Rave
Rave denotes an extended dance event centered on electronic dance music (EDM) performed by disc jockeys (DJs), characterized by repetitive, high-energy beats typically ranging from 120 to 150 beats per minute, vigorous all-night dancing, and immersive visual elements such as laser lights and stroboscopes, often occurring in warehouses, clubs, or remote locations.[1] These gatherings emerged as a youth subculture promoting principles of peace, love, unity, respect (PLUR), tolerance, and communal bonding through shared sensory experiences.[2] Originating in the underground house music scene of Chicago during the early 1980s, pioneered by figures like Frankie Knuckles within predominantly gay and Black communities, rave culture drew from disco influences and evolved with the importation of acid house sounds from Ibiza to the UK in the late 1980s, leading to unlicensed warehouse parties that proliferated globally by the 1990s.[2][1] The subculture's grassroots, anti-establishment ethos initially favored clandestine, non-commercial venues to evade authorities, fostering a sense of rebellion against mainstream nightlife.[1] Key features include the central role of DJs curating continuous sets of subgenres like house, techno, and trance, attendee customs such as exchanging beaded "kandi" bracelets and using glow sticks for expressive movement, and an emphasis on hydration amid prolonged physical exertion.[2] Raves have transitioned from fringe events to large-scale festivals, influencing broader EDM commercialization while retaining underground variants.[2] Empirical data indicate strong associations with psychoactive substance use, particularly MDMA (ecstasy), which attendees report amplifies euphoria, empathy, and perceptual intensity during dancing, alongside other drugs like ketamine and LSD; however, this correlates with health risks including dehydration, hyperthermia, and overdoses, prompting regulatory crackdowns and harm reduction initiatives such as on-site testing and cooling stations.[2][1] Despite occasional violence tied to enforcement rather than inherent to the scene, raves demonstrate low baseline aggression, attributable to the music's rhythmic entrainment and communal ethos.[1]Etymology and Definition
Origins of the Term
The term "rave" derives from the Middle English verb "raven," rooted in Old French "raver," meaning to wander or behave deliriously, with earliest recorded uses around the early 14th century denoting frenzy or irrational excitement.[3] By the 16th century, it had evolved to describe enthusiastic praise or wild revelry, as in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night (c. 1602), where a character raves about music's effects.[3] In the mid-20th century, "rave" gained slang usage among London's beatnik and bohemian subcultures in the 1950s, referring to uninhibited, all-night parties often involving jazz, poetry, and experimentation with drugs like amphetamines; jazz saxophonist Ronnie Scott reportedly popularized it in this context during Soho gatherings.[4] This connotation of ecstatic, boundary-pushing social events persisted into the 1960s counterculture but faded until revival in the UK's reggae sound system scene of the early 1980s, where black communities adapted the term—originally from 1960s Mod slang—for intense, bass-heavy outdoor parties featuring "two-step" rhythms.[5] The term's modern association with electronic dance music events emerged in late 1980s Britain amid the acid house movement, when promoters like those behind the Shoom and Spectrum clubs in London began labeling large-scale, warehouse-based all-night parties as "raves" to evoke their frenzied, euphoric atmosphere driven by imported Chicago house tracks, MDMA use, and anonymous venues evading licensing laws; by 1988, events such as those organized by Sunrise and Genesis drew thousands to orbital motorway sites around the M25, solidifying "rave" as shorthand for these illicit techno-infused gatherings.[5] This usage contrasted with earlier party slang like "blitz" or "freakout," emphasizing the sensory overload from repetitive beats and lights rather than live performances.[6]Core Characteristics
Raves are defined as dance parties centered on performances by disc jockeys (DJs) playing electronic dance music (EDM), characterized by fast-paced, repetitive beats intended to sustain continuous dancing.[1] These events typically feature tempos ranging from 120 to 150 beats per minute, fostering an immersive, euphoric atmosphere through synchronized auditory and visual stimuli.[7] The core musical structure emphasizes four-on-the-floor rhythms, synthesized melodies, and minimal lyrical content, prioritizing rhythmic propulsion over traditional song forms.[7] A hallmark of raves is the integration of elaborate light shows, including lasers, strobe lights, and visual jockey (VJ) projections, which enhance the sensory experience and align with the music's pulses to induce altered states of perception among attendees.