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Man After Man

Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future is a speculative evolution book written by Scottish geologist Dougal Dixon and illustrated by Philip Hood, first published in 1990 by St. Martin's Press.^[1] The work traces the hypothetical descendants of twentieth-century humans as they undergo genetic engineering, colonize extraterrestrial environments, form undersea societies, and adapt to a post-civilizational Earth over millions of years.^[2] Dixon, who studied geology and paleontology at the University of St Andrews, employs principles of evolutionary biology to envision a divergence of human lineages into dozens of distinct species, including arboreal forms, burrowing insectivores, and genetically modified vacuum-adapted morphs capable of surviving in space.^[3]^[2] The narrative spans from near-future technological interventions to far-future natural selection following the collapse of interstellar human society, emphasizing adaptive radiation in response to ecological pressures across planets and artificial habitats.^[2] Renowned for its vivid full-color illustrations depicting these imagined post-human taxa in their habitats, the book builds on Dixon's earlier speculative works like After Man (1981), establishing him as a pioneer in forward-looking evolutionary speculation that blends scientific plausibility with imaginative extrapolation.^[1]^[2] While not a predictive scientific treatise, it highlights causal mechanisms such as genetic drift, mutation, and selection in shaping biodiversity, influencing subsequent explorations in speculative biology.^[3]

Publication and Development

Background and Conceptual Origins

Dougal Dixon, a Scottish geologist and paleontologist, developed the conceptual framework for Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future as an extension of his earlier speculative evolution works, particularly After Man: A Zoology of the Future (1981), which depicted Earth's biosphere 50 million years after human extinction.^[4] The core idea originated from envisioning humanity's near-future overpopulation and ecological collapse prompting the use of time travel to relocate to that distant future, only for humans to repeat destructive patterns and devastate the evolved ecosystems described in After Man.^[4] This narrative served as a cautionary exploration of human impact on planetary systems, blending speculative anthropology with evolutionary principles to illustrate potential long-term consequences of unchecked expansion.^[4] The project's origins trace to Dixon's interest in applying biological and ecological processes to fictional scenarios, influenced by childhood exposure to H.G. Wells' The Time Machine (1895), which sparked his fascination with temporal and evolutionary futures.^[4] Initially intended to integrate directly with After Man's far-future setting, the concept evolved separately when the title Man After Man was unavailable due to prior use in another project; Dixon later repurposed elements of this premise for Greenworld (2010), an alien colonization narrative published only in Japanese.^[4] Despite these roots in Dixon's established methodology of extrapolating from real evolutionary mechanisms—like adaptation, speciation, and ecological niches—the book emerged amid publisher expectations following the commercial success of After Man and The New Dinosaurs (1988), which Dixon later described as contributing to it being a "disaster of a project" due to rushed development.^[4]^[5]

Creation Process and Influences

Dougal Dixon, a Scottish geologist and illustrator trained in both fields, developed Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future as an extension of his prior speculative evolution work, particularly After Man: A Zoology of the Future (1981), which depicted Earth's fauna 50 million years after human extinction.^[6] The book's core concept originated in the late 1970s and 1980s, during Dixon's time in publishing, where he extrapolated human evolutionary trajectories using principles of geology, paleontology, and directed genetic engineering amid scenarios like overpopulation and ecological collapse.^[4] Initially pitched as a narrative of near-future humans employing time travel to colonize the distant future ecosystem of After Man, escaping Earth's crises only to perpetuate environmental destruction through resource exploitation and bioengineering.^[6] Influences on the work included H.G. Wells's The Time Machine (1895), which as a child inspired Dixon's fascination with future evolutionary divergence and societal decay, alongside 1960s conservationist campaigns such as "Save the Whale," which informed themes of human-induced extinction and adaptive radiation.^[4] Dixon's geological background emphasized causal mechanisms like climatic shifts, magnetic pole reversals, and ice ages as drivers of speciation, while his illustration expertise allowed for visualizing hypothetical anatomies grounded in extant biology.^[6] However, the 1990 published edition by Blandford Press diverged from Dixon's preferred outline, incorporating alternative artistic interpretations by illustrators including Diz Wallis and Philip Hood, leading Dixon to express dissatisfaction with the final product's fidelity to his vision.^[6]^[4] Dixon's creative method involved initial sketches and "dummy text" to prototype evolutionary timelines, projecting trends from fossil records and contemporary ecology into speculative futures, often prioritizing ecological niches over strict phylogenetic continuity.^[4] This approach, refined through self-illustration in later works, underscored Man After Man's focus on post-human descendants adapted for extraterrestrial habitats and genetic modification, though the book's execution reflected publisher constraints rather than unadulterated authorial intent.^[6]

