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Racialization

Racialization is the sociological process through which racial meanings are extended to previously unclassified relationships, social practices, groups, or phenomena, thereby imputing racial significance and often entailing differential social treatment or hierarchies.^[1]^[2] This concept, prominently articulated by scholars Michael Omi and Howard Winant in their racial formation theory, posits that races are not fixed biological essences but dynamically constructed via historical, political, and cultural interactions, though empirical genetic research reveals persistent population clusters corresponding to traditional racial categories that undermine purely constructivist accounts.^[1]^[3] Key applications include the historical categorization of immigrants (e.g., Irish or Italians in the U.S. as non-white before assimilation) and contemporary extensions of racial logics to issues like crime or terrorism, where perceived group traits trigger ascriptive judgments.^[4] Controversies surround the term's deployment in academia and policy, where left-leaning institutional biases have amplified its use to frame disparities as solely products of social imposition rather than causal interactions with measurable biological and behavioral differences across groups, as evidenced in debates over racial realism versus anti-realist constructivism.^[5]^[2] Empirical studies link racialization processes to outcomes like health disparities or security perceptions, yet causal analyses highlight how overlooking innate variances—such as genetic ancestry's role in traits like disease susceptibility—can distort interpretations of these effects.^[6]^[7]

Definitions and Historical Origins

Etymology and Early Usage

The term racialization derives from the adjective racial, rooted in the French racial (from race, itself from Italian razza in the late 15th century denoting breed or lineage), combined with the suffix -ization, denoting a process of making or becoming. The verb racialize emerged in English by 1865, initially referring to the act of classifying phenomena in racial terms or imparting racial characteristics, with racialization attested by 1874 in senses related to adopting racialist views or categorizing along racial lines. Early 19th- and early 20th-century usages were infrequent and often tied to biological or ideological contexts, such as discussions of racial typology in anthropology, rather than social processes.^[8] In sociological literature, racialization gained systematic usage starting in the 1970s as a critique of static "race relations" paradigms, emphasizing dynamic social attribution of racial meaning. Michael Banton and Jonathan Harwood introduced it in their 1975 book The Race Concept: The Origins, Evolution, and Present Status of a Complex Idea, where it described the ideological process of endowing physical differences with social significance to justify inequality.^[8] British sociologist Robert Miles further refined the term in Racism and Migrant Labour (1982), employing the variant racialisation to analyze how capitalist labor processes ideologically construct racial categories from perceived phenotypic variations, particularly in post-colonial migrant contexts.^[2] The concept's American adoption crystallized in Michael Omi and Howard Winant's Racial Formation in the United States (1986), defining racialization as "the extension of racial meaning to a previously racially unclassified relationship, social practice, or group," framing it as a contingent historical process intertwined with state and economic structures.^[2] This usage shifted focus from innate racial essences to socio-political mechanisms, influencing subsequent theory while sparking debates over its anti-realist implications.^[1]

Emergence in Sociological Theory

The concept of racialization, denoting the social process whereby human physical characteristics are imbued with meanings that signify relations of inequality, first appeared in English-language scholarship in 1918.^[9] Early usages, as traced by sociologists Ronit Barot and Jan Bird, reflected historical analyses of group differentiation rather than systematic theory, with limited adoption until the late 20th century.^[8] In sociological theory, racialization gained traction during the 1970s and 1980s as a critique of the prevailing "race relations" paradigm, which treated racial categories as pre-given and focused on interpersonal dynamics rather than structural production of race. British sociologist Robert Miles advanced a Marxist-inflected framework in his 1982 book Racism and Migrant Labour, conceptualizing racialization as "an ideological process" that attributes "unshared meanings" to biological traits to symbolize class conflicts and capitalist exploitation of migrant labor.^[10] Miles argued this process obscured economic antagonisms under pseudobiological signs, drawing on historical cases like 19th-century Irish immigration to Britain, where phenotypical similarities did not preclude racial signification amid labor competition.^[11] Parallel developments occurred in American sociology, where Michael Omi and Howard Winant formalized related ideas in Racial Formation in the United States (1986, first edition drawing from 1970s formulations). They positioned racialization within "racial formation," a sociohistorical process involving the state, social movements, and cultural signification that creates, modifies, or dismantles racial categories—evident in U.S. examples like the mid-19th-century Irish "racialization" as nonwhite amid nativist backlash, followed by whitening via assimilation.^[12] Unlike Miles's emphasis on ideology masking class, Omi and Winant stressed race's autonomy as a "decentered" element intersecting with but not reducible to economics or politics.^[1] These theories, emerging amid decolonization and civil rights struggles, reframed race as mutable and contingent, influencing empirical studies of group incorporation (e.g., Asian Americans' variable racialization by era) while prioritizing discursive and institutional mechanisms over innate traits. Barot and Bird (2001) note this shift critiqued earlier positivist sociologies but risked underemphasizing enduring material hierarchies tied to physical differences.^[8] By the 1990s, racialization informed analyses beyond Black-white binaries, such as Latino or religious group categorization, though debates persisted on its distinction from "racial formation."^[1]

Theoretical Foundations

Social constructionist approaches to racialization emphasize that racial categories emerge from sociohistorical processes rather than fixed biological traits, viewing race as a fluid set of meanings imposed by social actors, institutions, and power relations. Proponents argue that racialization—the extension of racial significance to groups, practices, or relationships previously seen as non-racial—occurs through interpretive acts where physical differences are selectively highlighted or ignored to serve economic, political, or cultural interests. For instance, this perspective highlights how European immigrants like the Irish or Italians in the 19th-century United States were initially racialized as non-white threats before being assimilated into whiteness, demonstrating the malleability of racial boundaries.^[13]^[14] A foundational framework within these approaches is racial formation theory, developed by sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant, which defines racial formation as the sociohistorical process by which racial identities are created, experienced, contested, and dismantled through "racial projects"—efforts by social movements, states, or elites to reorganize racial meanings. Omi and Winant contend that race operates as an autonomous field of social conflict, intersecting with but not reducible to class or nation, where racialization involves linking racial ideologies to state policies or cultural narratives, as seen in the U.S. shift from slavery to Jim Crow segregation. This theory underscores that racial categories lack essentialist foundations, instead deriving stability from repeated reinforcement via laws, media, and everyday practices.^[15]^[12] Empirical illustrations of racialization under social constructionism include the Reconstruction era (1865–1877), where census classifiers assigned racial labels like "mulatto" or "white" based not solely on skin tone but on socioeconomic markers such as literacy and wealth, revealing how class position influenced racial ascription amid post-slavery flux. Similarly, modern policy debates show racialization in action, where implicit biases embed racial assumptions into welfare or criminal justice frameworks, perpetuating inequities without biological determinism. Critics within sociology note that while constructionism illuminates power's role, it sometimes overlooks enduring patterns in genetic ancestry that correlate with self-identified races, though adherents maintain these clusters do not dictate social meanings.^[16]^[17]^[18] These approaches dominate sociological discourse on race, attributing racialization's persistence to institutional inertia and hegemonic ideologies rather than innate differences, with studies showing racial labels evolve across contexts—for example, "Hispanic" as a U.S. census category invented in 1970 despite vast intracategory genetic diversity. However, the framework's emphasis on contingency has been challenged for underplaying how social constructions often align with observable phenotypic and ancestral clusters, potentially reflecting adaptive responses to real group differences rather than pure invention.^[19]^[20]

