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Peter's Colony

Peters Colony, also known as Peters' Colony, was an land grant contract awarded by the on August 30, 1841, to William S. Peters, an English-born investor residing in , and nineteen and English associates, authorizing the recruitment of immigrant families to settle a vast tract in . The initial agreement required the contractors to introduce 200 families within three years to a territory bounded by the near Big Mineral Creek, extending southward 60 miles and westward 22 miles, with settlers entitled to 320 to 640 acres of land per family, while the empresarios retained up to half the premium lands and additional sections as incentives. Subsequent contracts in and expanded the obligations to 800 families and over 10 million acres, targeting primarily English industrial workers and migrants to bolster frontier development amid ongoing threats from Native American tribes. The colony represented the Republic's first major post-independence venture, succeeding where earlier Mexican-era efforts had faltered by leveraging private investment to populate sparsely settled northern frontiers, ultimately distributing nearly 880,000 acres to over 2,200 families by the contract's expiration in 1848. Despite achieving significant demographic growth—settling 197 families and 184 single men by mid-1844—and laying foundations for modern communities in counties such as , Collin, Denton, and Grayson, the project encountered persistent obstacles including inadequate surveys, squatter encroachments, and disputes over unfulfilled contractor promises of supplies and protections. These tensions escalated into the Hedgcoxe War of , a brief armed rebellion by settlers against perceived overreach by colony officials, highlighting systemic failures in land allocation and that delayed title resolutions for nearly two decades. Though yielding little profit for the investors and fostering widespread settler discontent, Peters Colony's legacy endures in the enduring Anglo-American settlement patterns that transformed from wilderness into productive agricultural heartland.

History

Establishment of the Grant

The enacted a on February 4, 1841, authorizing the president to enter into contracts with empresarios for colonizing unoccupied lands, drawing from both and traditions to promote in areas. This enabled the issuance of speculative grants to investors who would recruit and support immigrant families in exchange for portions of the land. On August 30, 1841, Samuel Browning, acting on behalf of William S. Peters, signed the initial contract with the in Austin, establishing the Peters Colony grant to Peters and nineteen associates—ten Americans and ten English investors organized under entities like the Texas Agricultural, Commercial, and Manufacturing Company. The grant covered approximately 600,000 acres in , bounded from the at Big Mineral Creek southward 60 miles, westward 22 miles, northward to the , and eastward to the starting point, encompassing areas now in present-day Denton, Collin, Grayson, and Fannin counties. The contractors committed to recruiting and settling 600 families within three years, providing each colonist with essential supplies such as powder, shot, seeds, and in some cases rudimentary cabins, while surveying lands and facilitating title processing. In return, heads of families were entitled to 640 acres and single men to 320 acres of fertile or , with the empresarios retaining one-third of odd-numbered sections and one-half of even-numbered sections as premium, plus ten additional sections per 100 families introduced. This structure incentivized rapid immigration amid the Republic's financial constraints and security needs against Native American raids, though subsequent contracts in 1841, 1842, and 1843 expanded the territory and obligations to address initial shortfalls in settlement.

Initial Settlement Efforts

The Peters Colony's initial settlement efforts commenced following the Republic of Texas's authorization of an empresario contract on August 30, 1841, with a company led by William S. Peters and nineteen associates, primarily from the and , committing to introduce 200 families within three years. A supplementary contract on November 9, 1841, expanded the obligation to 800 families, granting the company premium lands in alternate sections as incentives—10 sections per 100 families introduced—while allotting 640 acres to each family head and 320 acres to single men upon settlement. Recruitment targeted immigrants from the , , and , with promises of fertile lands in the region, bounded roughly by the to the north, extending 60 miles south and 22 miles west. The first group of colonists arrived by in the area as early as December 1841, marking the onset of physical settlement in this frontier zone characterized by dense woodlands and prairies. Early efforts focused on surveying and allocating lands within the colony's expansive domain, which spanned over 16,000 square miles across present-day counties including Denton, Collin, and Grayson, though actual introductions lagged behind commitments due to logistical hurdles such as rudimentary transportation and the remote, uncleared terrain. By July 1, 1844, company records documented 197 families and 184 single men as settled heads, reflecting modest progress amid ongoing recruitment drives that emphasized cheap land titles after one year of cultivation. Initial challenges included squatters encroaching on unallocated premium lands, disputes over title validity, and the inherent difficulties of life, including potential conflicts with groups in the region, which deterred some prospective settlers and slowed the pace of introductions below the contracted quotas. Despite these obstacles, the efforts laid groundwork for clustered hamlets in areas like the Elm Fork of the River, where pioneers began clearing land for subsistence farming and basic , though comprehensive surveys and full compliance remained incomplete by the mid-1840s. An 1845 ordinance from the constitutional convention initiated scrutiny of such contracts, foreshadowing later validations but not immediately halting early activities.