Publication History and Editions

Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future was first published in hardcover in 1990 by Blandford Publishing in the United Kingdom (ISBN 9780713720716) and St. Martin's Press in the United States (ISBN 0-312-03560-8, priced at $19.95).^[7]^[1] The book spans 128 pages and includes detailed illustrations by author Dougal Dixon.^[7]^[1] A paperback edition followed on March 19, 1992, published by Cassell & Co., a division of the Orion Publishing Group.^[8] No subsequent revised, expanded, or anniversary editions have been issued, distinguishing it from Dixon's earlier work After Man (1981), which received a 40th anniversary edition in 2022.^[9]

Content Overview

Near-Future Human Adaptations (200–300 Years)

In Man After Man, Dougal Dixon envisions the initial phase of human-directed evolution occurring over approximately 200 years following the book's 1990 publication, amid a backdrop of societal collapse driven by overpopulation, resource exhaustion, and ecological ruin.^[10] Genetic engineering becomes the primary tool for adaptation, with humans selectively modifying genomes to produce specialized subspecies tailored for extreme environments on Earth and preparatory roles in interstellar colonization via generational starships.^[11] These engineered forms, often sterile and non-reproductive to prevent uncontrolled proliferation, serve as labor proxies for an elite class of unmodified or minimally altered Homo sapiens, emphasizing utilitarian design over ethical considerations of autonomy.^[12] Key adaptations include aquatic variants for oceanic resource extraction. The aquamorph (Homo aquaticus), frog-like in form with gills, blubber insulation, and paddle-shaped limbs, is engineered for submerged mining and construction, enabling efficient operation in deep-sea pressures without life-support machinery.^[11] Derived from these, the piscanthropus (Piscanthropus submarinus) represents a reproductive iteration, manatee-resembling with fused hindlimbs, external gill slits, and the ability to deposit gel-encased eggs on land for terrestrial phases, allowing semi-autonomous underwater colonies.^[11] Terrestrial and atmospheric specialists, such as Homo sapiens industriosus for heavy industry and Homo sapiens volans for high-altitude tasks, incorporate enhanced musculature, sensory augmentations, and respiratory modifications to exploit marginal habitats like deserts or upper atmospheres.^[10] Space-oriented modifications prioritize vacuum tolerance and radiation resistance. Vacuumorphs (Homo caelestis) feature exoskeletal suits fused to the body, sealed orifices, and internalized life-support systems, rendering them suited for extraterrestrial construction but dependent on external gestation and incapable of independent reproduction.^[11] Concurrently, cybernetic integration yields the Hitek (Homo sapiens machinadiumentum), a subspecies reliant on prosthetic enhancements for survival, arising from prolonged medical interventions and inbreeding among isolated technocratic groups; these individuals exhibit diminished natural physiology offset by mechanical symbiosis.^[11] Dixon grounds these projections in extrapolated biotechnology trends of the late 20th century, such as recombinant DNA, though the designs assume rapid mastery of germline editing absent real-world constraints like off-target effects or ethical prohibitions.^[13] By 300 years, these interventions lay the foundation for off-world divergence, with engineered humans populating nascent colonies on Mars, Europa, and beyond.

Mid-Term Divergence and Colonization (Thousands to Millions of Years)

In the millennia following the initial genetic engineering of human variants for environmental adaptation, Dixon posits a period of pronounced evolutionary divergence among Homo fabricatus populations, driven by isolation in disparate habitats both on Earth and in extraterrestrial colonies. Approximately 1,000 years into the future, baseline Homo sapiens faces extinction due to a geomagnetic reversal disrupting Earth's protective magnetic field, leaving engineered biotech humans—designed to repopulate ecological niches—as the dominant survivors.^[14]^[12] These variants, including plains-dwellers, tundra inhabitants, and aquatics, undergo natural selection pressures that promote speciation, with adaptations reflecting local conditions such as eusociality in open terrains or predation in forested zones.^[14] Space colonization, seeded by vacuumorphs (Homo caelestis) engineered for orbital and interstellar travel around 200 years ahead, accelerates divergence on a cosmic scale. Colony ships dispatch groups to exoplanets with extreme gravities, atmospheres, and radiation levels, where generational isolation—compounded by communication breakdowns over vast distances—fosters independent evolutionary trajectories. Over tens of thousands of years, low-gravity settlers develop elongated limbs and reduced bone density, while high-radiation environments select for enhanced cellular repair mechanisms, yielding forms increasingly removed from terrestrial humanity.^[12] Dixon illustrates this through hypothetical lineages adapting to barren asteroids or gas giant moons, where resource scarcity drives symbiotic or parasitic morphologies among post-humans.^[14] By 5,000 to 50,000 years post-departure, an encroaching ice age on Earth further stratifies terrestrial post-humans: desert-adapted variants like Alvearanthropus desertus emerge alongside oceanic specialists facing population bottlenecks, while woodland groups bifurcate into aggressive predators (Spiketeeth) and mnemonic lineages (Homo mensproavodorum) relying on inherited genetic memories for cultural transmission.^[12] In space, colonization wavefronts reach multiple star systems, but logistical failures strand populations, amplifying genetic drift and mutation rates; Dixon speculates that by 500,000 years, these isolates resemble exotic xenofauna, with some developing tool-using cultures tailored to non-Earth biomes.^[14] Extending to millions of years, Dixon's narrative culminates in the reintegration of space-evolved clades with Earth's biosphere, as interstellar descendants—now profoundly altered, with multipartite physiologies and resource-extraction imperatives—return to exploit recovering ecosystems. This phase underscores causal isolation as the primary driver of divergence, with over 5 million years elapsing before such recolonization, during which terrestrial aquatics like Piscanthropus profundus persist in abyssal refugia, evading surface upheavals.^[12]^[14] The book's projections emphasize empirical evolutionary principles, such as niche partitioning and allopatric speciation, applied to anthropogenic dispersal, though constrained by unverified assumptions about interstellar viability.^[14]

