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Loop antenna

A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of one or more turns of wire or other electrical conductor shaped into a closed loop, typically circular, rectangular, or polygonal, used for transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves.^[1] For small loops where the circumference is much less than the wavelength (C << λ), it functions primarily as a magnetic dipole antenna, responding to the magnetic component of the incident field through Faraday's law of induction, which generates an electromotive force (emf) proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop area.^[2] The induced open-circuit voltage for such a small loop is given by V_{th} = \frac{\pi D^2 N f E_0}{2c}, where D is the loop diameter, N is the number of turns, f is the frequency, E_0 is the incident electric field strength, and c is the speed of light.^[1] Loop antennas exhibit a radiation pattern similar to that of an electric dipole oriented perpendicular to the loop's plane, with maximum response when the magnetic field is in the plane of the loop and nulls when perpendicular, enabling directional sensitivity.^[2] They are classified into electrically small loops (C < λ/10), which have low radiation efficiency but are compact and useful for near-field applications, and larger self-resonant loops (C ≈ λ), which offer higher efficiency and are employed in far-field communications. The radiation resistance for a small single-turn loop is R_r = 20\pi^2 (C/\lambda)^4 ohms, increasing with the fourth power of the loop's electrical size, while directivity is approximately 1.5 (or 1.76 dB).^[3] These antennas find applications in direction finding for radio signal location, where rotating the loop nullifies reception to determine bearing, as demonstrated in setups using two spaced loops to triangulate sources.^[2] They are also integral to AM radio receivers, RFID systems for near- and far-field identification, portable transceivers in HF/VHF/UHF bands, and wireless devices like cellular phones due to their compact size and versatility in arrays for enhanced directivity.^[4]^[5]^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a closed loop or coil of wire, tubing, or other electrical conductor that carries radio frequency (RF) current, enabling it to function as both a transmitting radiator and a receiving sensor.^[6] These antennas are versatile and low-cost, with the loop's geometry determining its electrical properties, and they operate effectively up to microwave frequencies around 3 GHz.^[7] The fundamental principles of loop antenna operation stem from electromagnetic theory, where the near-field region is dominated by the magnetic field generated by the RF current flowing uniformly around the loop, while the electric field primarily results from the voltage drop across the loop, particularly near any tuning elements.^[8] In the far field, the radiation pattern resembles that of a short electric dipole oriented perpendicular to the loop's plane, but the fields exhibit magnetic dipole characteristics, with the electric field oriented azimuthally (in the \hat{\phi} direction for a loop in the xy-plane) and the magnetic field components reversed compared to an electric dipole due to electromagnetic duality.^[9] This duality arises because a small loop (circumference C < \lambda/3) behaves as an infinitesimal magnetic dipole with moment proportional to the loop area and current.^[9] Electrically, a loop antenna can be represented by an equivalent circuit comprising the loop's self-inductance L (from its geometry) and distributed capacitance C, often supplemented by a tuning capacitor for resonance. The resonant frequency occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances balance, given by

f = \frac{1}{2\pi \sqrt{LC}}

where resonance tunes out the imaginary part of the input impedance for maximum efficiency.^[7] Polarization is linear and depends on the loop's orientation: a horizontal loop produces horizontally polarized waves with the electric field parallel to the ground, while a vertical loop yields vertical polarization; overall, the magnetic dipole nature ensures orthogonality to the polarization of an equivalent electric dipole.^[9] Loop antennas trace their origins to the late 19th century, with early applications in receiving electromagnetic waves demonstrated by Heinrich Hertz in 1888 as part of verifying Maxwell's theory.^[10]