Process of Racial Formation

The process of racial formation, as conceptualized by sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant in their 1986 book Racial Formation in the United States (third edition, 2015), denotes the sociohistorical dynamics through which racial categories emerge, evolve, and dissipate via interactions among state institutions, social movements, and cultural signification.^[15] This framework posits race neither as a fixed biological essence nor a mere ideological epiphenomenon, but as an "unstable and 'decentered' complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle."^[21] Central to the process is racialization, the extension of racial connotations to previously neutral social practices, relationships, or groups, such as the racial coding of labor divisions during colonial expansion or immigration waves in the 19th and 20th centuries United States.^[22] Key mechanisms include racial projects, interpreted as purposive efforts by actors—including political elites, interest groups, and grassroots movements—to reinterpret racial identities and reallocate resources or power along racial axes.^[12] For instance, Omi and Winant describe how post-Civil War Reconstruction (1865–1877) represented a racial project by Radical Republicans to redefine Black citizenship, countered by white supremacist projects like Jim Crow laws that entrenched segregation until the 1960s Civil Rights Movement.^[15] These projects operate at micro (everyday interactions) and macro (policy and ideology) levels, with the state functioning as a pivotal arena where racial meanings are codified, as seen in the U.S. Census Bureau's shifting classifications—from enumerating "mulattoes" in 1850 to adding "Hispanic" as an ethnicity in 1980—reflecting political pressures rather than fixed demographics.^[23] The theory emphasizes contingency and conflict: racial formation arises from dialectical tensions between racial ideologies and material interests, such as how economic shifts in the 1970s neoliberal era racialized welfare debates, framing aid recipients through stereotypes of Black dependency despite data showing diverse claimant demographics.^[24] However, critiques from systemic racism scholars argue the model underemphasizes entrenched white supremacist framing embedded in foundational U.S. institutions, such as slavery's legalization via the 1662 Virginia statute defining perpetual servitude for children of enslaved mothers, which predates and structures subsequent formations.^[25] Marxist analyses further contend it marginalizes class dynamics, as racial categories often mask underlying capitalist exploitation, evident in how 19th-century Irish immigrants transitioned from "racialized" outcasts to whiteness via labor solidarity against enslaved Black workers.^[26] Empirically, the process manifests in measurable shifts, like the U.S. one-drop rule's application peaking in the early 20th century, where over 90% of mixed-ancestry individuals self-identified as Black under legal duress, illustrating how state enforcement stabilizes fluid categories until contested by movements.^[27] Yet, the theory's reliance on interpretive flexibility has drawn scrutiny for limited falsifiability, with population genetic studies revealing persistent ancestry-based clusters uncorrelated with purely constructed meanings, suggesting formation processes interact with, rather than wholly override, biological substrates.^[28]

Biological and Empirical Counterperspectives

Evidence from Genetics and Population Studies

Genetic analyses of human populations using methods like principal component analysis (PCA) and Bayesian clustering (e.g., STRUCTURE software) reveal distinct clusters that correspond to continental-scale ancestries, providing empirical support for biologically meaningful population differences often aligned with traditional racial categories. A foundational study by Rosenberg et al. examined genotypes at 377 autosomal microsatellite loci in 1,056 individuals from 52 worldwide populations, identifying five or six major clusters when assuming that number of ancestral groups: these mapped to sub-Saharan Africans, Europeans plus Middle Easterners, East Asians, Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans, with admixture explaining intermediate cases.^[29] Subsequent analyses with denser SNP data from projects like the 1000 Genomes Project have confirmed similar geographic structuring, where the first few principal components of genetic variation separate populations by continent, accounting for 0.1-0.15 of total variance via F_ST metrics. The common claim that most human genetic variation (approximately 85%) occurs within populations rather than between them—originally quantified by Lewontin in 1972 using single-locus heterozygosity—does not undermine the existence of distinguishable groups, as it overlooks multivariate patterns across loci. Edwards critiqued this as a statistical fallacy, noting that even small between-group differences, when correlated across thousands of independent markers, enable probabilistic assignment of individuals to populations with accuracy exceeding 99% in diverse samples; for instance, in a study of 3,636 U.S. subjects, genetic cluster membership mismatched self-identified race/ethnicity in only 0.14% of cases.^[30]^[31] This structure persists despite gene flow and admixture, as isolation-by-distance models show clinal variation within continents but sharp discontinuities between them, reflecting historical barriers like oceans and mountains.^[32] Population studies further demonstrate functional implications of these clusters, such as ancestry-informative markers (AIMs) that predict traits like skin pigmentation or disease susceptibility with group-level predictability; for example, alleles for lighter skin are enriched in European-ancestry clusters due to selection pressures, while lactase persistence variants cluster with pastoralist populations in Europe and Africa.^[33] Recent large-scale genomic surveys, including the All of Us Research Program's analysis of over 200,000 participants, quantify continental ancestries (e.g., 66.4% European, 19.5% African) that align with self-reports in most cases, underscoring how genetic data recapitulates biogeographic patterns rather than arbitrary social impositions.^[34] These findings indicate that while racialization involves social processes, underlying genetic discontinuities provide a causal substrate for categorization based on observable and heritable differences.

Race Realism and Causal Mechanisms

Race realism posits that human racial categories reflect discrete biological realities rooted in genetic ancestry clusters, which give rise to heritable differences in physical, cognitive, and behavioral traits, rather than being mere social inventions devoid of causal biological mechanisms.^[35] This perspective counters social constructionist views dominant in sociology by emphasizing empirical patterns in population genetics and evolutionary biology, where continental-scale ancestries—such as those aligning with traditional racial groupings of African, European, East Asian, and others—emerge consistently from genomic analyses. For instance, a 2002 study using STRUCTURE software on 1,056 individuals from 52 populations identified five major genetic clusters corresponding to Africa, Europe, Middle East, East Asia, and Americas/Oceania, with between-group variation accounting for 3-5% of total human genetic diversity, yet structured enough to predict ancestry with high accuracy.^[36] These clusters arise from historical geographic isolation following the out-of-Africa migration around 60,000-70,000 years ago, allowing local adaptations via natural selection on polygenic traits.^[37] Causal mechanisms for racial differences primarily involve evolutionary pressures shaping allele frequencies across populations. Human genetic variation, while predominantly within-population (93-95%), shows clinal gradients overlaid with discrete clusters due to founder effects, genetic drift, and selection in distinct environments; for example, adaptations like lighter skin in northern latitudes for vitamin D synthesis or sickle-cell trait prevalence in malaria-endemic African regions demonstrate how environmental demands drive heritable divergence.^[38] Extending to complex traits, race realists argue that cognitive abilities, proxied by IQ, exhibit similar patterns: meta-analyses report average IQs of 105 for East Asians, 100 for Europeans, and 70-85 for sub-Saharan Africans, with gaps persisting across generations and environments.^[39] Heritability of intelligence is estimated at 50-80% within populations, based on twin and adoption studies, and evidence suggests a genetic component to group differences, as environmental equalization fails to close gaps; for instance, the Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study (1976-1992) followed 130 black, mixed-race, and white children adopted into upper-middle-class white families, yielding adolescent IQs of 89 for blacks, 99 for mixed-race, and 106 for whites, indicating that enriched rearing does not eliminate disparities.^[40]^[39] These mechanisms invoke differential selection histories: proponents like Rushton and Jensen cite brain size differences (East Asians averaging 1,364 cm³, Europeans 1,347 cm³, Africans 1,267 cm³), correlated with IQ (r=0.40 across studies), as outcomes of colder Eurasian climates favoring planning and impulse control over immediate reproduction, per r-K life-history theory.^[39] Admixture studies reinforce causality, showing IQ regressing toward racial parental means (e.g., part-blacks scoring midway between full blacks and whites) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) identifying polygenic scores for educational attainment that align with observed racial averages when ancestry is controlled.^[39] While academic consensus, shaped by institutional pressures against hereditarian hypotheses, often attributes differences solely to culture or socioeconomic factors—dismissing genetic evidence as pseudoscience—replication across datasets, including international assessments like PISA (2018: East Asian scores 20-30 points above sub-Saharan), supports a partial genetic etiology, with simulations estimating 50-80% heritability for the black-white gap.^[39] Such realism underscores that racialization processes incorporate these innate causal realities, influencing how groups are categorized and outcomes predicted beyond social narratives.