Far-Future Post-Human Species and Ecosystems

In Man After Man, the far-future scenario unfolds millions of years after a geomagnetic reversal around AD 2990 wipes out baseline humans and their immediate successors, prompting surviving high-technology engineers to create post-human species designed to repopulate depleted ecosystems and restore biodiversity as analogs to extinct megafauna.^[14] These engineered forms, initially sterile and task-specific, gain reproductive capacity over generations, evolving into diverse lineages that converge on ecological roles through natural selection in varied biomes, from savannas and rainforests to oceans and tundras.^[15] Dixon emphasizes causal mechanisms like niche partitioning and adaptive radiation, where post-humans fill voids left by prior extinctions, forming complex food webs with predators, herbivores, and social structures mimicking insects or primates.^[15] Terrestrial ecosystems feature specialized herbivores and predators. The Njemba (Proboscianthropus njemba), a 3.5-meter-tall bipedal grazer in East African savanna microcontinents, sports a proboscis-like nose, elongated arms, and extended intestines for processing fibrous, low-nutrient foliage, echoing proboscidean evolution.^[15] In equatorial rainforests, the Lilim (Dendranthropus agilis), lightweight gibbon-analogs weighing about 5 kg, brachiate through canopies with powerful grips and leap up to 10 meters, subsisting omnivorously with a herbivore bias in nomadic troops.^[15] Predatory forms include the Spiketooth (Acudens ferox), descended from woodland-dwellers, resembling saber-toothed cats with elongated canines and ambush tactics suited to temperate forests, preying on larger herbivores in balanced predator-prey dynamics.^[14] Eusocial species like the Socials, evolving into Hivers, inhabit communal nests in woodlands, exhibiting insect-like caste systems with sterile workers and reproductive queens, foraging collectively on vegetation and small prey.^[14] Aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems dominate later evolutions, reflecting humanity's engineered expansions into marine niches. Aquamorphs (Homo aquaticus), frog-like with gills, streamlined bodies, and salt-tolerant physiologies, harvest deep-ocean resources, supporting undersea colonies in chemosynthetic vent communities and open pelagic zones.^[16] These give rise to the Piscanthropus profundus, highly intelligent deep-sea posthumans retaining humanoid cognition, adapted to perpetual darkness and high pressure around hydrothermal vents with bioluminescent lures and pressure-resistant tissues, forming the sole survivors after surface devastation.^[17] The scenario culminates in the return of interstellar "star travelers"—post-humans evolved during millions of years of space colonization into forms like Vacuumorphs (Homo caelestis), crab-like exoskeletal beings engineered for vacuum exposure and low gravity, capable of synthetic assembly from components.^[16] These resource-extracting colonists, unrecognizable as human, systematically mine Earth's biosphere, eradicating terrestrial and shallow-water life, leaving only isolated vent ecosystems sustained by geothermal chemosynthesis rather than sunlight-driven photosynthesis.^[14] Dixon portrays this as a realistic outcome of unchecked technological divergence, where spatial isolation drives extreme morphological shifts, underscoring ecosystems' fragility against advanced exploitation.^[14]