Comparison to Dipole Antennas

Loop antennas differ structurally from dipole antennas in that they form a closed conductive loop, creating a continuous circuit without an open-ended feed gap, whereas dipoles consist of two collinear arms separated at the center feed point. This closed configuration allows loop antennas, particularly larger self-resonant designs, to be mechanically self-supporting using the loop perimeter for structural integrity, eliminating the need for a central insulator or feed support common in dipoles.^[11]^[12] In terms of performance, resonant loop antennas typically present a higher input impedance of 100 to 200 ohms, depending on shape and size, compared to the standard 73 ohms of a thin half-wave dipole. Radiation patterns also contrast: loops produce bidirectional lobes in the plane of the loop for both small and full-wave configurations, while dipoles exhibit a figure-8 pattern broadside to the wire axis. Loop antennas offer advantages in compactness for high-frequency (HF) applications, where small loops can achieve resonance in limited spaces, and their dominant magnetic near-field coupling makes them less susceptible to detuning by nearby dielectric objects or ground effects than electric-field-sensitive dipoles. However, loops generally have narrower bandwidths, requiring precise tuning for multi-frequency operation.^[13]^[14]^[15] For specific use cases, loop antennas are often preferred for direction finding due to their deep nulls perpendicular to the loop plane, enabling precise signal localization by rotating the antenna to minimize reception. In contrast, dipoles are better suited for applications needing broad omnidirectional coverage, such as general communication, owing to their simpler pattern and wider bandwidth. A key metric for small loops (circumference much less than wavelength) is the radiation resistance, which quantifies their efficiency as magnetic radiators. This arises from the loop's equivalence to a magnetic dipole with moment \mathbf{m} = I_0 \mathbf{A}, where I_0 is the current and \mathbf{A} is the vector area; the time-averaged radiated power P = \frac{\mu_0 \omega^4 m^2}{12 \pi c^3} (with m = I_0 A) leads to R_\mathrm{rad} = \frac{2P}{I_0^2} \approx 31{,}200 \left( \frac{A}{\lambda^2} \right)^2 ohms, where A is the physical area in square meters and \lambda is the wavelength in meters—far lower than a comparable dipole's R_\mathrm{rad} \approx 73 ohms, emphasizing the need for low-loss materials in loop designs.^[12]^[11]

Large Self-Resonant Loop Antennas

Shapes and Configurations

Large self-resonant loop antennas, designed to operate at resonance with a perimeter approximately equal to one wavelength (λ), exhibit varying performance characteristics based on their geometric shapes. The circular shape is considered optimal for achieving uniform current distribution around the loop, which contributes to consistent resonance properties, though it is mechanically more challenging to construct due to the need for precise curvature.^[13] In contrast, the square shape is widely adopted for its ease of construction using straight segments, facilitating simpler support structures and alignment.^[13] Other common polygonal forms include the delta (triangular) loop, which offers a compact vertical profile suitable for space-constrained installations, and the octagonal loop, which provides a slight improvement in current uniformity over the square while remaining relatively straightforward to build.^[13] Across these shapes, the total perimeter is typically set to about 1005 feet per MHz (or 306 meters per MHz) to achieve self-resonance, with minor adjustments made for the conductor diameter and environmental factors to fine-tune the operating frequency.^[13] Configurations of these antennas are often tailored to propagation goals, influencing both resonance stability and practical deployment. A horizontal orientation, with the loop plane parallel to the ground, is preferred for skywave communications, such as near-vertical incidence skywave (NVIS) propagation, as it promotes high-angle radiation when mounted at heights of 0.1 to 0.3λ above ground.^[13] Conversely, a vertical configuration, where the loop plane is perpendicular to the ground and fed at the side center, supports groundwave propagation and low-angle radiation for longer-distance contacts, even at modest heights.^[13] Multi-turn variants, involving multiple windings of the loop conductor, can increase the overall inductance to shift resonance to lower frequencies or enhance impedance matching, though this adds complexity to the construction and may require additional spacing between turns to minimize unwanted coupling. Sizing considerations for large self-resonant loops emphasize the perimeter's role in achieving resonance without external loading, typically approximating λ at the desired frequency. For instance, a 40-meter band loop (around 7 MHz) would have a perimeter of roughly 140 feet, scalable proportionally for other bands while accounting for end effects that slightly lengthen the effective electrical length.^[13] Wire gauge selection is critical for power handling, with #12 AWG (approximately 2 mm diameter) commonly recommended for HF operations up to several kilowatts, as it balances mechanical strength, low resistance losses, and resistance to sagging under tension or environmental stress.^[16] Thicker gauges, such as #10 AWG, may be used for higher power levels to further reduce ohmic losses and improve durability.^[16] Construction techniques vary to optimize resonance and structural integrity. Wire is the standard material for most full-wave loops due to its flexibility and low cost, allowing easy forming into shapes like squares or deltas; however, aluminum or copper tubing (1/2 to 1 inch diameter) is preferred for rigid, high-power applications, as it reduces skin-effect losses and supports heavier loads without insulation.^[12] For delta loops, maintaining adequate spacing—such as positioning the base at least 3 meters above ground—is essential to prevent capacitive coupling between the loop elements and the earth, which could detune the resonance or introduce losses.^[13] A notable variant is the quad antenna, which employs full-wave loop elements in a square or delta configuration, augmented by a reflector loop spaced approximately 0.15λ behind the driven element to achieve directional gain of about 5-6 dB over a dipole.^[17] The reflector's perimeter is typically 5% larger than the driven loop to ensure proper phase opposition for enhanced forward radiation.^[17]