Expansion and Statehood Transition

The Peters Colony expanded through a series of supplemental contracts that adjusted boundaries and increased settlement obligations following the initial agreement of August 30, , which allocated approximately 600,000 acres for 600 families south of the . A second contract on November 9, , extended the territory 40 miles southward while raising the required number of settlers to 800 families, addressing initial shortfalls in lands. Further growth occurred via a third contract on July 26, 1842, incorporating additional 10-mile western and 12-mile eastern strips with alternating sections reserved for the , and a fourth contract in January 1843 that added over 10 million acres westward, extending operations until July 1, 1848. These expansions ultimately facilitated the recruitment of around 2,205 families and single men, who received grants totaling 879,920 acres, though actual settlement lagged initially due to Native American threats and logistical challenges, reaching only 197 families and 184 single men by July 1844. Texas's annexation to the on December 29, 1845, and subsequent statehood marked a pivotal transition for the colony, introducing federal military protection via army posts that mitigated Indian raids and encouraged accelerated immigration from states like and . The colony's contracts, originally under oversight, continued under authority until expiration on , 1848, after which unsurveyed lands reverted to the for general settlement via certificates. Post-statehood disputes intensified over land titles, as the Texas Emigration and Land Company sought premium lands (half of grants as compensation), prompting legislative intervention in 1850 to safeguard colonists' claims against company overreach. Tensions culminated in the Hedgcoxe War on July 16, 1852, when armed settlers expelled the colony's agent, Henry O. Hedgcoxe, amid protests over surveys favoring the company. A compromise act passed February 10, 1852, awarded the company 1,700 sections of land in floating certificates, later amended on May 7, 1853, to resolve claims, though full adjudication extended nearly two decades through additional state laws. This transition integrated the colony's lands into Texas's state framework, fostering long-term development across 26 counties while yielding minimal returns for investors.

Decline and Resolution

The Peters Colony contract expired on July 1, 1848, without the Texas Emigration and Land Company fully meeting its immigration quotas, despite recruiting approximately 1,800 families and single men across the expanded grants. Following expiration, unsurveyed and unclaimed lands within the colony boundaries became subject to general land laws, allowing new settlers to locate 640-acre certificates on vacant areas, which undermined the security of existing colonists' smaller grants (typically 320–640 acres) and sparked widespread disputes over preemption rights and title validations. Tensions escalated as colonists accused of retaining excessive alternate sections (up to half the land) without fulfilling obligations, including adequate surveys and protections against external claims. On February 10, 1852, the enacted a measure to address these grievances, offering settlers options to validate claims by paying nominal fees or relocating to unclaimed sections, while protecting company holdings. Dissatisfied settlers, viewing the law as favoring the company, organized protests; this culminated in the Hedgcoxe War on July 16, 1852, when an armed group led by figures like Jonathan Bridges seized company records from agent Henry O. Hedgcoxe in Denton County and forced his eviction, though no fatalities occurred. The brief prompted legislative intervention, extending the deadline for colonists to file and perfect claims until May 7, 1853, and providing mechanisms for title confirmation through state land offices. Subsequent statutes and proceedings, spanning nearly a , resolved most disputes by validating bona fide claims while allowing the company to retain specified premiums and unsold sections, effectively dissolving organized colony operations by the late 1850s as lands integrated into standard processes. A 1860 ordinance from the state constitutional convention further declared the colony's failure to meet original terms, facilitating final adjustments to outstanding certificates.