Scientific Foundations and Critiques

Underlying Evolutionary and Biological Principles

The evolutionary framework in Man After Man commences with human-directed genetic engineering, functioning as an accelerated form of artificial selection where targeted modifications enhance survival in extreme environments such as high-gravity exoplanets, deep oceans, or toxic atmospheres.^[18] This initial phase posits that genetic interventions—drawing from principles of heritability and phenotypic variation—create baseline populations with altered physiologies, such as vacuum-adapted forms with reinforced exoskeletons or aquatic variants exhibiting gill-like respiratory systems, before natural selective pressures dominate.^[5] Such engineering mirrors historical domestication processes in biology, where selective breeding amplifies traits under human control, but extrapolates to molecular-level redesigns constrained by developmental biology and genetic linkage.^[19] Following colonization and societal collapse, the book invokes Darwinian natural selection as the primary driver, emphasizing how geographic isolation on diverse habitats—ranging from arctic tundras to cavernous underworlds—fosters speciation through reproductive barriers and local adaptations.^[19] Differential fitness arises from mutations and recombinations interacting with ecological niches, leading to adaptive radiations after mass extinction events, such as those triggered by stellar dimming or resource scarcity, analogous to post-Cretaceous diversifications observed in the fossil record.^[18] Morphological innovations, like modular limb structures in colonials or bioluminescent signaling in night dwellers, are portrayed as outcomes of selection favoring energy-efficient locomotion, sensory enhancements, or social coordination, bounded by biomechanical realities such as allometric scaling and metabolic costs.^[5] Biological realism in these depictions underscores causal mechanisms like gene flow restriction and niche partitioning, where competition and predation sculpt descendant lineages into specialized forms, including predatory wombs or symbiotic insectivores, reflecting convergent evolution patterns seen in terrestrial vertebrates.^[19] However, the narrative integrates ecological interdependence, positing co-evolution with modified ecosystems—such as engineered prey species—that amplify selective gradients, while adhering to thermodynamic limits on complexity, as excessive deviations from bipedal ancestry would violate constraints on neural wiring and skeletal support.^[18] This approach privileges empirical analogies from paleontology, such as rapid radiations in isolated archipelagos, over unsubstantiated leaps, though long-term timelines (up to 5 million years) amplify uncertainties in genetic drift and epigenetic influences.^[5]

Assessments of Plausibility and Scientific Accuracy

Dixon's near-term projections of human adaptation through genetic engineering, such as engineered subspecies for vacuum-dwelling or aquatic environments, incorporate plausible elements of directed evolution via technologies akin to recombinant DNA, which were emerging in the 1980s and have advanced with tools like CRISPR-Cas9 since 2012. However, the depicted rapidity and complexity of modifications—creating fully functional post-human lineages within centuries—overstate feasibility, as current gene editing faces constraints in off-target effects, epigenetic inheritance, and multi-generational stability, limiting applications to simple traits rather than wholesale morphological overhauls. Mid-term scenarios involving interstellar colonization and subsequent isolation-driven divergence adhere to core principles of allopatric speciation and founder effects, where small populations on alien worlds could accelerate genetic drift and adaptation to local pressures like low gravity or toxic atmospheres. Yet, assumptions of sustained human-level intelligence persisting amid extreme selective regimes ignore empirical patterns from island biogeography, where reduced population sizes often lead to cognitive simplification or extinction rather than novel radiations, as observed in cases like the Galápagos finches or Homo floresiensis. Far-future depictions of bizarre post-human forms, such as the predatory "wump" or gelatinous "slish," prioritize aesthetic speculation over causal constraints, frequently violating biomechanical realities like the square-cube law, which limits body size and structural integrity in terrestrial vertebrates, or developmental canalization, which resists the extreme body plans diverging from mammalian bauplans. Critiques highlight inaccuracies in environmental drivers, including an overstated geomagnetic reversal that Dixon claims dissipates the field entirely, causing unchecked UV radiation and mass extinctions; geological evidence indicates reversals weaken but do not eliminate the dynamo-generated field, with biosphere recoveries via ozone and pigmentation adaptations mitigating impacts.^[20] Overall, while Dixon employs undiluted evolutionary logic to illustrate contingency and adaptation, the work's scientific accuracy wanes as plausibility yields to narrative invention, rendering it more inspirational than predictive.^[18]

Methodological Strengths and Limitations

Dixon's methodology in Man After Man leverages established evolutionary principles, such as natural selection and adaptive radiation, applied to human-modified lineages following initial phases of genetic engineering and interstellar colonization. By positing engineered "starter species" tailored to specific planetary environments, the book extrapolates divergence over geological timescales, incorporating factors like isolation, ecological niches, and mass extinctions to generate diverse post-human taxa. This framework draws on real-world analogies, including rapid speciation in island biogeography and human-induced evolutionary pressures, providing a structured timeline from near-term adaptations (e.g., 200–300 years) to far-future ecosystems millions of years hence.^[18]^[21] A key strength lies in its integration of human agency—via bioengineering—as a catalyst for evolution, realistically portraying how directed modifications could accelerate divergence before abandonment to undirected processes, thereby highlighting contingency and environmental determinism in speciation. The visual and narrative detail fosters understanding of complex biological interactions, influencing subsequent speculative works by emphasizing plausible extrapolations from known mechanisms like convergent evolution in isolated populations.^[6]^[22] Limitations include a teleological undertone, where evolution appears goal-oriented toward extreme, niche-specific forms, undervaluing randomness, genetic drift, and physiological barriers that constrain real-world adaptations. Many depicted traits, such as highly modular anatomies or rapid shifts to vivipary in derived lineages, exceed credible incrementalism, prioritizing dramatic visualization over biomechanical feasibility. Dixon himself later critiqued the work as a "disaster of a project," regretting its deviation from his intended linkage to broader ecological cycles in prior books like After Man, which compromised methodological coherence.^[4]^[6]

