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Laurent series

In complex analysis, a Laurent series is a power series representation of a holomorphic function in an annular region surrounding an isolated singularity, expressed as f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n, where the terms with negative exponents allow the series to account for poles or essential singularities at the center point c, generalizing the Taylor series which is restricted to non-negative powers and disk regions without singularities.^[1] Named after the French mathematician Pierre Alphonse Laurent (1813–1854), the series was first detailed in his 1843 memoir Mémoire sur le calcul des variations, submitted for the Grand Prix of the Paris Academy of Sciences, reported on by Augustin-Louis Cauchy on May 20, 1843, with a joint report by Cauchy and Joseph Liouville presented to the Academy on October 30, 1843, though the full memoir was never published due to its late submission and the Academy's oversight.^[2] Laurent developed the expansion as an extension of Taylor's theorem to handle functions analytic in annuli r < |z - c| < R, where r > 0 accommodates the inner radius around the singularity. Interestingly, Karl Weierstrass independently derived a similar result in 1841 for his habilitation but did not publish it until 1894, predating Laurent's work in conception but not dissemination.^[2] The coefficients a_n of a Laurent series are uniquely determined by Cauchy's integral formula: for n \geq 0, a_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_C \frac{f(\zeta)}{(\zeta - c)^{n+1}} d\zeta, and for n < 0, a_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_C \frac{f(\zeta)}{(\zeta - c)^{n+1}} d\zeta, where C is a simple closed contour within the annulus enclosing c.^[1] The series converges uniformly on compact subsets of the annulus, with the principal part \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_{-n} (z - c)^{-n} converging outside the inner disk |z - c| > r and the analytic part \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n converging inside the outer disk |z - c| < R.^[1] Laurent series are fundamental for classifying isolated singularities: a removable singularity occurs if the principal part vanishes, a pole of order m if it terminates after m terms, and an essential singularity if it has infinitely many non-zero negative powers, as in e^{1/z} at z = 0.^[1] They enable residue computation, where the residue at c is the coefficient a_{-1}, crucial for evaluating contour integrals via the residue theorem \oint_C f(z) \, dz = 2\pi i \sum \operatorname{Res}(f, c_k).^[1] Applications extend to asymptotic analysis, generating functions in combinatorics, and solving differential equations with singular coefficients.^[3]

Definition and Notation

Formal Definition

A Laurent series centered at a point c in the complex plane is a series of the form

\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n,

where z is a complex variable and the coefficients a_n are complex numbers.https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf This representation generalizes the concept of a power series by permitting negative exponents, allowing the series to model functions with singularities at the center c. In contrast, a Taylor series expansion of a function analytic at c takes the restricted form

\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n,

which includes only nonnegative powers and converges in a disk around c where the function is holomorphic.https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-04-complex-variables-with-applications-spring-2018/dff6a0c70eefb1e23bb87f8524361801_MIT18_04S18_topic7.pdf The inclusion of negative powers in the Laurent series enables the description of functions exhibiting poles or essential singularities at c, such as f(z) = 1/z near z = 0. The series is named after the French mathematician Pierre Alphonse Laurent, who introduced it in a memoir presented in 1843, though Karl Weierstrass had independently discovered and proved the relevant theorem in 1841.https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Laurent_Pierre/ Laurent series are fundamentally defined over the field of complex numbers \mathbb{C}, with z \in \mathbb{C}, providing a foundational tool in complex analysis for representing holomorphic functions in punctured neighborhoods of singularities.

https://dummit.cos.northeastern.edu/docs/complexanalysis_2_complex_power_series.pdf