Radiation Patterns and Efficiency

The radiation pattern of large self-resonant loop antennas exhibits omnidirectionality within the plane of the loop and bidirectional lobes perpendicular to that plane, providing uniform coverage in azimuth for horizontally oriented configurations. This pattern closely resembles that of a dipole antenna, but rotated by 90 degrees, with maximum radiation directed broadside to the loop plane rather than along the axis of a linear element.^[18]^[19] For circular configurations, the gain in the horizontal plane typically reaches approximately 2-3 dBi, offering improved performance over a comparable dipole by 1-2 dB in the broadside direction. The elevation patterns feature high-angle lobes suitable for near-vertical incidence skywave (NVIS) applications, enabling effective short-range communication at HF frequencies by directing energy toward the ionosphere at low takeoff angles.^[20] Efficiency in large self-resonant loop antennas benefits from low ohmic losses at HF bands, attributable to their substantial physical size relative to wavelength, which minimizes the impact of conductor resistance compared to radiation resistance. The Q-factor generally ranges from 20 to 50, resulting in a usable bandwidth of 5-10% around resonance, sufficient for many amateur and commercial HF operations without excessive tuning requirements.^[6] For full-wave loops, the radiation resistance is typically 100-130 ohms, depending on shape and feed point (e.g., ~126 ohms for square side-fed).^[13] Polarization is linear, with the electric field oriented parallel to the loop plane in the broadside direction; symmetric shapes like circular or square loops exhibit low cross-polarization levels, typically below -20 dB, enhancing compatibility with standard HF systems.^[6]

Halo Antennas

Design and Practical Applications

The halo antenna is constructed by bending a half-wave dipole into a circular or square loop configuration, with the feed point typically located at the bottom and a small gap positioned directly opposite to facilitate impedance matching to approximately 50 ohms using direct coaxial feed or a simple gamma match. The design originates from US Patent 2,324,462 (1943) by L.M. Leeds and M.W. Scheldorf, assigned to General Electric, for high-frequency directive antennas in FM service.^[21]^[22]^[23] Practical implementations often utilize aluminum rods or copper tubing for the radiating element, supported by lightweight PVC or fiberglass frames for structural integrity, enabling easy mounting on vehicle roofs via magnetic or lip mounts or on towers for elevated VHF and UHF installations.^[24]^[21] These antennas find widespread use in mobile radio systems and amateur television setups, where their compact footprint—often less than one meter in diameter for 2-meter band operation—provides dipole-like performance with gains of 2 to 5 dBi, offering horizontal polarization that minimizes pickup of vertical noise sources such as ignition interference during vehicular travel.^[22]^[21] Patented in 1943 for FM broadcasting in the 42-50 MHz band, with designs popularized in amateur radio during the mid-20th century, halo antennas remain popular in the 2-meter (144 MHz) and 70-centimeter (430 MHz) amateur bands due to their omnidirectional azimuth patterns and operational simplicity.^[25]^[23] Performance characteristics include a bandwidth of approximately 2-4 MHz with VSWR below 2:1 across the operating segment, supporting efficient transmission without extensive tuning adjustments.^[21]^[26]