Ethical Considerations and Controversies

Depictions of Genetic Engineering and Societal Engineering

In Man After Man, Dougal Dixon depicts genetic engineering as a primary driver of human divergence beginning approximately 200 years into the future, where a technologically advanced subclass of Homo sapiens, termed Homo sapiens machinadiumentum or "HiTek," manipulates genomes to produce specialized post-human variants adapted for extraterrestrial colonization and environmental niches.^[18] These modifications involve targeted anatomical alterations, such as gill development in aquamorphs (Piscanthropus submarinus) for underwater habitats on ocean worlds and maintenance tasks, and reinforced skin with ocular shields in vacuumorphs (Homo caelestis) for zero-gravity satellite operations and deep-space survival.^[23]^[16] Further engineering yields ecological niche specialists, including tundra dwellers (Homo glacis fabricatus), forest dwellers (Homo silvis fabricatus), plains dwellers (Homo campis fabricatus), and woodland dwellers (Homo virgultis fabricatus), designed to emulate and replace extinct megafauna in specific biomes through enhanced physical traits like fur insulation or limb modifications.^[18]^[23] Upon humanity's return from interstellar expansion, genetic engineering resumes to support reconstruction efforts, producing colossal "building humans" for construction, diminutive "wire humans" or connection variants for intricate urban wiring and repairs, and equine-like forms for transportation, reflecting utilitarian adaptations to post-cataclysmic infrastructure needs.^[16]^[23] Dixon portrays these techniques as extensions of contemporary biotechnology, escalating to wholesale speciation without detailed mechanistic exposition beyond genome manipulation and selective breeding analogs.^[24] Societal engineering manifests through the deliberate stratification of these engineered lineages into hierarchical roles, with HiTek elites retaining advanced cybernetic enhancements and genetic purity while relegating modified humans to labor castes, fostering a divide that precipitates societal collapse and species independence.^[18] Post-engineering, divergent groups evolve distinct social structures: some, like the eusocial "socials," adopt hive-like organizations with a single reproductive individual directing sterile workers; others form symbiotic pairs, such as telepathically linked hunter-carrier dyads where agile, intelligent controllers direct bulky, less cognizant partners for resource acquisition.^[24]^[16] This engineered balkanization extends to exploitative systems, including variants farmed as livestock or integrated via cyborg augmentations (e.g., air-tank fusions) under external pressures like environmental degradation or hypothetical alien terraforming, underscoring a progression from intentional design to uncontrolled divergence.^[23]^[16]

Critiques on Ethical Oversights and Implications

Critics have noted that Man After Man overlooks the ethical challenges inherent in its depictions of widespread genetic engineering, where humans create specialized descendant species for labor, colonization, and adaptation without addressing issues of consent, autonomy, or rights for these engineered beings.^[5] The narrative portrays a progression from near-future modifications—such as aquatic or vacuum-adapted humans engineered for extraterrestrial habitats—to far-future speciation involving subservient castes, yet it presents these developments as pragmatic outcomes of technological necessity rather than interrogating the moral hazards of treating sentient descendants as disposable tools.^[5] This omission extends to themes of enslavement and parasitism, where engineered humans are subjugated or symbiotically exploited by others, evoking parallels to historical systems of coercion but without narrative condemnation or exploration of resistance based on inherent dignity.^[5] Reviewers interpret these elements as a "freak show" of unchecked bio-manipulation, highlighting an ethical blind spot in assuming societal stability amid such profound inequalities, potentially underestimating causal factors like rebellion or ethical backlash that could derail such trajectories in reality.^[5] The book's implications for bioethics include a cautionary undertone about genetic divergence leading to fragmented societies, where initial engineering for survival fosters long-term exploitation and loss of shared humanity, though Dixon himself described the project as a "disaster," suggesting ambivalence toward its speculative excesses rather than endorsement.^[5] ^[25] Some commentators debate whether the work implicitly warns against eugenics-like practices or neutrally extrapolates from them, noting its dismissal of morality as an evolutionary artifact irrelevant to future adaptations.^[26] These portrayals have sparked broader reflections on the risks of reducing ethical considerations to biological imperatives, potentially normalizing hierarchies based on engineered traits over universal principles of agency.^[5]