[1] High-fidelity soundsystems, capable of delivering powerful bass frequencies, are essential, often configured to vibrate the venue and physically resonate with dancers, amplifying the collective trance-like engagement.[8] Events commonly extend for 8 to 12 hours or longer, promoting non-stop movement in large crowds, with participants engaging in free-form dancing rather than choreographed routines.[9] While venues vary from warehouses and abandoned industrial spaces to outdoor fields and licensed clubs, the underground ethos historically prioritized secretive, unlicensed locations to evade authorities, though this has evolved with mainstream acceptance.[1] Core to the experience is a communal ethos emphasizing uninhibited expression, where attire such as neon clothing, glow sticks, and accessories facilitates visual participation and fosters a sense of shared transcendence.[10] This combination of elements distinguishes raves from conventional concerts by focusing on prolonged, participatory immersion over passive spectatorship.[11]Historical Development
Early Influences (1950s–1970s)
![Jamaican sound system setup][float-right] The term "rave" originated in the late 1950s in London, where it described wild bohemian parties hosted by the Soho beatnik set, often featuring jazz and energetic dancing.[12] Jazz musicians like Mick Mulligan popularized phrases such as "rave-up" to denote frenzied, all-night jam sessions and dances, evoking a sense of uninhibited revelry that echoed in later subcultures.[13] This usage predated electronic music associations, linking instead to post-war youth rebellion against conventional social norms, with events drawing hundreds to underground venues for improvised music and communal bonding.[13] Jamaican sound system culture, emerging in Kingston during the 1950s, provided a foundational model for mobile, bass-heavy party setups that influenced UK rave precursors.[14] Pioneered by operators like Tom Wong and Count Machukie, these systems used amplified R&B and ska records played from trucks at street parties, emphasizing powerful subwoofers and MC announcements to engage crowds of up to 10,000.[15] Caribbean immigrants brought this competitive, community-driven format to Britain in the 1960s, fostering reggae sound clashes at events like Notting Hill Carnival, which prioritized auditory immersion and territorial sound battles—elements mirrored in rave's emphasis on massive bass and collective euphoria.[16] The 1960s hippie movement contributed ideals of free-form gatherings and altered states, seen in "be-ins" and outdoor festivals that prefigured rave's non-commercial, participatory ethos.[17] Events like the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco and the 1969 Woodstock festival drew tens of thousands for all-night music, psychedelic drug use (primarily LSD), and spontaneous dancing, rejecting ticketed structures in favor of open-field communes.[17] These countercultural happenings, often tied to anti-war protests, cultivated a tribal sense of unity through rhythm and light shows, influencing rave's drug-enhanced, escapist communal dynamics despite differing musical roots in rock and folk.[18] Disco in the 1970s advanced DJ techniques and extended dance sessions, laying groundwork for electronic rave's rhythmic persistence.[19] Originating in New York clubs like The Loft around 1970, disco featured four-on-the-floor beats at 120 BPM, seamless mixing by DJs such as Larry Levan, and 12-inch singles designed for continuous play, attracting diverse crowds to venues holding 2,000-5,000 patrons nightly.[20] Though facing backlash by 1979's Disco Demolition Night, its innovations in loop-based grooves and club immersion directly informed house music's evolution from Chicago warehouses, bridging organic funk to synthesized repetition central to 1980s rave sounds.[19]Acid House and Techno Emergence (1980s)
Acid house emerged as a subgenre of house music in Chicago during the mid-1980s, characterized by the distinctive squelching basslines produced by the Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer.[21] The TB-303, manufactured by Roland from 1981 to 1984, featured a resonant low-pass filter and envelope modulation that generated the "acid" sound when parameters were tweaked extensively, diverging from its original intent as a bassline accompaniment for guitarists.[22] This innovation was pioneered by the group Phuture—comprising DJ Pierre (Pierre Polk), Earl Smith Jr., and Herbert Jackson—who released the track "Acid Tracks" in 1987 on Trax Records, widely regarded as the first acid house record due to its heavy reliance on the TB-303's manipulated sequences over minimal drum patterns from the Roland TR-808 and TR-909.[23] The sound gained traction in Chicago's underground club scene, particularly at venues like the Warehouse, where resident DJ Frankie Knuckles blended house elements, and the Music Box, hosted by Ron Hardy, who emphasized raw, extended mixes that highlighted the TB-303's evolving tones.