Examples and Intuition

A classic example of a Laurent series arises from the function f(z) = \frac{1}{z-1}, expanded around the point z = 0. For |z| > 1, this function admits the Laurent series f(z) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} z^{-n}, where the negative powers capture the behavior outside the unit disk, away from the pole at z = 1.^[4] This expansion is derived by rewriting \frac{1}{z-1} = \frac{1}{z(1 - 1/z)} = z^{-1} \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} z^{-n} = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} z^{-n}, valid in the exterior region where |1/z| < 1.^[4] The negative powers in this series provide intuition for how Laurent expansions model the influence of singularities: as z approaches the boundary from outside, the terms with large negative exponents dominate near infinity, but the series converges to the function's value in the annular region extending to |z| > 1. In contrast, inside |z| < 1, a different expansion would be needed, but this exterior form bridges the holomorphic behavior at large |z| with the singularity's effect. The principal part here, consisting solely of negative powers, highlights the singular terms that prevent analytic continuation across the pole.^[4] Another illustrative example is the function f(z) = e^{1/z}, expanded around z = 0. Its Laurent series is f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n!} z^{-n}, which converges for all z \neq 0 in the punctured plane.^[5] This series extends the Taylor expansion of e^w by substituting w = 1/z, yielding infinitely many negative powers that reflect the essential singularity at the origin.^[5] Geometrically, this expansion is valid in the punctured disk $0 < |z| < \infty, illustrating how Laurent series operate in annuli that exclude the singularity while encompassing regions where the function is holomorphic. The negative powers model the explosive growth as z \to 0 along the real axis (where e^{1/z} \to \infty) and oscillations along the imaginary axis (where it spirals wildly), emphasizing that Laurent series capture the full local behavior near isolated singularities by separating the analytic (non-negative powers) and singular (negative powers) components.^[4]^[5]

Convergence Properties

Region of Convergence

The region of convergence for a Laurent series expansion of a function f centered at a point c \in \mathbb{C} is an open annulus A = \{ z \in \mathbb{C} : r < |z - c| < R \}, where $0 \leq r < R \leq \infty. In this domain, the series \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n converges to f(z). The inner radius r represents the greatest lower bound beyond which the principal part (negative powers) converges, while the outer radius R bounds the convergence of the regular part (non-negative powers).^[6] The boundaries of this annulus are determined by the singularities of f: the inner radius r is the distance from c to the farthest singularity inside the disk |z - c| < R, and the outer radius R is the distance to the nearest singularity outside, or infinity if no such singularities exist. This annular region is the maximal domain centered at c on which f is holomorphic, excluding isolated singularities at c or beyond. The positive-power terms \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n converge for |z - c| < R, analogous to a power series, while the negative-power terms \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_{-n} (z - c)^{-n} converge for |z - c| > r.^[7] Special cases arise depending on the values of r and R. If r = 0, the annulus degenerates to the open disk |z - c| < R, and the Laurent series reduces to a Taylor series, which occurs when f is holomorphic at c. If R = \infty, the region of convergence is the exterior \{ z : |z - c| > r \}, typically for functions with an isolated singularity at c but holomorphic elsewhere in the extended plane. These cases highlight the Laurent series as a generalization of Taylor expansions to handle isolated singularities.^[8] A fundamental result, known as Laurent's theorem, guarantees the existence and convergence of such a series: if f is holomorphic in the annulus r < |z - c| < R, then f admits a Laurent expansion that converges pointwise to f(z) throughout the annulus. Moreover, the convergence is uniform on every compact subset of the annulus, ensuring that the series defines a holomorphic function there. This theorem extends the Cauchy integral formula to annular domains and underpins the representation of functions with isolated singularities. For the specific case of a punctured disk $0 < |z - c| < R (where r = 0), Laurent's theorem asserts that every holomorphic function in this neighborhood has a Laurent expansion, allowing analysis of behavior near c.

Radius of Convergence

The radius of convergence for a Laurent series \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n is characterized by two values: an inner radius r and an outer radius R, which determine the annular region r < |z - c| < R where the series converges.

\] The outer radius $R$ is given by $R = \frac{1}{\limsup_{n \to \infty} |a_n|^{1/n}}$ for the nonnegative powers ($n \geq 0$), or $R = \infty$ if the limit superior is zero.\[

Similarly, the inner radius r is determined by the principal part, r = \limsup_{n \to \infty} |a_{-n}|^{1/n} for the negative powers (n \geq 1), or r = 0 if the limit superior is zero, or r = \infty if the limit superior is infinite.

\] These formulas arise from applying the root test to the analytic part $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n$ and to the principal part rewritten as a power series in $w = 1/(z - c)$, $\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_{-n} w^n$.\[

^[9] Alternative tests, such as the ratio test, can also be adapted to compute these radii. For the outer radius, if \lim_{n \to \infty} \left| \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n} \right| = L exists and is finite, then R = 1/L; otherwise, the test is inconclusive.

\] For the inner radius, consider the principal part: if $\lim_{n \to \infty} \left| \frac{a_{-n}}{a_{-(n+1)}} \right| = \rho$ exists and is finite, then the series in $w$ converges for $|w| < \rho$, corresponding to $|z - c| > 1/\rho$, so $r = 1/\rho$; otherwise, the test is inconclusive.\[

These adaptations follow directly from the standard ratio test for power series convergence.