Electrical Analysis

The halo antenna can be modeled as a shortened half-wave dipole bent into a circular shape, resulting in input impedance characteristics typically in the range of 50-100 ohms when properly tuned.^[27] This impedance is adjustable by varying the feed gap width, which influences the effective electrical length and reactance of the structure.^[28] The antenna's behavior is equivalent to that of a shortened dipole, where the circular configuration reduces the effective aperture compared to a straight dipole, leading to a radiation resistance that is lower than the standard 73 ohms but still suitable for direct feed with 50-ohm systems after minor matching.^[29] The feed gap, located opposite the feed point, plays a critical role in tuning resonance through capacitive coupling across the opening. This gap, typically sized at 1-5% of the loop circumference, prevents a short-circuit at the feed location and enables balanced feeding while providing the necessary capacitance to cancel the inductive reactance of the loop.^[27] The capacitance introduced by the gap can be approximated using the parallel-plate formula:

C_\text{gap} = \epsilon \frac{A}{d}

where \epsilon is the permittivity of the medium between the gap plates (air for typical designs), A is the effective area of the overlapping conductors, and d is the gap width.^[30] This model derives from treating the loop as a transmission line with the gap acting as a lumped capacitive discontinuity, allowing the reactance X to be tuned for resonance. The input impedance is thus expressed as Z_\text{in} \approx R_\text{rad} + jX, where R_\text{rad} is the radiation resistance (around 50 ohms for resonant designs) and X is adjusted near zero by the gap capacitance.^[6] Due to the folded-like geometry of the halo compared to full-wave loops, it exhibits a higher quality factor Q than traditional large loops, arising from reduced current distribution losses and higher stored energy in the near-field.^[31] This results in efficiencies exceeding 90% at UHF frequencies, where ohmic losses in the conductor are minimized, particularly with copper or aluminum tubing.^[27] The elevated Q enhances bandwidth selectivity but requires precise gap tuning to maintain low VSWR across the operating band.

Small Loop Antennas

Receiving Loops

Small loop antennas, with dimensions much less than λ/10, are particularly effective for receiving applications due to their response to the magnetic component of electromagnetic waves. The induced voltage in such a loop arises from the time-varying magnetic flux through its area, as described by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. For a multi-turn loop, the open-circuit induced voltage is given by V = -j \omega \mu_0 H A N, where \omega is the angular frequency, \mu_0 is the permeability of free space, H is the incident magnetic field strength normal to the loop plane, A is the loop area, and N is the number of turns.^[6] This formulation highlights the loop's sensitivity to magnetic flux changes, making it ideal for environments where electric field interference is prevalent.^[32] These antennas exhibit a high quality factor Q, typically ranging from 100 to 1000, which results in a narrow bandwidth often less than 1% of the operating frequency.^[33]^[6] To achieve resonance across desired frequencies, a variable capacitor is employed in series with the loop, forming a tuned circuit that maximizes sensitivity at the target frequency.^[34] However, the induced signals are typically very low, on the order of microvolts, necessitating a low-noise preamplifier with 20-30 dB gain to boost the output for practical receiver use without introducing significant noise.^[35]^[36] The radiation pattern of a small receiving loop is a figure-8 in the plane perpendicular to the loop axis, with deep nulls broadside to the loop plane (along the axis), providing inherent directionality for noise rejection.^[6] For a horizontal loop orientation, the antenna is sensitive to horizontally polarized electric fields in the incident wave.^[37] This configuration excels in rejecting noise from nearby conductors, such as power lines, by responding primarily to the magnetic field rather than electric interference. Small loops are commonly integrated with software-defined radios (SDRs) for HF monitoring, where their compact size and noise-rejection properties enhance signal clarity in urban or electrically noisy environments.^[8]