[21] These clubs fostered an environment of repetitive, hypnotic rhythms at around 120-130 beats per minute, drawing from disco and electronic influences but stripping away vocal and melodic elements in favor of the machine-like precision of synthesizers.[22] By 1987-1988, acid house tracks proliferated on labels like Trax and DJ International, with producers experimenting with the TB-303's slide and accent features to create dynamic, otherworldly basslines that became the genre's signature.[23] Concurrently, techno developed in Detroit through the efforts of the Belleville Three—Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson—who met as high school students in the late 1970s and began producing music in the early 1980s.[24] Influenced by European acts like Kraftwerk and the futuristic electro of artists such as Afrika Bambaataa, Atkins released early techno under the alias Model 500 with tracks like "No UFOs" in 1985 on his Metroplex label, emphasizing synthesized percussion and minimalism over traditional instrumentation.[25] May's "Strings of Life" in 1987, produced on Transmat Records, introduced orchestral samples layered with driving Roland TR-808 kicks, while Saunderson's Inner City project fused techno with house vocals, achieving crossover appeal. Techno's raw, industrial edge reflected Detroit's post-automotive decline, incorporating drum machines like the TR-909 for its metallic snares and hi-hats to craft fast-paced, 120-150 BPM rhythms designed for non-stop dancing.[24] The Belleville Three's productions, often recorded in home studios with affordable synthesizers such as the Roland TR-808 and sequencers, prioritized futurism and emotional depth through repetitive motifs, distinguishing techno from acid house's bass-focused acidity.[25] Both genres converged in the late 1980s to underpin the nascent rave scene, as acid house imports from Chicago ignited underground parties in the UK during the "Second Summer of Love" in 1988, where warehouse events featured extended sets of TB-303-driven tracks blended with emerging techno elements.[6] These gatherings emphasized all-night dancing, powerful sound systems, and a communal ethos, with the hypnotic, drug-enhanced euphoria of acid and techno sounds fostering the ecstatic crowd dynamics that defined early raves, though the term "rave" itself gained prominence slightly later.[26] In the US, Chicago and Detroit clubs served as proto-rave spaces, where the music's mechanical repetition and lack of commercial polish encouraged illicit, warehouse-based events away from mainstream oversight.[6]Global Boom (1990s)
The 1990s marked the explosive internationalization of rave culture, transitioning from localized underground scenes in the UK and Ibiza to massive events across Europe, North America, and beyond, driven by advancements in electronic music production and global travel. By the mid-1990s, genres such as trance, hardcore, jungle, and drum and bass proliferated, attracting hundreds of thousands to open-air festivals and warehouse parties characterized by all-night dancing, powerful sound systems, and widespread use of MDMA.[27][28] In Germany, the Love Parade exemplified the scale of the boom, evolving from 150 participants in 1989 to 500,000 attendees by 1995 and peaking at over 1.5 million in 1998 and 1999, with participants marching through Berlin streets to techno beats under themes promoting unity.[29][30][31] This event symbolized rave's fusion of music, protest against commercialization, and hedonism, though overcrowding foreshadowed safety issues. Meanwhile, in the UK, the 1994 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act criminalized gatherings of 20 or more people with music featuring "repetitive beats," prompting widespread protests and pushing free parties underground while indoor club raves adapted.[32][33] The United States experienced a "second wave" starting in mid-1990s Southern California, with Los Angeles as a hub for warehouse raves that drew thousands despite police raids and riots, such as those in 1990-1992 over unlicensed events. Key gatherings included the 1999 New Year's Eve "Together As One" at the LA Sports Arena, headlined by major DJs and marking a shift toward larger, semi-legal venues amid growing ecstasy distribution networks.[34][35][36] San Francisco and other cities hosted early 1990s raves influenced by UK expatriates, fostering PLUR (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect) ethos.[37] Rave culture also took root in Australia, particularly Sydney's hardcore scene from 1989-1994, with events at venues like the Hordern Pavilion facing crackdowns by 1990, and Melbourne's underground parties emphasizing acid house imports.[38][39][40] In Japan, the 1990s hardcore techno movement produced intense outdoor raves, blending local innovation with European influences in Tokyo and beyond.[41] This global proliferation highlighted rave's appeal as a countercultural escape, though legal responses and drug-related arrests began eroding its free-party origins by decade's end.[42] One of the most comprehensive archives preserving this era is the Rave Preservation Project, which has collected and digitized thousands of original 1990s rave flyers, posters, and event listings from scenes worldwide. See: https://www.ravepreservationproject.com/[](https://www.ravepreservationproject.com/)Commercialization and Mainstream Shift (2000s–2010s)