\] The root and [ratio test](/page/Ratio_test)s provide practical computational tools, especially when the limit superior does not exist or is difficult to evaluate directly.\[

At the boundaries |z - c| = r and |z - c| = R, the series may converge at some points but not others, similar to the behavior of power series on their circle of convergence.

\] Convergence on the boundary is not guaranteed across the entire circle and must be checked separately using other criteria, such as Abel's theorem or direct summation.\[

For example, consider the series \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} z^{-n}, which represents \frac{1}{z-1} for |z| > 1. Here, a_{-n} = 1 for n \geq 1 and all other a_n = 0. The inner radius is r = \limsup_{n \to \infty} |1|^{1/n} = 1, while the outer radius is R = \infty due to the absence of positive powers. Using the ratio test on the principal part, \lim_{n \to \infty} |a_{-n} / a_{-(n+1)}| = 1, so \rho = 1, confirming r = 1/1 = 1.$$]

Representation and Uniqueness

Uniqueness of Coefficients

The Laurent series expansion of a holomorphic function f in an annulus r < |z - c| < R is unique. That is, if f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} b_n (z - c)^n for all z in the annulus, where both series converge, then a_n = b_n for every integer n.^[10] To see this, consider the difference g(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} (a_n - b_n) (z - c)^n, which converges to the zero function in the annulus and is thus holomorphic there. Decompose g(z) = p(z) + q(z), where p(z) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} (a_n - b_n) (z - c)^n is the regular part (converging for |z - c| < R) and q(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{-1} (a_n - b_n) (z - c)^n is the principal part (converging for |z - c| > r). Then p(z) = -q(z) in the annulus. Since p is holomorphic in the disk |z - c| < R (with Taylor series expansion there), -q must extend holomorphically to this disk by analytic continuation across the annulus. However, unless all coefficients of q vanish, q has a singularity at z = c that is not removable, contradicting the holomorphic extension. Thus, q \equiv 0 in |z - c| > r. It follows that p \equiv 0 in the annulus, and by the uniqueness of the Taylor series expansion of p in |z - c| < R, all coefficients of p are zero. Therefore, g \equiv 0 implies all coefficients a_n - b_n = 0.^[11] This uniqueness implies that the Laurent series provides a single canonical representation of f in each annulus where it is holomorphic, with coefficients uniquely determined by the values of f in that domain.^[10] The theorem extends to overlapping annuli: if two Laurent series centered at the same point represent the same holomorphic function in overlapping annular regions, they must agree on the intersection (an open set with accumulation points), and thus coincide wherever both converge by the identity theorem for holomorphic functions.^[12]

Computation of Coefficients

The coefficients a_n in the Laurent series expansion f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n of a holomorphic function f in the annulus r < |z - c| < R are given by Cauchy's integral formula: [ a_n = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma \frac{f(\zeta)}{(\zeta - c)^{n+1}} , d\zeta,