Direction Finding

Small loop antennas are widely employed in radio direction finding (RDF) due to their sharply defined nulls in the figure-of-eight reception pattern, allowing precise localization of signal sources.^[38] The fundamental technique involves manually rotating the loop antenna until the received signal strength reaches a minimum at the null position, which aligns perpendicular to the direction of the incoming signal wavefront; this indicates the bearing to the transmitter along the line of the loop's plane.^[38] However, the bidirectional nature of the pattern creates a 180-degree ambiguity, resolved by incorporating a nondirectional sense antenna—typically a vertical whip—that combines with the loop signal to produce a cardioid pattern, confirming the correct direction.^[39] With proper calibration to account for environmental factors and antenna alignment, this method achieves an accuracy of approximately ±5 degrees.^[40] In aviation, automatic direction finders (ADFs) utilizing loop-sense configurations provided essential non-directional beacon (NDB) navigation prior to the widespread adoption of GPS, enabling aircraft to home in on ground stations for approach and en route guidance.^[41] Similarly, in amateur radio, "foxhunting" events employ portable loop antennas to track hidden transmitters over distances up to several kilometers, fostering practical skills in RDF.^[42] To enable remote or fixed-site operation without mechanical rotation, the goniometer technique couples multiple loops to a rotatable sensing coil, balancing signals for null detection via electrical adjustment rather than physical movement.^[38] A seminal implementation, the Bellini-Tosi system introduced in 1907, used two orthogonal fixed loops connected to a goniometer, revolutionizing maritime and aerial RDF by eliminating large rotating structures.^[43] Enhancements include dual-loop arrays oriented at 90 degrees for continuous 360-degree coverage without ambiguity in open setups, and electronic switching in modern variants to rapidly sample multiple orientations for improved resolution in dynamic environments.^[39]

Transmitting Loops

Small transmitting loop antennas, also known as magnetic loops, are electrically small antennas with a circumference typically less than one-tenth of the operating wavelength, making them compact for HF applications but challenging for efficient transmission due to their inherently low radiation resistance.^[44] The radiation resistance R_{\mathrm{rad}} for a single-turn circular loop is given by

R_{\mathrm{rad}} \approx 31171 \left( \frac{A}{\lambda^2} \right)^2 \, \Omega,

where A is the loop area in square meters and \lambda is the wavelength in meters; this formula derives from the magnetic dipole radiation model, with the numerical constant incorporating the free-space impedance and other factors.^[6] For such small loops, R_{\mathrm{rad}} is typically much less than 1 ohm, often dwarfed by ohmic losses in the conductor and tuning components, leading to low overall efficiency defined as \eta = \frac{R_{\mathrm{rad}}}{R_{\mathrm{rad}} + R_{\mathrm{loss}}}, which is generally under 10% without careful design to minimize losses.^[44]^[6] Design trade-offs focus on maximizing R_{\mathrm{rad}} relative to losses; a circular shape optimizes this for a given perimeter by enclosing the maximum area, thereby maximizing the squared area term in the resistance formula.^[44] Multi-turn configurations can boost R_{\mathrm{rad}} by a factor of N^2 (where N is the number of turns), enhancing efficiency for very small sizes, but they also increase loss resistance proportionally, requiring low-resistance materials like thick copper tubing to maintain viable performance.^[6] The radiation pattern resembles that of a short vertical electric dipole, with maximum radiation perpendicular to the loop plane, but when mounted near ground for practical use, soil losses distort the pattern, particularly suppressing low-elevation angles and emphasizing higher angles suitable for skywave propagation.^[44] Despite these efficiency limitations, small transmitting loops find application in near-vertical incidence skywave (NVIS) communications on the 80 m band (3.5–4.0 MHz), where their high-angle radiation supports regional coverage over 100–500 km, even if only a fraction of input power is radiated.^[45] This use leverages their compactness and omnidirectional azimuth pattern in horizontal orientations, trading efficiency for portability in emergency or temporary setups.^[46]