Geography and Boundaries

Original Land Allocation

The original Peters' Colony contract, signed on August 30, 1841, by the with William S. Peters and nineteen associates, allocated a tract of land in bounded by the at the mouth of Big Mineral Creek in present-day Grayson County, extending south 60 miles, west 22 miles, north to the , and east to the origin point. This initial grant encompassed approximately 600 square miles, with the Texas Emigration and Land Company—formed by the contractors—obligated to introduce and settle at least 200 families within three years to fulfill the empresario terms. Under the contract's land distribution provisions, eligible settlers—primarily mechanics, farmers, or laborers from the —received grants of up to 640 acres per married or 320 acres per unmarried adult male over age 17, provided they resided on the land for three years, erected a habitable (typically a 16-by-16-foot ), and cultivated at least 10 acres. The company retained the other half of each grant as a (e.g., 320 acres per family), plus additional bonuses such as one section per 100 families for , enabling the investors to claim substantial holdings upon successful . These allocations were surveyed into a systematic of 640-acre sections, facilitating orderly distribution and future claims, though actual surveys often lagged behind due to logistical challenges. The retained oversight, requiring the company to provide emigrants with necessary supplies, transportation, and initial provisions for one year, while prohibiting the sale of land certificates outside the colony boundaries. Failure to meet quotas risked forfeiture, but extensions in 1842 and 1843 expanded the allocated area westward and southward, incorporating over 10 million acres by January 1843, though the core original allocation remained tied to the boundaries for initial distributions. This structure incentivized rapid but sowed seeds for later disputes over unfulfilled premiums and overlapping claims.

Key Locations and Settlements

The Peters' Colony primarily occupied the region in , a densely wooded area of oak and walnut groves spanning approximately 26,000 square miles and encompassing parts of modern Denton, Collin, , Grayson, and Tarrant counties. Initial settlement focused on scattered farmsteads rather than concentrated towns, with the first group of approximately 35 immigrants arriving by in 1841 and establishing rudimentary clearings for and amid challenging that hindered overland travel. Bridges Settlement, established in 1843, emerged as the earliest named community within the colony, located in present-day Denton County and honoring the pioneer Bridges family—John, Mildred, and their children—who migrated from Greene County, Illinois, around 1842–1843. This cluster of farms and cabins represented the first organized habitation in Denton County, providing basic services absent elsewhere in the undeveloped grant; by 1844, investor Willis Stewart relocated the Texas Emigration and Land Company's headquarters there to oversee operations. Settlement activity concentrated eastward in Collin and counties, where administrative offices and land offices were sited, including Henry O. Hedgcoxe's facility in Collin , which became a focal point for disputes culminating in the Hedgcoxe War on July 12, 1852, when armed colonists seized records to protest delayed titles. In Tarrant , bona fide colonists occupied eastern and central sections across the Eastern by the late 1840s, primarily as individual homesteads rather than villages, supporting the colony's total of over 2 million acres by 1848. These dispersed locations underscored the colony's rural character, with no major urban centers until post-contract developments in the .

Immigration and Settlement Process

Recruitment Strategies

The Peters Colony's recruitment was governed by empresario contracts signed on August 30, 1841, between the Republic of Texas and representatives of the Texas Emigration and Land Company, led by William S. Peters, requiring the importation of 200 families from outside the republic within three years in exchange for premium lands. Incentives included grants of 640 acres to heads of households and 320 acres to single men, supplemented by provisions such as powder, shot, seeds, and occasionally pre-built cabins to facilitate initial settlement. Recruitment efforts involved agents like Samuel Browning, who executed the initial contracts, and later Henry O. Hedgcoxe, who managed on-site operations but contributed to colonist dissatisfaction through stringent policies. Peters personally undertook voyages to in June 1839 and in July 1841 to garner financial backing and potential emigrants, though primary hailed from U.S. states including , , and rather than . The first contingent arrived via steamboat along the in December 1841, followed by overland transport to the region, demonstrating organized logistical support to draw migrants seeking fertile prairies for , corn, and wheat cultivation. A supplemental on November 9, 1841, expanded obligations to 800 families, yet by July 1, 1844, only 197 families and 184 single men had been located, hampered by funding shortages, land survey disputes, and an 1845 ordinance scrutinizing contracts. Despite early shortfalls, cumulative efforts ultimately certified approximately 1,800 families and individuals as Peters Colonists eligible for certificates, reflecting persistent promotion through land bounty promises amid Republic-era drives. Boundary extensions approved on July 26, 1842, aided later by addressing initial acreage deficiencies.