Mechanisms and Processes

Attribution of Racial Categories

Attribution of racial categories involves the assignment of individuals or groups to racial classifications through self-identification, observer perception, or institutional criteria, often influenced by phenotypic traits, ancestry, and cultural markers.^[41] Self-identification, where individuals select their own racial category, is the preferred method in contexts like U.S. federal data collection, as it reflects personal ancestry and identity, though it can vary over time due to changing social contexts or multiracial heritage.^[42] Observer identification, used when self-reporting is unavailable (e.g., in historical records or certain administrative settings), relies on visible cues such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture to infer category membership.^[43] Empirical studies demonstrate that observer attributions achieve high concordance with self-reports for monoracial individuals, with agreement rates of 98% for White and 94% for African American classifications in medical records from 2000-2002.^[44] However, accuracy declines for multiracial or ambiguous cases, where discrepancies arise from subjective interpretation of traits like Afrocentric facial features, which perceivers use to categorize individuals as Black even with minimal admixture.^[45] These processes are not purely perceptual; cognitive biases, including essentialist assumptions about racial homogeneity, amplify reliance on prototypical features, leading to over-attribution of categories based on salience rather than precise ancestry.^[46] In institutional settings, such as algorithmic fairness systems or legal classifications, attribution often integrates multiple factors, including genetic markers or probabilistic models, but persists in using observer-derived proxies due to data limitations.^[47] Historical mechanisms, like the one-drop rule in U.S. Jim Crow-era law (codified in state statutes from 1910-1924), enforced hypodescent attribution, assigning mixed-ancestry individuals to the subordinate category regardless of phenotype, prioritizing paternal lineage or minimal non-European ancestry.^[48] Modern empirical analyses reveal that such attributions correlate with genetic population structure—e.g., principal component analyses of genomes cluster individuals by continental ancestry with over 99% accuracy—but social processes introduce variability, as observer bias toward threat perception can shift categorizations toward stigmatized groups.^[49]^[50] Cross-cultural comparisons show attribution varies by context: in Latin America, phenotype-based gradients (e.g., lighter skin conferring higher status) dominate over binary categories, while in Europe, observer reliance on nationality or migration history supplements physical cues.^[51] Discrepancies between self- and observer-identification, estimated at 10-20% for non-Black/White groups in U.S. surveys from 1972-1994, underscore the role of social feedback loops, where perceived categorization influences subsequent self-identification.^[52]^[53] These mechanisms highlight attribution as a dynamic interplay of biological signals and interpretive frameworks, with empirical validity strongest when anchored in verifiable ancestry data over subjective perception alone.

Institutional and Legal Incorporation

Institutional and legal incorporation of racial categories occurs when governments and organizations embed racial distinctions into official classifications, policies, and enforcement mechanisms, thereby formalizing social perceptions of race into binding structures. In the United States, the decennial census has historically served as a primary vehicle for this process, with the 1790 census introducing categories such as "free white persons," "all other free persons," and "slaves," which influenced apportionment, taxation, and naturalization laws.^[54] By 1820, the addition of "free colored persons" reflected emerging legal distinctions tied to emancipation and property rights, embedding racial hierarchies into federal data collection that informed subsequent legislation like the Naturalization Act of 1790, which restricted citizenship to "free white persons."^[54] These categories evolved through the 19th and 20th centuries, incorporating terms like "mulatto," "quadroon," and later "Hispanic origin" in 1970, often driven by political needs rather than consistent biological criteria, as census enumerators initially assigned races until self-reporting began in 1960.^[55] Legal frameworks have further institutionalized racialization by codifying categories for exclusion or preferential treatment. The Immigration Act of 1924 established national origins quotas that effectively racialized immigration by favoring Northern Europeans over Asians and Southern/Eastern Europeans, based on pseudoscientific assessments of racial fitness, until its repeal in 1965.^[56] In the Jim Crow era, state laws enforced hypodescent rules—such as Virginia's 1924 Racial Integrity Act defining anyone with "one drop" of African ancestry as Black—forbidding interracial marriage and segregation, which the Supreme Court upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) under "separate but equal" until overturned in Brown v. Board of Education (1954).^[57] Internationally, South Africa's Population Registration Act of 1950 legally classified individuals into White, Coloured, Asian, and Bantu categories based on appearance, ancestry, and social habits, enabling apartheid policies that persisted until the 1990s.^[1] Germany's Nuremberg Laws of 1935 defined Jews by ancestry (three or more Jewish grandparents), stripping citizenship and prohibiting intermarriage, illustrating how legal racialization can facilitate state-sponsored exclusion.^[1] Post-civil rights era policies have incorporated race through remedial measures, often presupposing group-based disadvantages. Affirmative action programs, originating with Executive Order 10925 in 1961 under President Kennedy and expanded by Order 11246 in 1965, required federal contractors to take "affirmative action" to ensure non-discrimination, leading to race-conscious hiring, contracting, and admissions that explicitly categorized beneficiaries by racial groups like Black, Hispanic, and Native American.^[58] These were justified as addressing historical discrimination but faced scrutiny for perpetuating racial distinctions; the U.S. Supreme Court in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023) ruled that race-based college admissions violated the Equal Protection Clause, effectively limiting such incorporation in higher education while leaving employment and contracting provisions intact.^[59] Anti-discrimination laws, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibit employment bias on racial grounds but require proving disparate treatment or impact, thus institutionalizing race as a protected category in adjudication and compliance monitoring.^[60] In contemporary institutions, racialization manifests through data collection and equity mandates. Government agencies and corporations increasingly mandate racial demographic reporting for diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives, with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission requiring employers to submit EEO-1 forms categorizing employees by race/ethnicity since 1966, influencing resource allocation and policy design.^[61] Educational institutions apply racialized logics in tracking and resource distribution, where beliefs about group capabilities shape curriculum and funding, as evidenced in studies of persistent inequities despite desegregation efforts.^[62] Such mechanisms, while aimed at equity, can reinforce categorical thinking by treating race as a proxy for merit or need, often without empirical validation of causal links to outcomes, amid critiques that they overlook individual variation and genetic admixture data challenging discrete racial boundaries.^[63]^[64]

Intersections and Applications

With Religion and Ethnicity

Racialization often incorporates religious and ethnic identities, treating groups unified by shared faith, language, or ancestry as pseudo-racial categories marked by imputed biological essences and collective culpability. This conflation arises when cultural or doctrinal differences are reified as inherent traits, enabling discrimination that transcends voluntary affiliation and targets perceived proxies like attire, nomenclature, or physiognomy. Empirical analyses reveal that such processes amplify during geopolitical tensions, where religion and ethnicity serve as heuristics for threat assessment, overriding individual variation.^[65]^[66] A prominent historical instance involves the racialization of Jews in Europe from the late 19th century onward, where ethnic-religious identity was biologized as an indelible racial defect. Emerging around 1875, racial antisemitism portrayed Jews as a separate, inferior race defined by genealogy rather than creed, influencing policies that equated Jewish ancestry with inherent disloyalty and degeneracy. This culminated in Nazi Germany's 1935 Nuremberg Laws, which codified Jewishness through blood quantum—classifying individuals with three or more Jewish grandparents as racially Jewish, irrespective of religious observance or assimilation—facilitating systematic exclusion and extermination.^[67]^[68] In the post-9/11 era, Muslims have been racialized in the United States and Europe, with Islam construed as a racial signifier encompassing heterogeneous ethnicities under a monolithic "brown" or "Arab-like" archetype. U.S. hate crimes against perceived Muslims escalated dramatically, from 28 incidents in 2000 to 481 in 2001 per FBI data, reflecting surveillance and profiling that targeted religious markers like mosques or hijabs as racial cues. This extended to ethnic proxies, such as Sikhs, whose Punjabi ethnicity and turban— a religious symbol—led to 62 reported hate crimes in 2001 alone, as attackers conflated them with Muslims based on visual similarity rather than doctrine.^[69]^[70]^[71] Ethnicity further mediates these dynamics, as groups like Sikhs or Hindus—distinct from Islam yet sharing South Asian ancestries—are racialized through overlapping religious-ethnic signifiers, rendering their faiths socially delegitimized in Western contexts. Experimental studies show that White Americans deny "whiteness" to Muslim immigrants, even those of European ethnicity like Bosnians, prioritizing religious affiliation over ancestral proximity in ethnoracial categorization. Such patterns underscore causal mechanisms where perceived religious-ethnic homogeneity fosters group-level attributions of threat, often aligning coincidentally with genetic clusters but driven by socio-political narratives rather than empirical validation of biological determinism.^[72]^[66]