Ferrite Loops

Ferrite loops, also known as loopstick or ferrite rod antennas, consist of a coil of wire wound around a high-permeability ferrite core, typically in the form of a rod measuring 10-20 cm in length, enabling compact designs suitable for medium-wave AM reception.^[47] The ferrite core significantly boosts the coil's inductance through its relative permeability μ_r, which can reach values up to 1000, concentrating the magnetic field lines from incident radio waves and allowing the antenna to achieve performance comparable to larger air-core loops despite its small physical size.^[48] This enhancement arises because the effective permeability μ_fe approximates μ_r when the coil closely fits the core, increasing the magnetic flux linkage and thus the induced voltage.^[48] Invented in the early 1950s to enable compact antennas in emerging transistor radios, ferrite loops quickly became integral to portable AM receivers, replacing bulkier wire antennas and facilitating the miniaturization of consumer electronics.^[49] They were also employed in aviation automatic direction finder (ADF) systems, with widespread use continuing into the 1990s and beyond, though largely replaced by satellite-based alternatives by the 2000s.^[41]^[50] In applications such as portable radios and loopsticks within AM broadcast receivers, ferrite loops are often tuned by adjusting the position of a movable coil slug along the rod, which varies the effective inductance to resonate with the desired frequency when paired with a fixed or variable capacitor.^[47] This configuration excels in environments requiring directional selectivity, as the antenna exhibits high directivity with maximum sensitivity perpendicular to the rod axis and a null along it, aiding in rejecting interference.^[47] Performance metrics include a quality factor Q typically ranging from 50 to 200 at AM frequencies, balancing bandwidth and selectivity while maintaining low losses in the ferrite material.^[51] The sensitivity of these antennas rivals that of full-size whip antennas due to the amplified magnetic coupling, with the effective aperture area A_eff approximated as A_eff = μ_r A_core, where A_core is the physical cross-sectional area of the core; this derivation adjusts the standard small-loop effective area by the permeability factor to account for the flux concentration within the ferrite.^[48]

Specialized Configurations

Feeder Loops

Feeder loops serve a critical role in antenna systems by integrating small auxiliary loops at the feedpoint to perform balun-like functions and end-fed impedance matching. These loops facilitate the transition from the unbalanced impedance of the transmission line, typically 50 ohms coaxial cable, to the higher impedance of the main loop antenna, often around 100-200 ohms or more depending on configuration. By employing magnetic coupling, feeder loops help suppress common-mode currents on the outer shield of the feedline, reducing noise pickup and improving overall system balance and efficiency. Common configurations of feeder loops include the small inductive coupling loop used in magnetic loop antennas, where a compact loop—often one-fifth the diameter of the main loop—is positioned inside or adjacent to the primary radiator to transfer energy via mutual inductance. The position and size of this feeder loop are tuned to optimize coupling for the desired frequency range, enabling efficient power injection without direct electrical connection to the main loop. Another configuration involves small loops acting as RF chokes at the feedpoint, wound around ferrite cores or formed from coaxial cable to present high impedance to common-mode signals while allowing differential mode propagation. In delta loop antennas, a gamma match variant incorporates a short section or stub to achieve end-fed matching, adapting the antenna's natural impedance to the feedline. The electrical analysis of feeder loops treats them as inductive transformers, where the effective turns ratio is influenced by the relative areas or geometries of the loops, providing an impedance transformation proportional to the square of this ratio. This coupling mechanism relies on mutual inductance M between the feeder loop (L1) and the main loop (L2), quantified by the coupling coefficient:

k = \frac{M}{\sqrt{L_1 L_2}}

Here, M represents the magnetic flux linkage through one loop produced by current in the other, derived from Neumann's formula for mutual inductance integrating the dot product of current elements along the loop paths. Values of k typically range from 0.1 to 0.3 in practical designs, ensuring sufficient energy transfer while avoiding overcoupling that could detune the system or introduce losses. This approach minimizes common-mode currents by confining fields to the differential mode, enhancing pattern integrity and noise rejection.