Settler Demographics and Incentives

The primary incentives for settlers in Peters Colony stemmed from the 1841 contract between the and William S. Peters and associates, which allocated land grants to encourage rapid settlement of the frontier. Heads of families received certificates for up to 640 s, while single men obtained 320 s, provided they immigrated from outside the Republic, cultivated at least one within three years, and resided on the land for that period. These grants were offered at minimal cost—often just nominal fees for surveys and improvements—contrasting with higher market prices elsewhere, and aimed to populate the area with productive farmers amid Texas's need for defense against Native American raids and . Demographically, the colonists were overwhelmingly Anglo-American migrants from the , drawn from southern and midwestern states including , , , , and , where economic pressures like exhausted soils and limited opportunities prompted relocation. These settlers, estimated at around 1,800 families and single men by the mid-1840s, were predominantly native-born of Protestant background, with occupations centered on farming and basic trades rather than urban professions. A smaller contingent included immigrants, notably about 300 families who established communities in the region, reflecting targeted recruitment efforts but comprising a minority amid the dominant U.S.-origin influx. Family structures emphasized nuclear units suited to agrarian life, with many arrivals including spouses and children to maximize allotments, though single men formed a notable portion to claim smaller parcels. Motivations beyond acquisition included the promise of self-sufficiency in a offering political stability post-independence, though fulfillment rates varied due to legal disputes over titles, leading to population fluctuations from initial peaks to around 381 households by the late . This composition contributed to a homogeneous base that prioritized over diverse ethnic enclaves.

Economic Foundations

Land Distribution and Agriculture

The Peters Colony land grants, initiated under contracts from August 1841, allocated certificates to settlers based on family status: 640 acres to heads of households with families and 320 acres to single men over 18, in line with immigration laws extended by the Act of February 4, 1841. To claim these lands, settlers were required to reside on the property for three years, survey and mark boundaries, cultivate at least 10 acres, construct a habitable , and swear allegiance to , after which they could obtain a land certificate from the Peters company or local authorities. The group, led by William S. Peters and associates, retained up to half of each settler’s grant as compensation for recruitment, transportation, and surveying services, while also receiving premium lands—10 sections (6,400 acres each) per 100 families settled and additional bonuses for infrastructure like churches. Contract expansions, including a second agreement on November 9, 1841, and a fourth on January 20, 1843, enlarged the colony's boundaries across counties such as Collin, Denton, and Grayson, encompassing over 10 million acres by 1843, though much was reserved in alternating sections for the . By the colony's resolution, approximately 2,205 families received distribution of 879,920 acres through certificates and field notes, primarily in third-class headrights, despite disputes leading to the 1852 Hedgcoxe War and a legislative compromise granting the company 1,700 floating sections. Settlers often subdivided their holdings strategically, designating portions for cultivation, timber harvesting, and grazing or hunting, reflecting the colony's emphasis on self-sufficient homesteads. Agriculture formed the economic backbone of the colony, with most engaging in subsistence and small-scale farming on the fertile blackland prairies and regions. Early arrivals in 1842 planted corn as a primary crop, supported by seeds provided by the empresarios, though yields were frequently diminished by roaming , herds, and Native American raids. Regional staples included , , onions, and corn, with later diversification into oats, hay, , and truck crops like tomatoes and watermelons in suitable microclimates; emerged as a key by the 1850s, processed at local grist mills. The mandatory 10-acre cultivation requirement underscored farming's centrality, fostering a of log cabins, fenced fields, and rudimentary plows adapted to the prairie soils, though initial hardships limited output until post-settlement stability.