During the 2000s, rave culture experienced initial steps toward commercialization as events scaled up from underground warehouses to structured festivals. The Ultra Music Festival, established in 1999, attracted approximately 10,000 attendees in 2000 and expanded to draw 93,000 by 2010, reflecting growing organizational sophistication and audience interest.[43] Similarly, Tomorrowland debuted in Boom, Belgium, in 2005 with modest crowds but reached 50,000 visitors by 2008, incorporating elaborate stage designs and themed elements that appealed to broader demographics.[44] These developments coincided with electronic dance music's integration into mainstream media, though the scene retained elements of its countercultural origins amid rising ticket prices and promotional efforts.[45] The 2010s marked a peak in mainstream adoption, driven by massive festival expansions and corporate investments. Electric Daisy Carnival (EDC) shifted to Las Vegas in 2011, achieving attendance of 400,000 over three days by 2014, with high-production visuals, carnival rides, and sponsorships transforming events into multimedia spectacles.[46] Tomorrowland sold out rapidly, hosting 180,000 across two days in 2010 and expanding to three days by 2011, while Ultra recorded 155,000 at its main stage in 2012.[47] Venture capital poured in, as seen with SFX Entertainment's $1 billion annual commitment to the sector starting around 2012, fueling global branding and artist deals that propelled EDM artists like Skrillex and Avicii to chart-topping success.[48] This era saw electronic music dominate U.S. charts and festivals draw international crowds, with revenues underscoring the shift to a multibillion-dollar industry.[49] Commercialization introduced branded merchandise, VIP tiers, and corporate partnerships, prioritizing spectacle and accessibility over the DIY ethos of earlier raves. Critics within the scene argued this diluted communal intimacy, exclusivity, and focus on music purity, as events emphasized pyrotechnics and celebrity DJs over underground experimentation.[50] [9] Nonetheless, the mainstream pivot expanded participation, with festivals like EDC and Tomorrowland becoming annual pilgrimages for hundreds of thousands, embedding rave elements into global pop culture despite debates over authenticity.Recent Evolution (2020s)
The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted the rave scene starting in March 2020, with global lockdowns leading to the cancellation of festivals, club closures, and a sharp decline in organized events, forcing participants underground or online.[51] Illegal pop-up raves proliferated in cities like New York and Los Angeles, often organized via social media despite enforcement crackdowns, as attendees sought to recapture communal dancing amid restrictions.[52] Virtual raves emerged as adaptations, streaming DJ sets to remote audiences, though they failed to replicate physical immersion and saw limited long-term adoption.[53] Post-restrictions from 2021 onward, the scene experienced a robust resurgence, with electronic dance music (EDM) performances at major U.S. festivals surging past rock bookings, reaching historic highs by 2025 through 169 unique artists in 2022 scaling to broader lineups.[54] Attendance at events like those drawing 330,000 participants reflected pent-up demand, pivoting from intimate warehouse parties to massive outdoor spectacles in destinations such as Albania's festivals.[55][56] This boom integrated rave elements into mainstream EDM circuits, yet underground persistence emphasized non-commercial venues, including repurposed warehouses and daytime parties to accommodate sobriety trends and economic pressures.[57][58] Musically, the 2020s marked a shift toward harder, faster subgenres like hard techno and gabber, dominating arenas and festivals with high-BPM tracks emphasizing spectacle over subtlety, as seen in brand-driven events critiqued for prioritizing hype over organic community.[59] Techno overall resurged by 2025, fueled by post-isolation cravings for intensity, contrasting softer 2010s EDM with raw, industrial sounds in both licensed mega-events and illicit renegade raves in urban fringes like New York's outer boroughs.[60][61] However, rapid growth in pop-up scenes raised concerns over safety, with spikes in crime and overcrowding straining organizers in areas like Los Angeles.[62]Music and Production
Genres and Styles