where $\gamma$ is any simple closed contour positively oriented around $c$ and lying within the annulus of convergence.[](https://people.math.harvard.edu/~siu/math113/5_cauchy_integral_formula_power_and_laurent_series_expansion.pdf)[](https://math.berkeley.edu/~nikhil/courses/121a/laurent.pdf) For nonnegative indices $ n \geq 0 $, which correspond to the regular (analytic) part of the series, the coefficients are those of the power series expansion around $ c $ that converges to $ f(z) $ in the annulus and to its analytic continuation in the disk $ |z - c| < R $, analogous to a [Taylor series](/page/Taylor_series) when $ f $ is holomorphic at $ c $. These can be computed using the integral formula with a contour encircling $ c $ in the region where $ f $ is holomorphic, effectively capturing the power series behavior outside any inner singularities.[](https://people.math.harvard.edu/~siu/math113/5_cauchy_integral_formula_power_and_laurent_series_expansion.pdf)[](https://dummit.cos.northeastern.edu/docs/complexanalysis_4_applications_of_cauchy.pdf) For negative indices $ n < 0 $, the coefficients describe the principal part and reflect the singular behavior at $ c $. In particular, the coefficient $ a_{-1} $ is the residue of $ f $ at $ c $, obtained as $\operatorname{Res}(f, c) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma f(\zeta) \, d\zeta$, while higher-order negative terms extract information about poles or essential singularities via the general integral. These are often computed using contours that separate the singularity from the outer region of analyticity.[](https://math.berkeley.edu/~nikhil/courses/121a/laurent.pdf)[](https://dummit.cos.northeastern.edu/docs/complexanalysis_4_applications_of_cauchy.pdf) Alternative methods avoid direct integration for specific classes of functions. For rational functions, partial fraction decomposition isolates poles, followed by geometric series expansions of each term in the appropriate annulus; for instance, $\frac{1}{z - a} = -\frac{1}{a} \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \left(\frac{z}{a}\right)^k$ for $|z| < |a|$, allowing coefficient extraction by combining series.[](https://www.math.purdue.edu/~eremenko/dvi/expansions.pdf) Series manipulation techniques, such as substituting known expansions (e.g., exponential or trigonometric series) and collecting like powers, are also effective for functions with recognizable forms.[](https://math.berkeley.edu/~nikhil/courses/121a/laurent.pdf) In practice, the contour $\gamma$ must be chosen carefully to lie entirely within the annulus of convergence, ensuring the integral accurately represents the local behavior without crossing singularities.[](https://people.math.harvard.edu/~siu/math113/5_cauchy_integral_formula_power_and_laurent_series_expansion.pdf)[](https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-04-complex-variables-with-applications-spring-2018/dff6a0c70eefb1e23bb87f8524361801_MIT18_04S18_topic7.pdf) ## Structural Components ### Principal Part The principal part of a Laurent series expansion of a function $f(z)$ centered at a point $c$ consists of the terms with negative powers, given by $\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_{-n} (z - c)^{-n}$. This component captures the singular behavior of $f$ at $c$ and may contain either finitely many or infinitely many nonzero terms.[](https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analysis/Complex_Variables_with_Applications_(Orloff)/08%3A_Taylor_and_Laurent_Series/8.07%3A_Laurent_Series) The structure of the principal part determines the type of isolated [singularity](/page/Singularity) at $c$. If the principal part terminates after a finite number of terms, specifically up to the term $(z - c)^{-m}$ where the coefficient $a_{-m} \neq 0$ and $a_{-k} = 0$ for all $k > m$, then $c$ is a [pole](/page/Pole) of [order](/page/Order) $m$. In contrast, if the principal part has infinitely many nonzero terms, the [singularity](/page/Singularity) at $c$ is [essential](/page/Essential).[](https://complex-analysis.com/content/classification_of_singularities.html)[](https://uregina.ca/~kozdron/Teaching/Regina/312Fall13/Handouts/lecture30_nov_22_final.pdf) The residue of $f$ at $c$, denoted $\operatorname{Res}(f, c)$, is the [coefficient](/page/Coefficient) $a_{-1}$ of the term $\frac{1}{z - c}$ in the principal part. This [coefficient](/page/Coefficient) plays a central role in residue calculus and [integral](/page/Integral) evaluations around $c$. For a [pole](/page/Pole) at $c$, subtracting the principal part from $f(z)$ yields a function that is holomorphic in a neighborhood of $c$. This process isolates the regular part of the expansion, allowing extension of the function analytically across the [singularity](/page/Singularity) after removal.[](https://uregina.ca/~kozdron/Teaching/Regina/312Fall13/Handouts/lecture30_nov_22_final.pdf) As an illustrative example, consider $f(z) = \frac{1}{z^2 - 1}$ expanded in a Laurent series around $c = 1$. Using partial fraction decomposition, $f(z) = \frac{1/2}{z - 1} - \frac{1/2}{z + 1}$, where the second term is holomorphic at $z = 1$ and expandable in a Taylor series there. Thus, the principal part is $\frac{1/2}{z - 1}$, indicating a simple pole of order 1 with residue $1/2$.[](https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analysis/Complex_Variables_with_Applications_(Orloff)/08%3A_Taylor_and_Laurent_Series/8.07%3A_Laurent_Series) ### Laurent Polynomials A Laurent [polynomial](/page/Polynomial) in the complex variable $z$ centered at $c \in \mathbb{C}$ is defined as a finite sum of the form