Broader Societal Debates Sparked by the Book

"Man After Man" has contributed to niche discussions within speculative biology and science fiction communities on the ethical perils of genetic engineering, particularly the creation of modified human variants for labor, adaptation, and colonization, though it has not ignited widespread public controversies. A 1990 review in Nature highlighted the book's superficial treatment of these issues, noting that Dixon "only skirts over the ethics" while depicting extensive genetic manipulations without addressing their environmental sustainability or moral costs, such as the viability of a global ecosystem under "rampant genetic engineering."^[27] The narrative's portrayal of societal collapse leading to engineered "slave" species and parasitic human forms has prompted reflections on the risks of technological hubris, framing human persistence as potentially "disastrous success" rather than unmitigated progress. In a 2018 analysis, the work was interpreted as a cautionary vision questioning the value of survival through such means, contrasting with more optimistic transhumanist views and influencing debates on whether directed evolution erodes core human traits like unity and agency.^[5] These elements align with broader scholarly concerns about genetic engineering's societal ramifications, as cataloged in references to the book alongside ethical critiques of perfectionism in biotechnology, emphasizing inequities in who controls evolutionary futures.^[28] Dixon himself has described the project as compromised by publishing pressures, underscoring tensions between imaginative speculation and responsible foresight on human modification.^[25] Overall, the book's influence remains confined to prompting interdisciplinary thought experiments on causal chains from current technologies to post-human fragmentation, rather than polarizing mainstream opinion.

Reception and Cultural Impact

Initial Critical Responses

Upon its 1990 publication by Blandford Press in the United Kingdom and St. Martin's Press in the United States, Man After Man elicited mixed critical responses, with reviewers appreciating its ambitious speculative vision and detailed illustrations while faulting its departures from established evolutionary biology.^[29] Palaeontologist Henry Gee, in a Nature review dated June 14, 1990, issued a sharply negative assessment, labeling the book's scenarios a "highly improbable mess" for overemphasizing human-directed genetic engineering and Lamarckian-style adaptations over undirected natural selection, which he argued undermined the work's credibility as speculative anthropology.^[27] Gee contrasted it unfavorably with Dixon's earlier After Man (1981), praising the latter's charm but finding Man After Man's focus on post-human engineering and interstellar colonization to stretch plausibility to the point of narrative contrivance.^[27] In the Los Angeles Times on September 25, 1990, the review highlighted the book's "stunning illustrations" by Philip Hood and Dixon's "magisterial sweep," crediting its ability to foster empathy for alien-like descendants such as the vacuumorph through a compressed yet accessible recap of human evolutionary history.^[29] However, it critiqued anatomical inaccuracies in some depictions, the speculative leaps in genetic and technological developments—such as rapid adaptations for extraterrestrial environments—and the overall bleak tone of utilitarian, miserable post-human societies, which clashed hope with despair in a manner that prioritized dramatic futures over rigorous extrapolation.^[29] These early critiques reflected broader tensions in reception: the book's 128-page format, priced at £14.95 in the UK and $19.95 in the US, appealed to enthusiasts of speculative biology for its visual and narrative innovation but drew scientific pushback for conflating feasible genetic modification with improbable, teleological evolution unbound by empirical constraints like genetic drift and environmental pressures.^[27]^[29]