Infrastructure Development

The Peters Colony region, encompassing parts of modern-day counties including Denton, Collin, and , initially lacked basic such as roads, bridges, mail service, , churches, or stores upon in the early . Settlers relied on rudimentary trails and an existing military road constructed by the in 1838, which facilitated entry from the north but offered limited connectivity within the colony boundaries. The Texas Emigration and Land Company, operators of the colony under contracts from 1841 onward, undertook limited development efforts including land surveys to allocate grants and, in some instances, construction of basic log cabins for incoming families, supplemented by provisions of seed, powder, and shot. Company facilities included a central store established in Stewartsville, Denton County, shortly after colonization began, serving as a supply point for essentials. Additionally, a opened by Thomas Jefferson Bryan in November 1841 near the colony's core provided goods to early immigrants, marking one of the first commercial structures. The company's land office, targeted during the 1852 Hedgcoxe War when settlers burned records in protest of title disputes, represented another key built asset for administrative functions. Community-driven infrastructure emerged gradually through settler initiatives. The first formal schooling in the Peters Colony occurred in early 1846 in Farmers Branch, where classes convened in a Methodist church building, reflecting dual use of religious structures for education before dedicated schoolhouses. Churches, often log constructions erected by colonists, served as early communal hubs, while informal road improvements—cleared paths and fords—developed organically to link farms and emerging hamlets like Bridges Settlement, where the company relocated its headquarters amid ongoing disputes. These efforts, however, remained sparse and settler-funded, constrained by financial shortfalls and conflicts that prioritized land claims over expansive public works until statehood and subsequent county formations in the 1840s and 1850s spurred broader road and bridge networks.

Challenges and Conflicts

Interactions with Native Populations

The Peters Colony grant encompassed frontier lands in North Texas traditionally utilized by tribes such as the Comanche (including the Penateka band), Wichita, Caddo, Tonkawa, Kichai, and others, who relied on the region for hunting and seasonal habitation. The Republic of Texas legislature partly intended the colony to serve as a settler buffer against Comanche incursions from the western plains, attracting families to cultivate and fortify the area against nomadic raiders. As immigration commenced in 1841 under the Peters Colony Company, Anglo-American settlers' claims to private land ownership clashed with Native conceptions of communal resource use, exacerbating hostilities amid prior Republic policies of Native removal under President Mirabeau B. Lamar. Early settlement provoked retaliatory raids, with and war parties targeting isolated farms and livestock, as seen in a November 1846 incident in the Bridges Settlement where Natives stole horses from settlers including Samuel Chowning. Widely circulated reports of such attacks instilled widespread fear, deterring some potential immigrants and prompting colonists to form defensive groups or seek protection, though authorities provided limited formal support for resolving settler-Native land disputes. In May 1841, preceding major colony influxes, the of Village Creek involved forces pursuing Wichita raiders, setting a precedent for escalated violence that pressured negotiations. To mitigate ongoing raids in the Peters Colony vicinity, commissioners negotiated the on , 1842, at Fort Bird (near present-day ) with representatives from nine tribes: , Chickasaw, Waco, Tah-woc-cany, Keechi, , Ana-dah-kah, Ionie, and Biloxi. The agreement delineated settlement boundaries north of the colony lands, mandated return of stolen property, prohibited alcohol sales to Natives, allowed peaceful tribes to retain hunting arms, and prescribed punishments including indictment for whites killing Natives and death or lashing for Natives killing whites or stealing. As the only formal between the and non-Native-affiliated tribes in , it aimed to secure peace for settler expansion but proved short-lived, with non-signatory raids continuing unabated. Conflicts persisted through the 1850s and into the era, as federal withdrawal of troops reduced defenses; in the Gainesville area (within former colony bounds), major raids by mixed Comanche-Kiowa bands occurred until the last significant one in 1868. Settler countermeasures evolved to include ranger companies and fortifications, contributing to gradual Native displacement, though no large-scale colony-specific battles are recorded beyond sporadic depredations that claimed lives and livestock. These interactions underscored the colony's role in the broader Texas-Indian wars, where demographic pressures and competition favored settler survival over sustained coexistence.