\sum_{n=-m}^{k} a_n (z - c)^n,

where $m, k \geq 0$ are finite integers, the coefficients $a_n \in \mathbb{C}$, and $a_{-m} \neq 0$, $a_k \neq 0$.[](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1309.4737) This generalizes ordinary [polynomials](/page/Polynomial) by allowing a finite number of negative powers, making it suitable for algebraic structures where inversion is involved.[](https://digicoll.lib.berkeley.edu/record/134328/files/ERL-95-39.pdf) Laurent polynomials form a ring under the usual addition and multiplication of series, denoted $\mathbb{C}[z, z^{-1}]$ when centered at $0$, which is the localization of the [polynomial ring](/page/Polynomial_ring) $\mathbb{C}$ at the multiplicative set generated by $z$.[](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1309.4737) Any such polynomial can be expressed as $z^{-m} p(z)$, where $p(z)$ is an ordinary [polynomial](/page/Polynomial) of degree $k + m$.[](https://digicoll.lib.berkeley.edu/record/134328/files/ERL-95-39.pdf) This structure endows the [ring](/page/Ring) with properties like unique factorization in certain cases and supports module theory for computational applications.[](https://digicoll.lib.berkeley.edu/record/134328/files/ERL-95-39.pdf) In algebraic geometry, Laurent polynomials define regular functions on the algebraic torus $(\mathbb{C}^*)^n$, facilitating the study of toric varieties and mirror symmetry models through potentials on these tori.[](https://arxiv.org/abs/1912.09122) They also appear in signal processing, particularly in the z-transform framework for designing wavelet filter banks, where the Quillen-Suslin theorem aids in factoring Laurent polynomials to achieve perfect reconstruction.[](https://wavelets.yonsei.ac.kr/~wavelets/files/Preprint5.pdf) Additionally, they serve as approximations in broader contexts, such as rational approximations to algebraic series.[](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021904502000643) Laurent polynomials relate to full Laurent series by truncation: retaining only finitely many terms of a convergent Laurent series yields a Laurent [polynomial](/page/Polynomial) that captures local analytic behavior near the expansion point.[](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021904502000643) For example, the Laurent [polynomial](/page/Polynomial) $z + z^{-1}$ can be rewritten as $(z^2 + 1)/z$, which exhibits symmetry around the unit circle in the [complex plane](/page/Complex_plane).[](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1309.4737) ## Arithmetic Operations ### Addition and Scalar Multiplication Laurent series support term-by-term [addition](/page/Addition) when both series converge in a common annular region. Suppose $ f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n $ and $ g(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} b_n (z - c)^n $ are two Laurent series centered at the same point $ c $, each converging in their respective annuli $ r_1 < |z - c| < R_1 $ and $ r_2 < |z - c| < R_2 $. If there exists a nonempty common annulus where both converge, the sum $ h(z) = f(z) + g(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} (a_n + b_n) (z - c)^n $ converges in the intersection of these annuli, which is $ \max(r_1, r_2) < |z - c| < \min(R_1, R_2) $.[](https://math.mit.edu/~dunkel/Teach/18.04_2019S/notes/1804_Main.pdf) This term-wise [addition](/page/Addition) holds without carry-over between terms, preserving the structure of the Laurent expansion. Scalar multiplication of a Laurent series by a complex constant $ k $ is similarly straightforward and preserves the domain of convergence. For the series $ f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n $ converging in $ r < |z - c| < R $, the scaled series is $ k f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} (k a_n) (z - c)^n $, which converges in the same annulus $ r < |z - c| < R $.[](https://math.mit.edu/~dunkel/Teach/18.04_2019S/notes/1804_Main.pdf) This operation scales each coefficient individually, maintaining the analytic properties within the region. These operations underscore the linearity of Laurent series representations. The vector space of Laurent series converging in a fixed annulus is closed under addition and scalar multiplication, with the zero series defined by all coefficients $ a_n = 0 $ for $ n \in \mathbb{Z} $ serving as the additive identity.[](https://math.mit.edu/~dunkel/Teach/18.04_2019S/notes/1804_Main.pdf) However, the resulting annulus for the sum may be strictly smaller than the individual domains if the original annuli differ, potentially restricting the region of validity. ### Multiplication of Series The multiplication of two Laurent series centered at the same point $ c $ is defined using the Cauchy product, analogous to the multiplication of power series. Suppose $ f(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} a_n (z - c)^n $ and $ g(z) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} b_n (z - c)^n $. Their product is $ h(z) = f(z) g(z) = \sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} c_k (z - c)^k $, where the coefficients are given by the convolution \[ c_k = \sum_{j=-\infty}^{\infty} a_j b_{k-j}.[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf) The series for the product converges to $ h(z) $ in the intersection of the annuli of convergence of $ f $ and $ g $, since the product of two analytic functions is analytic in the common domain, and the Laurent series representation is unique there.[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf) This intersection is an annulus (possibly degenerate) provided it is non-empty. If at least one series is a power series (inner radius $ r = 0 $) or has infinite outer radius $ R = \infty $, the product's annulus aligns with that of the other series; otherwise, the intersection may be more restrictive than either individual annulus.[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf) A special case arises when multiplying a holomorphic function (represented by a Taylor series with $ r = 0 $) by a Laurent series. The resulting coefficients simplify to a single infinite sum over the positive or negative powers, and the product converges in the annulus of the Laurent series. For instance, consider $ f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} z^n = \frac{1}{1-z} $ for $ |z| < 1 $ and $ g(z) = z^{-1} $ (a simple Laurent "polynomial" converging for $ 0 < |z| < \infty $). Their Cauchy product is $ h(z) = \sum_{k=-1}^{\infty} c_k z^k $, with $ c_{-1} = 1 $ and $ c_k = 1 $ for $ k \geq 0 $, yielding $ h(z) = z^{-1} + 1 + z + z^2 + \cdots = \frac{1}{z(1-z)} $ converging in the annulus $ 0 < |z| < 1 $.[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf) The arithmetic operations on Laurent series satisfy associativity and distributivity wherever they are defined, forming a ring structure on the space of analytic functions in their common domains of [convergence](/page/Convergence).[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf) However, care must be taken with [convergence](/page/Convergence); for example, the formal Cauchy product of $ \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} z^n $ ([converging](/page/Convergence) for $ |z| < 1 $) and $ \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} z^{-n} $ ([converging](/page/Convergence) for $ |z| > 1 $) leads to [infinite](/page/Infinite) sums in the coefficients (e.g., $ c_0 $ sums [infinitely](/page/Infinite) many 1's), reflecting the empty [intersection](/page/Intersection) of their annuli and preventing [convergence](/page/Convergence) anywhere.[](https://howellkb.uah.edu/MathPhysicsText/Complex_Variables/Laurent.pdf)