Rave music primarily consists of electronic dance music subgenres featuring repetitive rhythms, synthesized sounds, and tempos ranging from 120 to 180 beats per minute (BPM), optimized for sustained dancing in large crowds.[63] These styles emerged from influences like disco, funk, and electro in the 1980s, evolving into distinct forms tied to underground party scenes.[64] Key genres include house, techno, trance, and drum and bass, each contributing unique sonic elements to the rave experience. House, originating in Chicago's underground clubs in the early 1980s, is characterized by a four-on-the-floor beat at 120–130 BPM, often incorporating soulful vocals, piano riffs, and basslines.[63] Acid house, a prominent subgenre, gained prominence in the mid-1980s through the use of the Roland TB-303 synthesizer's squelching, resonant basslines, which created hypnotic, minimalistic tracks pivotal to the late 1980s UK rave explosion.[64] [65] This style's propulsive, instrumental focus emphasized bodily movement over lyrical content, aligning with rave's emphasis on communal euphoria.[64] Techno, developed in Detroit in the mid-1980s by producers like Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson, features mechanical rhythms, futuristic synth melodies, and an industrial edge at 120–150 BPM.[63] [66] Its repetitive structures and lack of traditional song forms supported extended DJ sets at raves, influencing European scenes where it fused with local sounds to fuel all-night events.[7] Trance, emerging in Germany in the early 1990s from techno and house roots, is defined by melodic builds, euphoric breakdowns, and arpeggiated synths at 125–150 BPM, evoking altered states of consciousness.[63] Subgenres like uplifting trance became staples in European and global raves for their emotional intensity and hypnotic repetition, enhancing the immersive atmosphere of mass gatherings.[7] Drum and bass (DnB), evolving from the UK's breakbeat hardcore and jungle scenes in the early 1990s, delivers complex breakbeats, heavy sub-bass, and tempos of 160–180 BPM, originating directly from rave culture's demand for high-energy propulsion.[63] [67] This genre's intricate percussion and atmospheric elements sustained the frenetic pace of 1990s warehouse parties, later diversifying into substyles like liquid funk for varied rave contexts.[68]Soundsystems and Technology
Rave events relied on robust soundsystems derived from Jamaican reggae traditions, adapted for mobile free parties in the UK during the late 1980s and early 1990s, emphasizing bass-heavy reproduction to induce physical immersion among crowds.[69] These systems featured stacked speaker arrays and subwoofers optimized for low frequencies, enabling high sound pressure levels that propagated vibrations through the body, a hallmark of the genre's sensory experience.[70] The DIY ethos from soundclashing practices influenced organizers to deploy portable, high-output PA rigs for unauthorized outdoor gatherings, prioritizing durability and volume over refined fidelity.[69] In music production, analog hardware defined the raw, repetitive soundscapes of rave genres like acid house and techno. The Roland TB-303 Bass Line synthesizer, released in 1981, became iconic for its resonant filter sweeps producing the "acid" basslines central to tracks from 1985 onward, such as Phuture's "Acid Tracks," which propelled the Chicago house scene influencing global raves.[71] Similarly, the Roland TR-909 Rhythm Composer drum machine, introduced in 1983 as the first with MIDI implementation, supplied the genre's signature electronic percussion, including its distinctive kick and snare, used extensively in early techno and house productions.[72] These devices, often sequenced live or via early software, facilitated the hypnotic, loop-based structures essential to extended DJ sets at rave events.[21] Advancements in the 1990s incorporated digital sampling and MIDI sequencing for more complex arrangements, yet analog warmth from machines like the TB-303 persisted, with second-hand units commanding premiums due to scarcity after production ceased in 1984.[71] Soundsystem evolution paralleled this, shifting toward modular designs with active crossovers for precise frequency control, enhancing bass extension below 40 Hz to match production's sub-heavy mixes.[73] This technological synergy between production tools and amplification systems underscored rave's commitment to auditory overload as a core experiential element.[74]Event Features
Venues and Locations