Internal Disputes and Financial Failures

The Peters Colony faced significant financial challenges from its inception, primarily due to insufficient backing from initial investors, which prompted the formation of the Texas Agricultural, Commercial, and Manufacturing Company on November 20, 1841, to manage operations. By July 1, 1844, the colony had settled only 197 families and 184 single men, falling short of the 800 required by contract terms, exacerbating funding shortages and operational failures. These difficulties culminated in a reorganization on October 15, 1844, as the Texas Emigration and Land Company under Willis Stewart, following accusations of deception by Sherman Converse against the Louisville investor group. Internal disputes emerged early among company principals, including a 1842 transfer of English investor interests to Daniel J. Carroll, Sherman Converse, and Charles Fenton Mercer, which sparked control struggles within the enterprise. Settler grievances intensified over the company's entitlement to half of improved lands as premiums, leading to mass meetings and a convention in on May 21, 1849, where colonists protested perceived overreach. A state law passed in 1850 to secure colonists' land claims triggered litigation from the Emigration and Land Company, further straining relations. Tensions peaked with the passage of a compromise law on February 10, 1852, which allocated 1,700 sections of land to the company but was viewed by settlers as favoring corporate interests at their expense. In response, a mass meeting in on July 15, 1852, accused company agent Henry Oliver Hedgcoxe of fraud in claim validations. The following day, July 16, approximately 100 armed settlers led by John J. Good raided Hedgcoxe's office in Collin County, seizing records and forcing him to flee, an event known as the Hedgcoxe War or Peters Colony rebellion. The conflict, spanning from February 1852 to February 7, 1853, arose from colonists' fears that the company sought to invalidate established claims through stringent deadlines, such as Hedgcoxe's August 4, 1852, cutoff for proofs. An amended law on February 7, 1853, extended claim deadlines and mitigated immediate threats, resolving most title disputes over the subsequent decade, though investors derived little profit and settlers endured prolonged discontent. These episodes underscored the colony's structural vulnerabilities, including inadequate oversight and mismatched incentives between promoters and settlers.

Legacy and Historical Impact

Contributions to Texas Development

Peter's Colony facilitated the settlement of by recruiting approximately 2,205 families through contracts initiated on August 30, 1841, between William S. Peters and associates and the . These settlers received 879,920 acres in land grants, primarily across a vast area spanning over 16,000 square miles in 26 counties south of the , where families were allocated 640 acres and single men 320 acres in exchange for constructing cabins, cultivating at least 15 acres, and swearing allegiance to . This influx populated previously sparse frontier regions, including parts of present-day , Collin, and Denton counties, establishing a foundational Anglo-American demographic base that accelerated regional integration into the state. Agriculturally, the colony promoted development by directing settlers to farm the fertile terrain, bolstered by empresario-supplied seeds, tools, and , which enabled crop cultivation and self-sustaining homesteads amid abundant creeks ideal for and milling. By July 1, 1844, at least 197 families and 184 single men had taken up residence, initiating productive farming operations that formed the economic backbone of early and supported later expansions in output tied to railroad arrivals in the post-statehood era. These efforts transformed marginal lands into viable agricultural zones, contributing to Texas's broader agrarian economy during its transition from to in 1845. The colony's communities, such as the Bridges Settlement and Stewartsville in areas now comprising The Colony, provided nuclei for urban growth, with early grants underpinning the origins of major centers like and fostering infrastructure like roads and mills essential for trade and connectivity. Overall, despite investor financial losses and title disputes resolved by 1853 legislation, Peter's Colony's settlement drive enhanced Texas's , land utilization, and economic vitality in , laying enduring foundations for the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex's expansion.

Modern Recognition and Descendants

The Peters Colony receives modern recognition through multiple historical markers erected by the Texas Historical Commission (successor to the State Historical Survey Committee). A key marker in Lewisville, Denton County, installed in 1970, details the 1841 contract under W. S. Peters and associates, which aimed to settle 600 families on 640-acre grants per family, ultimately influencing land policy across five counties despite conflicts like the 1852 Hedgcoxe War. Additional markers, such as one in Tarrant County noting the colony's coverage of nearly 2 million acres by 1848, highlight localized settlement efforts. Denton County features at least four such markers addressing land distribution and related disputes. Preservation efforts are led by the Peters Colony Historical Society of Dallas County, established in September 1971 to document and safeguard the colony's history and legacies. The society has produced publications including the semi-annual journal Elm Fork Echoes (through 2005), the book Elm Fork Settlement: Farmers Branch and Carrollton, and digitized local newspapers like the Carrollton Chronicle (1913–1967), facilitating genealogical studies of families such as those of Isaac Blackman Webb, James M. Kennedy, and Francis Asbury Winn. Descendants of Peters Colony settlers engage through lineage-focused organizations, including the Peters Colony Chapter of the Texas Daughters of the American Revolution, which honors early families descended from patriots, and the Peters Colony Daughters of the , dedicated to Texas history preservation among qualified lineal descendants of Republic-era settlers. These groups verify ancestries tied to the colony's 1,800-plus families by 1848. archives further support descendant research via digitized records of land grants and claims.

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    On February 4, 1841, the government of the Republic of Texas passed an act to encourage settlement of the vast wilderness now known as North Texas.Missing: initial | Show results with:initial