Long-Term Influence on Speculative Evolution

Man After Man extended speculative evolution to the human lineage, depicting scenarios of genetic engineering, interstellar colonization, and subsequent diversification into novel hominid forms over millions of years, thereby influencing portrayals of transhuman futures in the genre.^[19] Published in 1990 as the third in Dougal Dixon's series following After Man (1981) and The New Dinosaurs (1988), it provided a framework for envisioning engineered adaptations to extreme environments, such as vacuum-adapted vacuumorphs and aquatic aquamorphs, which echoed broader themes of directed evolution absent in purely post-extinction animal speculations.^[6] The book's concepts have informed fan-driven revisions and extensions within speculative biology communities, where creators attempt more plausible biological mechanisms, such as refining evolutionary timelines to align with genetic constraints and ecological realism.^[30] Despite Dixon's personal critique of the project as a "disaster" due to production issues and deviation from his original intent—which envisioned human impacts on an After Man world rather than a standalone anthropology—it contributed to the genre's emphasis on anthropocentric futures, inspiring discussions on the interplay of technology and natural selection.^[6] A modified edition released in Japan in 2024 underscores its enduring, if niche, appeal.^[6] Collectively with Dixon's prior works, Man After Man helped catalyze the speculative evolution movement, evident in its role within online forums and artistic projects that build upon its speculative lineages, though its direct citations trail those of After Man in academic and popular paleontological discourse.^[19] This influence manifests in heightened interest in hybrid evolutionary paths, blending human agency with long-term divergence, as seen in community efforts to "revamp" its scenarios for consistency with empirical evolutionary principles like allometry and niche partitioning.^[31] Man After Man shares thematic roots with Dougal Dixon's earlier speculative evolution works, particularly After Man: A Zoology of the Future (1981), which envisions animal diversification on Earth 50 million years after human extinction, emphasizing ecological niches filled by mammalian descendants like the "gull-penguins" and "predator rats."^[6] In contrast, Man After Man (1990) extends human lineage through directed genetic engineering and subsequent natural selection, depicting over 200 million years of hominid speciation into forms such as the aquatic "aquamorphs" and arboreal "wuskites," without assuming humanity's disappearance.^[6] This shift prioritizes continuity of human-derived intelligence and culture amid environmental pressures, differing from After Man's post-anthropocene focus on non-primate radiations.^[22] Dixon's The New Dinosaurs: An Alternative Evolution (1988) explores a counterfactual scenario where dinosaurs survive the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, leading to novel reptilian forms like the "horned toad" and "flying foxes," grounded in adaptive morphology and biome-specific evolution.^[6] While Man After Man employs similar illustrative techniques—detailed anatomical reconstructions and ecosystem integrations—it applies them to mammalian, specifically hominid, futures influenced by technology, such as cryogenic revival and interstellar colonization, rather than paleontological what-ifs.^[2] Both works underscore Dixon's method of extrapolating from extant biology, but Man After Man incorporates societal collapse and bioengineering as catalysts for divergence, absent in the dinosaur-centric narrative.^[6] Comparisons often arise with C. M. Kosemen's All Tomorrows: A Billion Year Chronicle of the Myriad Species and Mixed Fortunes of Man (2006), which similarly chronicles human post-speciation over cosmic timescales, featuring engineered grotesqueries like the "colonials" and "worm-like" descendants under alien genetic tyranny.^[32] Unlike Man After Man's emphasis on autonomous human-driven modifications and eventual reversion to primitivism, All Tomorrows introduces exogenous interventions by the Qu—an advanced species—resulting in more radical, horror-inflected morphologies and a narrative arc toward galactic recovery.^[33] Critics note Man After Man's relatively restrained, Earth-centric timeline versus All Tomorrows' expansive, extinction-prone scope, though both critique hubris in genetic tampering.^[34] The Future Is Wild (2002), co-authored by Dixon with John Adams and others, parallels After Man by projecting animal evolutions 5 to 200 million years post-humanity, including "squibbons" and "fliers," but incorporates probabilistic modeling and less anthropocentrism than Man After Man.^[35] Dixon's human-focused sequel diverges by sustaining sapient lineages through adaptive radiations, highlighting bioethical dilemmas like engineered castes, whereas The Future Is Wild prioritizes uninfluenced faunal successions in altered climates.^[6] These distinctions reflect Man After Man's unique blend of anthropology and evolutionary speculation, influencing subsequent works in the genre.^[36]