Early rave events in the late 1980s frequently occurred in disused warehouses and industrial estates across the UK, such as the Blackburn parties from 1989 to 1990, where organizers hosted unlicensed acid house gatherings for hundreds in remote locations to minimize detection.[75] These settings enabled extended durations and powerful sound systems but invited frequent police interventions due to permit violations and public order concerns.[76] By the 1990s, as the movement gained traction, licensed nightclubs emerged as key venues, including superclub formats with dedicated electronic music programming. Ibiza's Amnesia, operational since 1976, exemplifies this shift, featuring dual dancefloors—the open-air terrace and enclosed main room—for hosting prominent DJs and fostering the island's reputation as a global electronic music epicenter.[77] Venues like Milton Keynes' Sanctuary, a vast warehouse-style space, further bridged underground roots with structured events during the decade's peak.[78] Outdoor locations gained prevalence amid the era's expansion, with rural fields hosting massive free parties and early festivals; UK events such as Fantazia and Universe in the early 1990s drew thousands to open-air sites, evolving from ad-hoc assemblies into licensed spectacles despite ongoing regulatory challenges.[79] Contemporary raves utilize diverse facilities, from urban lofts and industrial event spaces equipped for high-capacity audio-visual setups to international festivals in varied terrains, reflecting adaptations to legalization trends and commercial growth while preserving elements of spontaneity in select underground iterations.[80]Dancing and Crowd Dynamics
Rave dancing emphasizes freeform, individualistic movements synchronized to the repetitive beats of electronic dance music, typically ranging from 120 to 150 beats per minute, allowing participants to enter trance-like states through rhythmic repetition. Common techniques include footwork patterns such as the Melbourne shuffle, which originated in Australia's underground scene in the late 1980s and involves sliding steps and knee bends to mimic gliding across the floor.[81] Other styles encompass hakken, a stomping motion developed in the Netherlands' gabber subculture during the early 1990s hardcore techno era, and arm-centric muzzing from Australian raves, focusing on fluid hand and wrist motions often paired with glowsticks for visual patterns.[81] These dances prioritize personal expression over partnered forms, with dancers facing the DJ booth to maintain visual and energetic connection to the music source.[82] Crowd dynamics in raves are characterized by collective euphoria and mutual support, fostering a sense of temporary community through shared physical and emotional experiences. The PLUR ethos—standing for Peace, Love, Unity, and Respect—emerged in the late 1980s U.S. rave scene, promoted by DJ Frankie Bones to encourage non-violent, inclusive interactions amid growing crowds.[83] This principle manifests in behaviors like yielding space on the dance floor, assisting fallen attendees, and minimizing aggression, contributing to reported high levels of positive affect and social bonding during events.[84] Empirical studies indicate that synchronized dancing, combined with auditory entrainment from bass-heavy sounds, can induce "identity fusion," enhancing group cohesion and prosocial cooperation that persists post-event.[85] Despite these norms, high attendee densities—often exceeding 5 people per square meter in peak areas—pose risks of crowd crushes and surges, as evidenced by management challenges at electronic dance music festivals where poor egress planning has led to injuries.[86] Harm reduction practices, including peer monitoring for dehydration or distress, align with PLUR but are strained in larger commercial events, where security interventions become necessary to mitigate stampedes during build-ups or drops.[87] Overall, while rave crowds exhibit lower violence rates compared to other music genres due to cultural emphasis on empathy, empirical oversight remains limited, with most data derived from self-reports or incident analyses rather than longitudinal behavioral tracking.[88]Visuals, Lights, and Atmosphere
Rave events employ sophisticated lighting systems, including stroboscopic effects, lasers, and LED fixtures, to synchronize with electronic music beats and create dynamic visual patterns. These elements, often combined with fog or haze machines, produce visible light beams and enhance depth perception in darkened venues.[89] Strobe lights, flashing at rates that can alter time perception, contribute to a disorienting yet euphoric sensory overload, while laser displays generate geometric shapes and piercing beams that intersect the dance floor.[90][91] Visual jockeys (VJs) project abstract animations, fractals, and video mappings onto screens and surfaces, further immersing participants in a multisensory environment that amplifies the rhythmic pulses of the sound system.[92][93] The resulting atmosphere fosters a collective trance-like state, with rapid color shifts and intensity variations reported to heighten emotional and perceptual experiences, particularly when interacting with music and crowd movement.[94][95] Attendees contribute to the visuals through personal accessories like glow sticks and LED poi, which generate trailing light patterns or "tracers" during motion, enhancing the psychedelic quality of the space.[96]Attire and Fashion Trends