Non-Radiating Loops

Non-radiating loops, also known as inductive loops or coupling coils, are closed conductor configurations designed primarily for magnetic field generation or coupling in the reactive near-field region, where radiation is intentionally minimized and negligible, typically less than 1% of input power due to their electrical size being much smaller than the operating wavelength (size << λ). These structures function as high-Q inductors, emphasizing energy storage and transfer through mutual inductance rather than electromagnetic wave propagation, distinguishing them from radiating antennas by their focus on quasi-static magnetic fields for applications like power transfer and sensing. In radio-frequency identification (RFID) systems, non-radiating loops serve as coils for near-field magnetic coupling between readers and passive tags, enabling short-range data exchange and power delivery without significant far-field radiation. These coils are typically planar or helical, with dimensions far smaller than the wavelength at frequencies like 13.56 MHz, where λ ≈ 22 meters, ensuring operation in the reactive near-field dominated by magnetic induction. To optimize power transfer efficiency, RFID coils achieve quality factors (Q) greater than 100, which minimizes resistive losses and maximizes stored magnetic energy, as seen in designs using low-loss materials and precise tuning.^[52]^[53]^[54] Near-field communication (NFC), a subset of RFID, employs standardized loop coils operating at 13.56 MHz under ISO 14443 protocols to facilitate contactless transactions and device pairing within distances of a few centimeters. These loops generate alternating magnetic fields that induce currents in tag coils via mutual inductance, powering the tag and modulating data without relying on radiated waves. The mutual inductance M between two coaxial loop coils is derived from the Biot-Savart law for the magnetic flux linkage.^[52]^[55]^[56] Induction heating applications utilize large non-radiating loops to generate eddy currents in conductive workpieces through strong, localized magnetic fields, typically at medium frequencies of 10-100 kHz to balance penetration depth and heating efficiency. At these frequencies, the loop acts as a current-carrying inductor that confines energy to the near-field, inducing ohmic heating via Faraday's law without appreciable radiation, as the structure's size remains much smaller than the wavelength (λ > 3 km). Historical examples include Tesla coils, which employ resonant primary and secondary loops for high-voltage generation through inductive coupling, originally developed in the 1890s for wireless power experiments but exemplifying non-radiating loop principles in their core transformer-like operation.^[57]^[58]