With Labor, Class, and Economy

Racialization has historically facilitated the economic exploitation of designated groups by categorizing them as inferior labor pools, as seen in colonial systems where racial hierarchies justified slavery and indentured servitude to sustain plantation economies. In the transatlantic slave trade, Africans were racialized as inherently suited for manual toil, enabling European powers to extract surplus value from unpaid labor; by 1800, enslaved Africans comprised over 90% of the workforce in the U.S. South's cotton production, which accounted for more than half of U.S. exports. This process extended to post-slavery eras, where racial categories segmented labor markets, confining freed Black workers to low-wage agricultural and domestic roles while excluding them from skilled trades and unions, perpetuating class immobility tied to ascribed racial status.^[73] In contemporary economies, racialization intersects with class through persistent disparities in labor market outcomes, though empirical analyses reveal complex causal interactions beyond simple discrimination. Black Americans face unemployment rates roughly twice those of whites, with a 2023 gap of 6.1% versus 3.4%, but this widens during recessions due to "last hired, first fired" dynamics rooted in historical segregation.^[74] Controlling for education and skills narrows racial wage gaps but leaves a residual 20-30% unexplained, as shown in longitudinal data from 1989-2015, where Black children from high-income families still earn 20% less in adulthood than white peers from similar backgrounds, suggesting pre-market factors like neighborhood effects or behavioral differences play roles.^[75]^[76] Studies indicate class origin predicts economic mobility more reliably across races than race alone, with low-SES Black millennials achieving upward mobility rates comparable to prior white cohorts, challenging narratives of immutable racial barriers.^[77] Globally, racialization structures migrant labor flows, assigning racialized groups to precarious, low-skill sectors; for instance, in Gulf states, South Asian and African workers are categorized as disposable "expendable" labor, enduring wage theft and poor conditions that reinforce class divides.^[78] Intersectional data from European hiring experiments show compounded penalties for racial minorities, with Black women facing 50% lower callback rates than white men for identical resumes, amplifying class vulnerabilities through restricted access to stable employment.^[79] However, public-sector jobs exhibit smaller racial gaps due to standardized pay scales, indicating institutional mechanisms can mitigate but not erase racialized economic stratification.^[80] Overall, while racial categories enable economic sorting, evidence underscores that skill acquisition and socioeconomic policies influence outcomes more than ascribed race, with human capital investments explaining rising portions of gaps over time.^[76]

With Gender and Sexuality

Racialization often incorporates gendered dimensions, whereby racial categories are constructed and maintained through stereotypes linking specific races to masculine or feminine traits, thereby reinforcing boundaries via sexual and familial norms. Extensions of racial formation theory posit that race, gender, and sexuality are conjoined processes, with historical European ideologies—rooted in philosophical and scientific discourses—assigning hypermasculinity to groups like Black men and submissiveness to Asian women, which served to justify colonial hierarchies and labor divisions.^[81]^[82] These attributions persist empirically, as evidenced by stereotype threat experiments showing that perceived racial and gender biases jointly impair neuropsychological performance more severely for Black women than isolated effects.^[83] Sexual selection mechanisms further illustrate intersections, with assortative mating patterns revealing robust racial preferences that vary by gender. Data from U.S. marriage records indicate stronger educational homogamy within racial groups for Whites compared to Blacks and Hispanics, while Black women face disproportionately limited partner pools due to intra-racial hypergamy imbalances and lower outmarriage rates for Black women (around 7%) versus Black men (around 18%).^[84]^[85] Such patterns suggest racial categories exert causal influence on mate choice beyond socioeconomic factors, aligning with evolutionary preferences for phenotypic similarity and challenging purely social-constructivist models of racial dissolution.^[86] In sexuality, racialization manifests through differential stigma and identity salience; for instance, sexual minority individuals of color report compounded "gendered racism," where racial stereotypes intersect with orientation to heighten discrimination, as seen in qualitative studies of Latinx and African American gender-expansive women forming resistant identities against intersecting oppressions.^[87] Empirical models of intersectional bias further show that stereotypes of competence at race-gender-sexuality junctures—such as perceptions of Black gay men as less agentic—affect hiring and social evaluations, with effects amplified in male-typed domains.^[88] These dynamics underscore how racial categorization leverages sexuality to perpetuate group distinctions, though academic sources emphasizing intersectionality often derive from ideologically progressive frameworks that may underweight biological variances in sexual behavior across populations.^[89]

Historical Case Studies

Colonial and Imperial Contexts

In Spanish America following the conquest initiated by Christopher Columbus in 1492, colonial authorities developed the casta system to classify the growing population of mixed ancestries, establishing a hierarchy that privileged European bloodlines while subordinating indigenous and African elements. Categories included peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain at the apex), criollos (Spaniards born in the Americas), mestizos (Spanish-indigenous offspring), mulatos (Spanish-African), and further subdivisions like castizos or zambos, with over 100 terms documented by the 18th century to denote fractional mixtures.^[90] ^[91] Legal enforcement through the limpieza de sangre doctrine restricted intermarriage, land ownership, and public office to those with sufficient "pure" Spanish ancestry, thereby institutionalizing racialized inequality as a tool for social control and resource allocation in viceroyalties like New Spain and Peru.^[92] This process transformed observable phenotypic differences into rigid, heritable statuses, amplifying divisions to maintain Spanish dominance amid demographic shifts where indigenous populations declined by up to 90% due to disease and labor demands by 1600.^[93] British imperialism in India intensified racial categorization through administrative ethnography after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which prompted a shift from indirect rule to direct governance emphasizing racial separation. Colonial censuses, starting with the 1871-1931 decennial surveys, grouped populations into racial typologies influenced by craniometry and anthropometry, as exemplified by Herbert Risley's 1901 census that measured nasal indices to argue castes reflected distinct racial stocks, with "Aryan" northern groups deemed superior to "Dravidian" southern ones.^[94] ^[95] Such classifications justified policies like segregated civil services and military recruitment, where Europeans held top posts while Indians were stratified by perceived racial fitness, entrenching a hierarchy that recast pre-existing caste varna into pseudo-racial binaries for divide-and-rule efficacy.^[96] By 1911, these efforts had formalized over 2,000 castes into administrative categories, facilitating land revenue systems that exploited racialized labor divisions.^[97] The late 19th-century Scramble for Africa exemplified imperial racialization, as European powers partitioned the continent at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, invoking ideologies of white superiority and "civilizing missions" to claim territories without regard for indigenous polities. In British South Africa, racial segregation emerged rapidly, with the 1886 discovery of Witwatersrand gold leading to pass laws and compounds that confined over 100,000 black migrant workers annually by 1900, reserving skilled jobs for whites under the guise of racial aptitude.^[98] French Algeria, conquered by 1830 but intensified post-1871 settler influx, imposed a code de l'indigénat that differentiated "citoyens" (European colons, numbering 1 million by 1954) from "sujets" (9 million Muslims), denying the latter civil rights based on racialized notions of cultural inferiority, which fueled discriminatory taxation and forced labor.^[99] ^[100] These mechanisms converted African ethnic diversity into overarching racial subjugation, enabling extraction of resources like rubber and diamonds while suppressing resistance through racialized legal exceptionalism.^[101] Across these empires, racialization served causal ends of power consolidation: empirical differences in appearance, language, and resistance were codified into hierarchies via laws, science, and bureaucracy, often overriding local fluidity to align with metropolitan interests in labor coercion and territorial security, though such impositions ignored genetic admixture evidenced in colonial demographics.^[102] ^[92]