References

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Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future - Publication
Author: Dougal Dixon ; Date: 1990-09-00 ; ISBN: 0-312-03560-8 [978-0-312-03560-0] ; Publisher: St. Martin's Press ; Price: $19.95 ?$: US dollar. ISO code: USD.
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Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future - Amazon.com
This book is about the future of the human race, how it might evolve or ... Dougal Dixon. Brief content visible, double tap to read full ...
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Dougal Dixon was born in Dumfries, Scotland, in 1947, and spent most of his youth in the Scottish borderlands. He graduated Bachelor of Science in geology ...
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... Man After Man (Dixon 1990), a fantastic and slightly disturbing look at a possible future for humankind. Dougal was also substantially involved in the TV ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
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Wild Speculation: Evolution After Humans | Lucy Jakub
Sep 19, 2018 · Dixon admits that, after the success of After Man and The New Dinosaurs, he felt pressured by his publisher to write Man After Man, a “disaster ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Speculative Zoology and the World of After Man; an Interview With ...
Apr 7, 2025 · After Man needed a follow-up and this was provided later in the decade by The New Dinosaurs (Dixon 1988), a book that told the story of a ...<|separator|>
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In stock Rating 3.8 (942) Publisher: Blandford ; Publication date: 1990 ; Language: English ; ISBN 10: 0713720719 ; ISBN 13: 9780713720716 ...
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Man after man by Dougal Dixon | Open Library
Man after man ; Publish Date. 1990 ; Publisher. St. Martin's Press ; Language. English ; Pages. 128 ; Published in: New York ...
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Feb 2, 2022 · This updated edition features eighteen pages of never-before-seen sketches and production material alongside a new afterword by Dougal Dixon.
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Nov 30, 2010 · Dougal Dixon - Man After Man : An Anthropology of the Future (1990) ... "The book begins with the impact of genetic engineering. For 200 years ...Missing: term | Show results with:term
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Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future (1990) is a speculative book written by Scottish geologist Dougal Dixon and illustrated by Philip Hood.
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Jun 15, 2021 · Man After Man is a work of science fiction by Scottish geologist Dougal Dixon. It aims to chart the speculative evolution of mankind.Why is Dougal Dixon's 'Man After Man' book so expensive? - RedditWhat do you guys think of Man After Man? : r/AllTomorrows - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[13]
Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future - Goodreads
Rating 3.8 (949) Man After Man is an illustrated anthropology of the future. It shows how the human race might evolve naturally or be adapted to face life under the sea or in ...
[14]
Man After Man - Wikipedia
Man After Man is Dixon's third work on speculative evolution, following After Man (1981) and The New Dinosaurs (1988). Unlike the previous two books, which were ...Dougal Dixon · Greenworld · The New Dinosaurs
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Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future (Literature) - TV Tropes
a single ancestor." Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future (1990) is the third speculative evolution book written by Scottish geologist ...Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[16]
The Successors of the Mankind
Later, Dixon had returned to this theme and had submitted to attention of readers a book “Man After Man. An Anthropology of the Future” (1990). This book is ...
[17]
Rewilding Humanity - Dougal Dixon's Man After Man - Flashbak
Jun 19, 2025 · Dougal Dixon's Man After Man : An Anthropology of the Future (1990) begins with the impact of genetic engineering.Missing: near | Show results with:near
[18]
Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future - Bionity
Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future (1990) is a speculative book written by Scottish geologist Dougal Dixon. The theme of the book is a science ...Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[19]
[PDF] An Analysis of Speculative Human Evolution in Literary Fiction
Dougal Dixon's 1990 novel Man After Man tells the story of five genetically modified descendant species of humanity – the Tundra Dwellers, Forest Dwellers, ...
[20]
Speculative biology: understanding the past and predicting our future
May 31, 2018 · Dougal Dixon, who studied geology at the University of St Andrews, followed up After Man with two similar speculative biology books. In 1988 ...
[21]
https://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/tetrapod-zoology/speculative-zoology-a-discussion/
[22]
Speculative Zoology, a Discussion - Scientific American
Jul 16, 2018 · ... Man After Man). Bring things forward to the internet age, and we see several people (and groups of people) effectively doing the exact same ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[23]
Book review – After Man: A Zoology of the Future
Jul 19, 2018 · The concept of the book is simple. What if humans went extinct and we were to travel 50 million years into the future? What would life look like then?
[24]
Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future - Pantograph Punch
... Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future by Dougal Dixon: The book begins with the impact of genetic engineering. For 200 years modern humans morphed ...
[25]
Man after Man by Dougal Dixon | Terminally Incoherent
Dec 22, 2010 · He factors in various variable influences such as coming of another ice age, magnetic pole reversal of the planet and human meddling via genetic ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1266344.Man_After_Man_An_Anthropology_of_the_Future
[27]
https://www.nature.com/articles/345489a0
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Second guess - Nature
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SFE: Genetic Engineering - SF Encyclopedia
Dougal Dixon's Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future (1990) also ... Michael Sandel. The Case Against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering ...
[30]
BOOK REVIEW : Hope, Despair Clash in a Fictional Future in 'Man ...
... Dougal Dixon, to speculate on how humankind in ... The stunningly illustrated, starkly written “Man After Man” falls squarely into the “Blade Runner” genre.Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
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My Man After Man/After Man project revisited - Speculative Evolution
Dec 7, 2014 · This is my second revisited project that attempts to create more plausible version of Dougal Dixon's two speculative evolution projects.
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Speculative Evolution -> Man After Man/After Man revamped
Here's a new piece featuring one of my oldest speculative evolution ideas inspired by Man After Man. They're a group of post human species called the snatchers.
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Readers who enjoyed Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future
also enjoyed · Shelve All Tomorrows: The Myriad Species and Mixed Fortunes of Man · Shelve I Have No Mouth & I Must Scream · Shelve All Yesterdays: Unique and ...
[34]
The Virgin Man After Man vs The Chad All Tomorrows - Reddit
Apr 17, 2023 · ... Man After Man (that Dougal Dixon was strongarmed into doing). Then All Tomorrows wouldnt stand a chance. u/TimeStorm113 avatar · TimeStorm113.Dougal Dixon's pre-Man After Man depiction of a future human, from ...Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future by Dougal DixonMore results from www.reddit.com
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Virgin "Man after man" VS Chad "All tomorrows" - Reddit
Aug 24, 2021 · Man after Man has a very "nature documentary" feel to it with ... I understand that this is a joke but this is a genuinely bad critique.For those angry at Dougal Dixon for plagiarizing Wayne Barlower/AllTomorrows - What do you think each book does better ... - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[36]
Looking for books/sites similar to All Tomorrows and Man After Man
Jan 4, 2018 · The Future is Wild, by Dougal Dixon and John Adams · The New Dinosaurs, by Dougal Dixon · Man After Man, by, well... · After Man, Dougal Dixon's ...Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future by Dougal DixonBizarre future humans from Dougal Dixon's Man After Man - RedditMore results from www.reddit.comMissing: Anthropology | Show results with:Anthropology
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A Very Special Speculative Evolution Post – Part 1 | Earthling Nature
Feb 14, 2021 · -The second part focuses solely on Dougal Dixon's trilogy of After Man, The New Dinosaurs, and Man After Man, and marked the de facto birth ...