References

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[33]
[PDF] Analysis and Design of Electrically Small Loop Antennas for LF and ...
Higher values of Q result in a smaller 3dB bandwidth for the tuned loop. This is helpful up to a point, but tuned bandwidth can not in general be reduced below ...
[34]
[PDF] Analysis and Calibration of Loop Probes for use in Measuring ... - DTIC
VOLTAGE INDUCED IN A LOOP PROBE. BY A SMALL RADIATING LOOP ANTENNA*. It is ... where. E2 = the voltage induced in the loop, microvolts;. E = r-f field ...
[35]
[PDF] Easy to Build Low Band Receiving Antennas for Small and Large Lots
Small loop antennas produce very low signal levels. ○ requires a 20-30 dB gain, very low noise figure preamplifier. ○ a low sensitivity receiving antenna ...Missing: microvolts | Show results with:microvolts
[36]
[PDF] radio direction finding
The response of a loop antenna to such a wave would also be a figure-of-eight type of response, but the nulls would be dis- placed 90°from those caused by ...
[37]
[PDF] Chapter 14 - Direction Finding Antennas - QRZ.RU
A loop or loopstick antenna may be made to have a single null if a second antenna element is added. The element is called a sensing antenna, because it gives an ...
[38]
How to Master Ham Radio Fox Hunting: Guide to Essential Gear
Loop antennas are amazing at creating sharp nulls with precision exceeding ±5 degrees. Detuning and harmonic tracking. The real challenge comes when you get ...
[39]
ADF Basics - AVweb
Sep 6, 1998 · The loop antenna is a flat antenna usually located on the bottom of theaircraft, while the sense antenna is a long wire that often runs from top ...
[40]
Fox Hunt Loops - Arrow Antennas
$$79.00. FHL-UHF Fox Hunt Loop (for frequency's from 1 MHz. up to 1 GHz.) (FREE U.S. SHIPPING) ; $60.00. 4 MHz. Offset Fox Hunt Attenuator.Fits between the Loop ...
[41]
[PDF] Introduction into Theory of Direction Finding - everything RF
i.e. that correlation with acoustic patterns is required in or- der to determine the loop null. Beamforming methods. Adaptive antennas are antenna arrays with ...
[42]
Small Transmitting Loop Antennas - AA5TB
As the loop is made larger it begins to diverge from being a "magnetic dipole" and the pattern and polarization can change.
[43]
Magloop - inlandnvis
Due to it's small size it is much less efficient of an antenna on the NVIS bands (especially 80m) compared to 1/4 λ and larger antennas such as a dipole. It ...<|separator|>
[44]
https://www.aa5tb.com/loop.html
[45]
Ferrite Rod Antenna - Ferrite Bar Aerial - Electronics Notes
With a Q of this value it will mean that the antenna circuit will need tuning if it is to operate over more than a single channel or frequency.Missing: directivity | Show results with:directivity
[46]
(PDF) The Inductance of Ferrite Rod Antennas - ResearchGate
May 13, 2021 · When a ferrite rod is inserted into an air coil its inductance increases by a large factor, but the widely quoted equations for predicting ...
[47]
First Radio to use a Ferrite Rod Antenna |Radiomuseum.org
Nov 4, 2015 · The RCA model 1R81 from 1950 is at least one of the early broadcast receiver using a ferrite rod antenna.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[48]
Energy Harvesting from AM Broadcasting Radio Waves with High-Q ...
The energy harvesting system, which consists of a high-Q ferrite rod antenna and a high-efficiency rectifier, was developed to efficiently harvest power ...
[49]
[PDF] PN7160 antenna design and matching guide - NXP Semiconductors
Feb 27, 2024 · PN7160 is a highly integrated NFC transceiver IC for contactless communication at 13.56 MHz. This transceiver. IC utilizes an outstanding ...
[50]
twisted pair for RFID (RI-RFM-007B) - TI E2E - Texas Instruments
Aug 21, 2012 · The voltage is depending on the resonance Q of your antenna resonance circuit. If a TI antenna is used the Q factor will be high (about 100).
[51]
[PDF] microID 13.56 MHz RFID System Design Guide
MCRF360 = 13.56 MHz Anti-Collision device with 100 pF of on-chip ... The voltage across the coil is a product of quality factor. Q of the circuit ...
[52]
[PDF] an2972-how-to-design-an-antenna-for-dynamic-nfc-tags ...
Jul 24, 2018 · The ISO 15693 and ISO 14443 RF protocols used by dynamic NFC tag devices manufactured by ST are based on passive RFID technology, operating ...
[53]
[PDF] Formulas and tables for the calculation of mutual and self-inductance
Where several formulas are applicable to the same case we have pointed out the especial advantage of each and indicated.
[54]
High Frequency Induction Heating
Induction heating is a non-contact heating process. It uses high frequency electricity to heat materials that are electrically conductive.
[55]
Wireless Power Transmission on Tesla Principle - IJRASET
A Tesla coil is a device used for obtaining high voltage at high frequency. The initial purpose its creator, Nikola Tesla, envisioned for it was to transmit ...