20th-Century Immigration and Policy

In the United States, the Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, established a national origins quota system that explicitly aimed to preserve the existing racial and ethnic composition of the population by limiting immigration from non-Nordic European countries and barring most Asians.^[103] The law set annual quotas at 2% of each nationality's foreign-born population as recorded in the 1890 census, resulting in a total cap of approximately 164,000 immigrants per year, with Northern and Western Europeans receiving the largest shares while Southern and Eastern Europeans were restricted to minimal numbers and Asians effectively excluded via prior exclusions like the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.^[104] This framework, influenced by eugenics arguments positing racial hierarchies and the superiority of Anglo-Saxon stock, racialized immigrants by categorizing them according to perceived national-racial affinities, such as deeming Italians and Slavs as culturally and biologically inferior to earlier waves of immigrants.^[103] The quotas reduced overall immigration by over 80% from pre-World War I levels and shaped demographic patterns until their abolition.^[104] The shift occurred with the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, or Hart-Celler Act, which eliminated national origins quotas in favor of family reunification and skills-based preferences, ostensibly to end racial discrimination in admissions.^[105] Signed into law on October 3, 1965, it capped Eastern Hemisphere immigration at 170,000 annually (later expanded) and introduced hemispheric limits, inadvertently facilitating a surge in non-European immigration—Asian arrivals, for instance, rose from under 5% of total immigrants in the 1950s to over 30% by the 1980s—altering the racial composition of inflows without quotas explicitly favoring any race.^[105] Proponents framed it as civil rights-aligned reform, yet critics at the time, including Senator Sam Ervin, warned of demographic transformations, arguing it prioritized non-Western sources over traditional European ones.^[105] Australia's White Australia Policy, enshrined in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901, institutionalized racial exclusion by requiring non-European immigrants to pass a dictation test in any European language, a mechanism designed to bar Asians, particularly Chinese, while favoring British and other white settlers.^[106] Enacted shortly after federation on January 1, 1901, the policy reflected fears of racial dilution and economic competition from non-white labor, with Prime Minister Edmund Barton justifying it as preserving a "homogeneous" white populace capable of self-governance.^[107] It restricted annual Chinese entries to one per 500 inhabitants in affected colonies pre-federation and extended to Pacific Islanders via the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901, deporting over 7,000 by 1906; the policy persisted through World War II, with dilutions only in the 1950s-1960s before full dismantlement by 1973 under the Racial Discrimination Act.^[107] This framework racialized borders by equating citizenship and national identity with European descent, limiting non-white settlement to under 2% of the population until policy reversals.^[106] In Canada, early 20th-century policies similarly prioritized European immigrants while imposing racial barriers on others, such as the 1908 "continuous journey" regulation that effectively halted Indian immigration and head taxes on Chinese arrivals from $50 in 1885 to $500 by 1903.^[108] The 1910 Immigration Act empowered exclusion of "any race deemed unsuited to the climate or conditions" of Canada, targeting South Asians and Blacks; for instance, between 1913 and 1931, only 16 Indian immigrants were admitted annually under tight quotas.^[109] Regulatory changes in 1962 under Minister Ellen Fairclough and the 1967 points system further removed overt racial criteria, shifting to skills and education, which increased non-European inflows from negligible levels to over 50% of immigrants by the 1970s.^[108] These measures racialized entry by framing desirable immigrants as assimilable whites, with empirical data showing European preferences comprised 90% of admissions pre-1960s.^[109] Post-World War II Europe saw labor recruitment programs racialize migrants through differential legal statuses, as in West Germany's Gastarbeiter system, which from 1955 recruited over 2.6 million workers primarily from Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Italy for temporary roles without citizenship paths.^[110] The 1965 recruitment agreement with Turkey, for example, emphasized ethnic Germans' preferential return rights under Article 116 of the Basic Law while treating non-Europeans as expendable labor, leading to segregated housing and welfare access that reinforced racial categorizations of "guest workers" as perpetual outsiders despite family reunifications post-1973 oil crisis.^[111] Similar patterns emerged in France and the UK with colonial subjects, where policies like the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act curtailed non-white entry, reflecting causal links between imperial legacies and post-war racialized labor hierarchies.^[111]

Post-2000 Global Examples

Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Muslims in the United States experienced heightened racialization, marked by policies and practices that categorized them as inherent security threats regardless of citizenship or behavior. The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 expanded surveillance powers, leading to the FBI's targeted monitoring of over 500,000 Muslim Americans by 2011, often based on religious affiliation rather than individualized suspicion.^[112] This racialization correlated with empirical health impacts, including a 16% increase in low birth weight among Muslim women in the year after 9/11, attributed to stress from discriminatory policies.^[113] Similar processes unfolded in Europe, where post-9/11 security measures racialized Muslim immigrants as incompatible with national identity, evidenced by a 2014 study documenting Islamophobia's framing of Muslims as a monolithic racial group prone to violence.^[69] In the European Union, immigration policies from the mid-2000s onward increasingly racialized non-EU migrants, particularly from Muslim-majority countries, by linking entry to perceived cultural and economic threats. The EU's 2004 asylum directives prioritized border controls that disproportionately affected Middle Eastern and African arrivals, resulting in a 40% rise in deportation orders for these groups between 2005 and 2010.^[114] During the 2015 migrant crisis, over 1 million arrivals—primarily from Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq—faced racialized discourse portraying them as unassimilable, with tabloid media and policies amplifying stereotypes of criminality; for instance, Germany's 2016 integration laws imposed language and values tests that implicitly targeted Muslim backgrounds.^[115] Empirical surveys showed that 45% of black and Muslim immigrants in 12 EU countries reported discrimination in housing and employment tied to racialized perceptions of otherness.^[116] The COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 accelerated racialization of East Asians globally, framing them as vectors of disease through rhetoric like "China virus," which correlated with a surge in violence. In the US, FBI-reported anti-Asian hate crimes rose from 158 in 2019 to 746 in 2021, with over 9,000 incidents documented by advocacy groups involving verbal harassment, assaults, and exclusion.^[117]^[118] This pattern extended internationally; in the UK, anti-Asian incidents increased by 300% in 2020 per police data, linked to media amplification of origin-based blame despite Asians comprising high-skilled workers with low infection correlations.^[119] Such racialization persisted, with 31-91% of Asian American respondents in 2021-2022 surveys reporting pandemic-related discrimination affecting mental health and employment.^[120] In China, the Uyghur Muslim population has undergone state-driven racialization since the early 2000s, intensified post-2009 Urumqi riots, through policies treating them as a separatist racial-ethnic threat. By 2018, over 1 million Uyghurs were detained in re-education camps aimed at eradicating perceived racial-cultural differences, per UN estimates, with surveillance tech enforcing Han-centric norms.^[7] This process, rooted in security rationales, involved forced labor transfers of 2.7 million Uyghurs to Han regions by 2020, per leaked documents, embedding racial hierarchies in economic integration.^[7] Globally, these cases illustrate how post-2000 events—terrorism, migration surges, pandemics—trigger causal chains where empirical threat perceptions solidify into enduring racial categories, often overriding individual variances.

Criticisms and Debates

Critiques from Biological Determinism

Proponents of biological determinism argue that racialization, as a predominantly social process of categorizing groups, overlooks substantial genetic evidence for discrete population clusters that align with traditional racial groupings, rendering purely constructivist models empirically incomplete. Genetic analyses of human variation, such as those employing STRUCTURE software on microsatellite loci, have consistently identified major clusters corresponding to continental ancestries—sub-Saharan African, European, East Asian, Native American, and Oceanian—explaining a significant portion of global genetic diversity beyond mere clines.^[37] These clusters emerge even with modest numbers of genetic markers, as demonstrated in a 2002 study of 1,056 individuals from 52 populations using 377 loci, where predefined regional groups matched inferred clusters with high fidelity.^[36] Critics from this perspective, including geneticist David Reich, contend that the post-1970s consensus—epitomized by Richard Lewontin's apportionment showing 85% of variation within populations—has been misinterpreted to deny meaningful between-group differences, a view Reich terms a "consensus" that ignores advances in ancient DNA and ancestry inference.^[121] Ancient genomic data reveal historical migrations and admixtures that produced genetically distinct populations, with modern techniques assigning individuals to ancestral groups at accuracies exceeding 99% using hundreds of thousands of SNPs, as in fine-scale European mapping where 90% of samples localize within 700 km of origins.^[122] Such evidence supports biological realism: racial categories, while socially amplified, reflect evolved genetic realities shaped by geography, isolation, and selection, not arbitrary invention.^[123] In traits with potential racial disparities, biological determinists invoke heritability estimates to challenge environmental-only explanations of racialization. For instance, J. Philippe Rushton and Arthur Jensen's review of adoption, twin, and regression studies posits a 50-80% genetic contribution to observed Black-White IQ gaps of about 15 points in the U.S., corroborated by transracial adoption outcomes where Black adoptees in White families averaged IQs closer to population norms than to adoptive environments alone.^[39] Similarly, differential disease risks—such as higher hypertension prevalence in African-descended groups linked to variants like APOL1—underscore how genetic clusters predict biomedical outcomes, critiquing social models that dismiss these as artifacts of categorization rather than causal biology.^[124] This hereditarian stance highlights how ideological aversion in academia, often prioritizing anti-essentialism, has sidelined data-driven inquiry into population-specific adaptations.^[121]