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[PDF] Examples of Taylor and Laurent series expansions - Purdue Math
Oct 15, 2020 · These examples permit to expand any rational function at any point: first do partial fraction decomposition, then use these formulas. Example 1.
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Classification of Singularities - Complex Analysis
The portion (1) b 1 z − z 0 + b 2 ( z − z 0 ) 2 + b 3 ( z − z 0 ) 3 + ⋯ of the Laurent series, involving negative powers of z − z 0 , is called the principal ...
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[PDF] Lecture #30: Laurent Series and Residue Theory
Nov 21, 2012 · There are three mutually exclusive possibilities for the principal part. (i) If aj = 0 for all j < 0, then we say that ζ0 is a removable ...
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[PDF] arXiv:1309.4737v2 [math.AC] 29 Sep 2013
Sep 29, 2013 · If A is an R-algebra and n ∈ Z, n ≥ 0, then A[n] is the polynomial ring in n variables over. A, and A[±n] is the ring of Laurent polynomials in ...
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[PDF] A Computational Theory of Laurent Polynomial Rings and ...
In connection with these applications, we look at the computational aspects of the theory of modules over Laurent polynomial rings, and develop a few of their.
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Laurent polynomial Landau-Ginzburg models for cominuscule ...
Dec 19, 2019 · These Laurent polynomial potentials are defined on a particular algebraic torus inside the Lie-theoretic mirror model constructed for ...
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[PDF] Use of Quillen-Suslin Theorem for Laurent Polynomials in Wavelet ...
In this method, the Quillen-Suslin Theorem is used to transform vectors with. Laurent polynomial entries to other vectors with Laurent polynomial entries so ...
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Approximation orders of formal Laurent series by Oppenheim ...
We would like to know which Laurent series can be approximated with polynomial orders or exponential orders .
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[PDF] 18.04 Complex analysis with applications - MIT Mathematics
has a Laurent expansion of the punctured disk of radius r centered at z0. That is, since the pole is simple, f(z) = b1 z − z0. + a0 + a1(z − z0) + ... for ...
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[PDF] Complex Analysis with Applications Princeton University MAT330 ...
Jan 27, 2023 · These lecture notes correspond to a course given in the Spring semester of 2023 in the math department of Princeton. University. Contents. 1 The ...
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[PDF] COMPLEX ANALYSIS - agorism.dev
complex analysis. More precisely, we ask the following question: what ... the Laurent series expansion, which is valid in an even more general setting.