed scientists to experiment with electricity in a way never before possible.
[63]
Joseph Henry - Magnet Academy - National MagLab
During his experiments with electromagnetism, Henry discovered the property of inductance in electrical circuits, which was first recognized at about the ...
[64]
Lenz's law | Definiton & Facts - Britannica
Oct 7, 2025 · This law was deduced in 1834 by the Russian physicist Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804–65). Thrusting a pole of a permanent bar magnet through ...
[65]
Lodge, Oliver Joseph | Encyclopedia.com
Lodge's 1887-1888 discovery that oscillations associated with the discharge of a Leyden jar result in waves and standing waves along conducting wires, with ...
[66]
[PDF] Oliver Lodge: Almost the Father of Radio
Lodge also discovered the phenomenon of electrical resonance and found that the "coherer" effect provided a very useful means for detecting the presence of ...Missing: LC | Show results with:LC
[67]
[PDF] Alternating Current Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves
AC circuits use elements like resistors, capacitors, and inductors, and an AC source. Electromagnetic waves are composed of fluctuating electric and magnetic ...
[68]
Radio and Wireless: Patent and Invention Milestones
1900, Guglielmo Marconi, A four-circuit design, which featured two tuned-circuits at both the transmitting and receiving antennas in order to prevent the ...
[69]
A timeline of the Development of Radio, 1821 - 1914
Circa 1898: synchronised tuning to maximise the transfer of energy between two tuned circuits was demonstrated by Oliver Lodge. 1900: Marconi developed tuned ...
[70]
Tracking Advances in VCO Technology | Analog Devices
Dec 6, 2002 · This application note tracks the history of voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) since approximately 1910 and provides examples of VCO integration in RF ICs.