Methodological and Ideological Objections

Critics of racialization theory argue that the concept suffers from methodological vagueness, often serving as a vague descriptor rather than a precise analytical tool capable of falsifiable testing. For instance, it is frequently critiqued as an awkward synonym for "racial formation" without providing additional explanatory mechanisms, leading to overuse that obscures causal processes.^[2] Historian Barbara Fields has specifically objected that racialization fails to identify concrete agents responsible for the process, rendering it analytically indeterminate and unable to distinguish between intentional actors and broader structural forces.^[4] This ambiguity hampers empirical validation, as studies invoking racialization often rely on interpretive frameworks that prioritize narrative over quantifiable metrics, such as genetic ancestry markers or longitudinal disparity data, which could test constructivist claims against biological evidence.^[125] Another methodological flaw lies in the predominant focus on black-white binaries within racialization scholarship, which overlooks mechanisms of racial categorization in multi-ethnic contexts or non-Western settings. This narrow lens, evident in much sociological literature, limits generalizability and ignores comparative data from global migration patterns where racialization interacts with ethnicity or religion differently, as seen in European studies of Middle Eastern or South Asian groups post-2015 migration waves.^[1] Quantitative approaches to racialization are further undermined by circular reasoning, where observed group differences are preemptively attributed to social processes without controlling for confounding variables like cultural norms or individual behaviors, a pattern critiqued in reviews of discrimination studies that demand more rigorous controls.^[126] Ideologically, racialization is objected to for reinvigorating racial essentialism under the guise of deconstruction, thereby heightening group salience in ways that contravene colorblind ideals and perpetuate division rather than resolution. Opponents, including scholars challenging critical race frameworks, contend that by restoring social weight to racial categories, the theory undermines efforts to address inequities through universal policies, instead favoring identity-based interventions that align with progressive agendas but lack cross-ideological support.^[127] This approach, rooted in postmodern and Marxist influences, is faulted for treating racial ideology as a mere superstructure while downplaying material or evolutionary factors, echoing broader critiques of ideology concepts that fail to account for persistent human tribalism evidenced in cross-cultural conflict data.^[128] Such ideological embedding, particularly in academia where left-leaning biases amplify constructivist narratives despite genetic clustering findings from projects like the 1000 Genomes (2015), risks prioritizing narrative coherence over causal realism in policy applications.^[125] Studies utilizing large-scale genotyping have demonstrated that human populations form distinct genetic clusters that align closely with traditional continental racial categories. For instance, analysis of 377 autosomal microsatellite loci across 1,056 individuals from 52 populations revealed six main genetic clusters corresponding to Africa, Europe/Middle East, Central/South Asia, East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, with substructure within these groups matching self-reported ancestries.^[36] Similar clustering emerges from single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data, where principal component analysis of over 3,600 individuals separated populations into groups roughly equivalent to Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and Native Americans, enabling assignment of individuals to clusters with accuracy exceeding 99% when using ancestry-informative markers.^[31] These patterns persist despite gene flow, as geographic isolation over millennia has produced allele frequency gradients that STRUCTURE algorithms consistently recover as discrete clusters, contradicting claims of purely clinal variation without biological salience.^[129] A common argument for the social-only view of race invokes Richard Lewontin's 1972 analysis, which apportioned 85% of human genetic variation to within-population differences and only 15% to between-population components, suggesting races lack distinctiveness.^[130] However, this overlooks that small but correlated differences across thousands of loci enable reliable population assignment, akin to how taxonomists distinguish subspecies despite predominant within-group variation; for example, even with Lewontin's metrics, multivariate methods correctly classify individuals by ancestry at rates far above chance. A.W.F. Edwards termed this oversight "Lewontin's fallacy," noting that the apportionment ignores the combinatorial power of correlated alleles, which genetic clustering studies empirically validate by inferring continental origins from DNA with high precision, independent of social labels.^[131] In medicine, racial categories proxy for genetic ancestry that influences disease risk and drug response, challenging purely social explanations. African ancestry correlates with higher frequencies of APOL1 risk alleles, explaining elevated chronic kidney disease rates (e.g., 4-5 times higher end-stage renal disease incidence in African Americans versus European Americans), beyond socioeconomic factors.^[132] Similarly, East Asian populations show elevated CYP2C19 poor metabolizer alleles, leading to differential clopidogrel efficacy in cardiovascular treatment, as evidenced by clinical trials adjusting doses by self-reported race.^[133] Forensic anthropology further substantiates this, with cranial measurements classifying skeletal remains by race (e.g., 80-90% accuracy for Black/White/Asian distinctions using discriminant functions on metrics like nasal aperture and orbital shape), rooted in heritable morphological adaptations to ancestral environments.^[129] These applications highlight how biological underpinnings of racialization—via ancestry—yield predictive utility, even as social processes modulate outcomes.

Contemporary Implications

Policy and Legal Ramifications

In the United States, racialization in policy has prominently intersected with equal protection jurisprudence, particularly through the use of race-conscious remedies for historical discrimination. The Supreme Court's June 29, 2023, decision in Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College invalidated race-based affirmative action in higher education admissions at public universities and private institutions receiving federal funds, ruling that such programs violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment by employing racial classifications that lack a measurable end point and perpetuate stereotypes.^[134] Chief Justice John Roberts' majority opinion emphasized that admissions processes must treat applicants as individuals, not racial proxies, subjecting racial preferences to strict scrutiny—a standard requiring a compelling governmental interest and narrow tailoring, which the challenged programs failed to meet. This ruling extends beyond education, signaling heightened judicial skepticism toward other race-based policies, such as diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives in corporate hiring or government contracting, where similar classifications risk invalidation absent individualized evidence of past discrimination.^[135] Anti-discrimination laws further embed racial categories into legal frameworks, mandating recognition of race as a protected characteristic while enabling enforcement mechanisms that can inadvertently sustain racialized thinking. Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, employers are prohibited from discriminating based on race or color, with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) investigating claims through disparate treatment or disparate impact analyses that quantify racial outcomes in hiring, promotions, and terminations. For instance, disparate impact claims allow plaintiffs to challenge neutral policies if they result in statistically significant racial disparities, prompting employers to adopt race-aware adjustments, as seen in consent decrees where companies commit to diversity goals backed by numerical targets.^[136] However, such approaches have drawn legal challenges alleging reverse discrimination; in Ricci v. DeStefano (2009), the Supreme Court held that discarding promotion exam results to avoid disadvantaging minority candidates violated Title VII absent strong evidence of test invalidity, underscoring tensions between remedying disparities and equal treatment. Internationally, the European Union's Race Equality Directive (2000/43/EC) harmonizes member states' prohibitions on racial discrimination in employment and access to goods and services, requiring data collection on racial groups that critics argue formalizes racial divisions under the guise of equity monitoring. Immigration policies exemplify racialization's role in border enforcement and integration, where categorical distinctions based on perceived racial or ethnic origins influence visa allocations, asylum processing, and deportation priorities. In the US, post-1965 immigration reforms shifted from national-origin quotas—explicitly racialized under the 1924 Immigration Act—to family reunification and skills-based systems, yet public and policy discourse often frames unauthorized migration from Latin America as a racialized threat, correlating with enforcement surges like Operation Streamline (2005 onward), which expedited prosecutions for border crossers predominantly from Mexico and Central America.^[137] Empirical data from the Department of Homeland Security indicate that between 2010 and 2020, over 90% of interior removals targeted individuals from racialized non-European origins, amplifying debates over whether enforcement disparities stem from policy design or operational bias. In Europe, the 2015-2016 migrant crisis prompted policies like the EU-Turkey Statement (2016), which outsourced asylum processing to non-EU states, disproportionately affecting flows from predominantly Muslim and African regions; Germany's integration laws, such as the 2005 Immigration Act amendments, impose language and civics requirements framed as neutral but applied unevenly to non-white applicants, per reports from the European Court of Human Rights documenting racial profiling in stops and deportations. These frameworks, while aimed at security and labor needs, risk entrenching racial hierarchies by linking legal status to ethno-racial markers, as evidenced by higher rejection rates for asylum claims from sub-Saharan Africa (averaging 70% in 2022 across EU states) compared to Ukrainian claims post-2022 invasion (under 5%).

Cultural and Media Influences

Media portrayals often reinforce racial stereotypes, priming audiences to categorize individuals and groups along racial lines through repeated exposure to deviant or threatening depictions of minorities. Experimental investigations have demonstrated that such media content increases endorsement of stereotypes among viewers, particularly affecting White audiences' attitudes, social judgments, and support for policies impacting racial minorities. For instance, analyses of television, films, and social media platforms like Twitter and YouTube show these effects extend to intergroup emotions and public opinion formation.^[138] News coverage contributes to racialization by differentially framing events based on participants' race, employing more fear- and anger-laden language for protests involving people of color. A study of 638 news transcripts from 2008 to 2016 found that broadcasts of non-White protests included nearly two additional fear-provoking words and one more anger-provoking word on average compared to White-led protests (p < 0.01 for fear; p < 0.1 for anger), with terms like "police" and "shot" prominent in non-White coverage. This pattern persisted across networks, though liberal outlets showed stronger racial differences, while conservative ones applied negative framing more uniformly regardless of race. Such framing heightens perceptions of threat associated with racial groups, embedding racial cues into public interpretations of social unrest.^[139] Cultural factors influence racialization by providing cues that audiences use to assign racial categories, particularly when physical traits like skin color conflict with or supplement ancestry signals. Survey experiments reveal that among White classifiers, cultural markers such as first names, religion, and language strongly shape assignments to "racial middle" groups (e.g., Hispanic, Asian, Middle Eastern/North African), overriding ancestry in ambiguous cases and coexisting with formal logics like hypodescent. These informal cultural signals, transmitted through socialization and norms, facilitate the extension of racial meanings to behaviors, affiliations, or practices not inherently tied to biology.^[140] In crime reporting, media practices can racialize narratives by overemphasizing violent incidents linked to minorities, distorting public perceptions of criminality despite empirical crime rates. This selective amplification sustains stereotypes, as seen in framing that correlates racial groups with deviance, influencing broader societal attributions of inherent traits. Academic sources, often from institutions with noted ideological leanings, highlight these dynamics but may underemphasize countervailing biases, such as reluctance to report perpetrator race in minority-involved cases to avoid reinforcing stereotypes.^[141]^[142]

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Attribution Matters: How Causal Explanations Influence Perceptions ...
Dec 31, 2024 · Understanding the factors influencing perceptions of dangerousness and their relationship with racial classification is crucial within the ...
[50]
Use of race, ethnicity, and ancestry data in health research - NIH
Sep 15, 2022 · Discrepancies between self-reported and observer classification of race and ethnicity can have substantial implications on health research ...
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role of peers' perceptions in ethnic self-identification | Oxford Academic
Jun 3, 2025 · By showing a two-way relationship between perceived ethnicity and self-identification, this paper contributes to our understanding of social ...
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[PDF] Race by Observation vs. Self-Reporting and Multiple Mentions of ...
For GSS observation and self-identification agreement is highest for Whites (93.5%), somewhat lower for Blacks (go%), and again lower for Other (83%) . When the ...Missing: accuracy | Show results with:accuracy
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The Implications of Racial Misclassification by Observers
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Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across The Decades: 1790—2010
Sep 4, 2015 · 1820, 1830, 1840: In the 1820 Census, a new racial category for “Free Colored Persons” was introduced, reflecting the different rights free ...
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The changing categories the U.S. census has used to measure race
Feb 25, 2020 · Explore the different race, ethnicity and origin categories used in the US decennial census, from the first one in 1790 to the latest count in 2020.
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Racial Reorganization and the United States Census 1850-1930
This article investigates how and why census racial classification policies changed during this period, only to stabilize abruptly before World War II.
[57]
Racial classification in America
Applying these distinctions in the census generated a count of three ancestry groups (European, African, and [untaxed] Native American), which set the ...
[58]
A Brief History of Affirmative Action and the Assault on Race ...
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[59]
Supreme Court reverses affirmative action, gutting race-conscious ...
Jun 29, 2023 · In a historic decision, the U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday effectively ended race-conscious admission programs at colleges and universities ...
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Facts About Race/Color Discrimination - EEOC
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Section 15 Race and Color Discrimination - EEOC
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Toward a Theory of Racialized Institutional Logics in Education
Mar 3, 2025 · The racialized institutional logics perspective helps clarify the mechanisms by which racial frames perpetuate racial inequities in schools.Racialized Social Systems · Racialized Societal Logics · Conclusion And Implications
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Systemic racism: individuals and interactions, institutions and society
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Systemic And Structural Racism: Definitions, Examples, Health ...
Systemic and structural racism are forms of racism that are pervasively and deeply embedded in systems, laws, written or unwritten policies, and entrenched ...
[65]
Retrieving the religion in racialization: A critical review - ResearchGate
Scholars across disciplines have argued that race and religion are co-constituted in part because of their historical relationship.<|separator|>
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A Boundary of White Inclusion: The Role of Religion in Ethnoracial ...
Dec 29, 2022 · This article argues that religion, in conjunction with country of origin, alters how self-identified White Americans assign ethnoracial labels to other groups.
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Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945
Racial antisemitism is the discriminatory idea that Jews are a separate and inferior race. This type of antisemitism dates back to the late 1800s.
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[PDF] The racialisation of Jews in Germany before WWII Bianca Gubbay ...
This paper will explore the processes of the racialisation of Jewish people in the years preceding the Second World War. Firstly this essay will look at ...
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The Racialization of Muslims: Empirical Studies of Islamophobia
Jul 7, 2014 · This issue situates racialization as a way to explain and understand Islamophobia, as racism towards a Muslim population.
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Post 9/11 Hate Crime Trends: Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and Jews in ...
On the other hand, in the same year, the Sikh Coalition helped Sikh men, women, and children recover from 62 cases of hate crimes, 27 cases of racial profiling, ...<|separator|>
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Sikhs in America: A History of Hate - ProPublica
Aug 4, 2017 · Demonized as immigrants. Mistaken for Muslims. For more than a century, Sikhs in the US have faced suspicion and violence.
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The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States
I show how the racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism renders those faiths theologically, socially, and morally illegitimate in the popular eye.
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Last Hired, First Fired? Black-White Unemployment and the ... - NIH
In a sample of prime-age labor force participants, the black-white gap in transition rates into unemployment widens considerably as economic conditions worsen.Missing: racialization | Show results with:racialization
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Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States
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[PDF] Human Capital and Black-White Earnings Gaps, 1966-2017
The paper finds that the contribution of human capital to the Black-white earnings gap has grown, mainly due to increased returns, and is linked to non-work.
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Race vs. class in achieving the American dream - Rochester Beacon
Aug 12, 2024 · The research finds that Black millennials born to low-income parents had an easier time rising up the economic ladder than the previous ...
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(PDF) The Racialization of Global Labor - ResearchGate
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Applying an Intersectional Lens to a Field Experiment on Hiring ...
Jul 3, 2020 · We draw on a field experiment conducted in five European countries to analyze hiring discrimination on the basis of gender and race.<|separator|>
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The gender-race intersection and the 'sheltering-effect' of public ...
We find that public-sector employment is more attractive for Blacks than for women; Blacks' odds of becoming public-sector employees are much higher than those ...
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Gendered Foundations of Racial Formation in the United States - jstor
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Gendering Racial Formation | California Scholarship Online - DOI
This chapter examines gender and sexuality within racial formation theory, arguing that race, gender, class, and sexuality are intrinsically conjoined.
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Effects of Stereotype Threat, Perceived Discrimination, and ... - NIH
Our results suggested that stereotype threat, perceived discrimination, and examiner race all impact neuropsychological test performance.
[84]
Racial/Ethnic Variation in the Relationship Between Educational ...
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[85]
Single black female BA seeks educated husband: Race, assortative ...
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Interracial Unions and Racial Assortative Mating in an Age of ...
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Identity as Resistance: Identity Formation at the Intersection of Race ...
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How Do Intersections of Sexual Orientation and Race Affect ...
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Race, gender, class, and sexual orientation: intersecting axes of ...
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Understanding the Mexican Casta System: A Historical and Cultural ...
Dec 27, 2024 · The Casta system was a rigid socio-racial classification imposed by Spanish colonial rule, designed to maintain a hierarchy based on ancestry.
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Daniel Chacón: Las Castas – Spanish Racial Classifications
Mar 17, 2025 · There were four main categories of race: (1) Peninsular, a Spaniard born in Spain; (2) Criollo (feminine, criolla), a person of Spanish descent ...
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[PDF] Colonialism and Modern Constructions of Race: A Preliminary Inquiry
The process culminated in a modem grammar of racial difference, whose primary building blocs were the constructs of History and the development of liberalism ...
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Racialization, colonialism, and imperialism - NIH
In the 1500s, European colonizers referred to Indigenous lands as feminized, racialized, inferior, and open for domination. From this orientalism (Said, ...
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Caste, Colonialism, and Risley's Lasting Impact - Hindu Dvesha
Dec 3, 2023 · Herbert Risley's role as a British colonial administrator significantly impacted India's societal perception, reinforcing a caste-centric ...
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Ethnography and Racial Theory in the British Raj - Bérose
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Viewpoint: How the British reshaped India's caste system - BBC
Jun 18, 2019 · Religion-based electorates in British India and caste-based reservations in independent India made amorphous categories concrete.
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White with 'native' blood: the formative role of Anglo-Indians in the ...
The British presence in India gave rise to an extensive 'mixed race' population known variously as Eurasian, Anglo-Indians, half-castes and mixed breeds. The ...
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[PDF] The Scramble for Africa
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Full article: Introduction: settler colonialism and French Algeria
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[PDF] Hierarchies of Race and Gender in the French Colonial Empire, 1914â
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[101]
How European Colonialism Led to the Invention of Race-And Why ...
Race didn't lead to racism; racism (that is, exploitation of non-Europeans by European colonizers) led to the concept of race.
[102]
Racism in the “colony”: Towards appreciating race fluidity and ...
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A Century Later, Restrictive 1924 U.S. Immigration Law Has ...
May 15, 2024 · The Immigration Act of 1924 shaped the US population over the course of the 20th century, greatly restricting immigration.
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Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act)
To further limit immigration, this law established extended "national origins" quotas, a highly restrictive and quantitatively discriminatory system. The quota ...
[105]
Fifty Years On, the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Continues ...
Oct 15, 2015 · It ended an immigration-admissions policy based on race and ethnicity, and gave rise to large-scale immigration, both legal and unauthorized.
[106]
White Australia policy | National Museum of Australia
Mar 6, 2025 · The legislation was specifically designed to limit non-British migration to Australia. It represented the formal establishment of the White Australia policy.
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The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 | naa.gov.au
The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 made it illegal to discriminate against migrants based on their race. It removed the last traces of the White Australia ...
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Canada's Immigration Policy: a Focus on Human Capital
Sep 15, 2011 · Beginning in 1962, however, regulatory changes were introduced that overturned the most blatantly racist dimensions of Canadian immigration ...
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A hundred years of immigration to Canada 1900 - 1999 (Part 2)
Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Ellen Fairclough implemented new Immigration Regulations that removed most racial discrimination, although Europeans ...
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[PDF] Immigration in Germany - European Union
The German word ‚Gastarbeiter' literally means ‚guest worker'. It's a term used for foreign or migrant workers who moved to West Germany between 1955 and 1973, ...
[111]
Racism in Europe: Characteristics and Intersections With Other ...
In Germany, racism is mainly discussed in the context of foreigners and the migration of 'guest workers' from other European countries or former colonies ( ...
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[PDF] When the FBI Knocks: Racialized State Surveillance of Muslims
FBI surveillance of Muslims is racialized, where normal behavior is suspicious for Muslims, but not for white Christians, and contact is based on suspicion, ...
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Health effects of Muslim racialization: Evidence from birth outcomes ...
This study tests the effects of racialized discrimination using anti-Muslim discrimination after 9/11 as a natural experiment.
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The European Union and the Racialization of Immigration, 1985-2006
Aug 8, 2025 · PDF | Over the past two decades, the European Union (EU) has played an increasingly influential role in the construction of a de facto ...
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[PDF] RACIALIZATION AND RACISM
RACIALIZATION AND RACISM. Contextualization. The first two decades of the 21st century have been marked by the rise of racism and xenophobia resulting from ...
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[PDF] migrants, minorities and housing: exclusion, discrimination and anti ...
The review confirms clearly the importance of discrimination, disadvantage, and segregation for ethnic minority and migrant groups in housing across Europe.<|control11|><|separator|>
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4. Asian Americans and discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic
Nov 30, 2023 · The number of federally recognized hate crime incidents of anti-Asian bias increased from 158 in 2019 to 279 in 2020 and 746 in 2021, according ...
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The Facts — Combating Anti-Asian Hate
As of August 2021, more than 9,000 anti-Asian incidents had been reported since the beginning of the pandemic, according to Stop AAPI Hate. OCA'S COVID-19 ...
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Anti-Asian Racism and COVID-19: How It Started, How It Is Going ...
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COVID-19–Related Racism and Mental Health Among Asian ...
Apr 2, 2025 · About 31%‐91% of Asian American adults and children reported experiencing various types of racism during the pandemic. According to the Federal ...
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Opinion | How Genetics Is Changing Our Understanding of 'Race'
Mar 23, 2018 · A consensus was established that among human populations there are no differences large enough to support the concept of “biological race.”
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https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07331
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Once again: are “races” social constructs without scientific or ...
Jul 19, 2022 · Race and ethnicity are social constructs, without scientific or biological meaning. Nope, and we've known that statement is wrong for nearly 20 years.
[124]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1196372/
[125]
Has social constructionism about race outlived its usefulness ...
Nov 8, 2022 · Reich accepts that “It is true that race is a social construct” but argues that geneticists should fearlessly study “average genetic differences ...<|separator|>
[126]
Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings From Community ...
Oct 10, 2011 · ... empirical studies ... One of the critically important issues for future research is to improve the assessment of discrimination in health studies.
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A Principled Statement of Opposition to Critical Race Theory
We deny that the best way to deal with racism is by restoring social significance to racial categories and radically heightening their salience. We contend that ...Missing: objections | Show results with:objections
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[PDF] IDEOLOGY, RACISM, AND CRITICAL SOCIAL THEORY
objections to the Marxist concept of ideology. First, it is often said that. Marxists treat ideologies, and thus phenomena like racism, as merely superstruc-.
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The Importance of Race and Ethnic Background in Biomedical ...
Although studies of population genetics have clustered persons into a small number of groups corresponding roughly to five major racial categories, such ...
[130]
Celebrating 50 years since Lewontin's apportionment of human ...
Apr 18, 2022 · Lewontin's proportions of diversity among populations and 'races' can be viewed as entropy-based analogues of heterozygosity-based FST-style ...
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The non sequitur of Lewontin's fallacy - Russell T. Warne
Aug 22, 2022 · Lewontin's logic is superficially persuasive, and often people use it to argue against the scientific use of racial group classifications or ...
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Race and Genetic Ancestry in Medicine — A Time for Reckoning ...
Jan 6, 2021 · However, race is also directly associated with genetic ancestry and therefore indirectly related to genetic variants that may affect disease and ...
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Genetic Influences - Understanding Racial and Ethnic Differences in ...
The results differed by type of complication: blacks, Asians, and Hispanics had a substantially lower incidence of myocardial infarction than did whites; blacks ...
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Supreme Court strikes down affirmative action programs in college ...
Jun 29, 2023 · In a historic decision, the Supreme Court severely limited, if not effectively ended, the use of affirmative action in college admissions on Thursday.
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U.S. Supreme Court Ends Affirmative Action in Higher Education
Aug 2, 2023 · On June 29, 2023, the US Supreme Court issued a long-awaited decision addressing the legality of race-conscious affirmative action in college admissions ...
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Race/Color Discrimination | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity ...
Race discrimination involves treating someone (an applicant or employee) unfavorably because he/she is of a certain race or because of personal ...
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US immigration policy: A classic, unappreciated example of ...
Mar 26, 2021 · Charles Kamasaki writes that today's largely immigrants of color face harsher consequences than white European predecessors and Biden's ...
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Race and Ethnic Stereotypes in the Media
### Summary of Empirical Evidence on Media Stereotypes and Racial Attitudes
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Anger, Fear, and the Racialization of News Media Coverage of ...
Sep 25, 2023 · We find that media are much more likely to depict protests by people of color using language that evokes a sense of threat by using anger- and fear-laden ...
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Ancestry, Color, or Culture? How Whites Racially Classify Others in ...
Cultural cues are strongest for classification into groups in the racial middle. Among our three cultural cues—first name, religion, and language—we find the ...
[141]
The Dangerous Racialization of Crime in U.S. News Media
Aug 29, 2018 · The media's overrepresentation of violent crime is feeding America's distorted perception of lawlessness.
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[PDF] Racialized Reality: Crime News and Racial Stereotype Framing
Oct 5, 2020 · This research explores how crime news shapes public consciousness and negative attitudes towards criminal justice reform and Black identity, ...