Rave attire prioritizes functionality for extended dancing, featuring loose, breathable clothing such as baggy pants, oversized t-shirts, and hoodies that allow unrestricted movement in crowded, high-energy environments.[45] These garments often incorporate fluorescent or neon materials that glow under blacklights, enhancing visibility and aesthetic appeal in low-light venues with strobe and laser effects.[97] Early rave fashion in the late 1980s and 1990s emphasized practicality and subcultural identity, including boiler suits, overalls, and visors paired with smiley face motifs reflective of acid house origins.[98] Accessories play a central role in rave fashion, with glow sticks wielded for light shows and synchronized performances called glowsticking, originating in the 1990s U.S. scene as a non-verbal communication form.[99] Kandi bracelets, handmade beaded items traded among attendees to embody the PLUR (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect) principle, became iconic in the 1990s, fostering social bonds through exchange rituals at events.[100] Protective elements like pacifiers or lollipops, worn around the neck, addressed jaw clenching from substance use but aligned with the era's playful, youthful aesthetic.[101] By the 2000s and 2010s, commercialization influenced shifts toward more revealing and themed outfits, including crop tops, shorts, fishnet stockings, and platform shoes at festivals like Electric Daisy Carnival, blending streetwear with cyberpunk influences for self-expression.[102] Contemporary trends since the 2020s incorporate sustainable fabrics, LED-embedded apparel, and eclectic fusions like fur accents or vintage revivals, while maintaining core emphases on comfort and communal vibrancy amid larger-scale events.[103] Gender-neutral styles predominate, avoiding rigid norms in favor of individual creativity, though women's attire often features higher exposure for ventilation in hot, humid settings.[104]Drug Use and Associated Practices
Prevalence and Types of Substances
Drug use has been a persistent feature of rave culture since its emergence in the late 1980s, with empirical studies consistently documenting elevated rates among attendees compared to the general population. A nationally representative U.S. survey from 2001-2005 found that rave attendees were over twice as likely to report past-year use of illicit drugs excluding marijuana (35.5% versus 15.6%).[94] More recent targeted research on electronic dance music (EDM) event participants indicates that approximately one-third (33.5%) experienced at least one drug-related adverse effect in the prior year, underscoring the scale of consumption in these settings.[105] Polysubstance use is common, often combining stimulants, hallucinogens, and depressants to modulate effects during extended events.[106] The most prevalent substances in rave environments are empathogenic stimulants, particularly MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), commonly known as ecstasy or molly, which promotes euphoria, heightened sensory perception, and sociability conducive to all-night dancing. Studies of EDM party attendees report past-year MDMA use rates ranging from 20-40% in venue-specific samples, with initiation often occurring at festivals (33.4% of users).[107] Cocaine, especially in powder form, has seen rising prevalence, with 35.2% past-year use among New York City nightlife attendees and increasing trends from 2016-2019.[108] [109] Amphetamines and methamphetamine are also frequently encountered, though less dominantly than MDMA.[94] Psychedelics such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are widely used for their hallucinogenic effects, enhancing visual and auditory experiences amid strobe lights and repetitive beats, with reports of increasing use among EDM attendees (e.g., from 10% to higher in recent NYC trends).[109] Dissociative anesthetics like ketamine provide detachment and altered states, often snorted or ingested, and have shown upward trends in consumption at parties.[110] Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a depressant with sedative properties, remains a staple despite risks of overdose, with similar rising patterns.[109] Cannabis is ubiquitous as a milder adjunct, reported by over 60% in some international rave surveys.[111] Less common but notable are novel psychoactive substances (NPS), including synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones, though their use correlates with higher adverse event rates (e.g., 40% for NBOMe).[112]| Substance Category | Examples | Typical Effects in Rave Context | Reported Prevalence Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Empathogens/Stimulants | MDMA, cocaine, amphetamines | Euphoria, energy, empathy | MDMA: 20-40% past-year in EDM samples; cocaine rising to ~35%[107][109] |
| Psychedelics | LSD, psilocybin | Hallucinations, sensory enhancement | LSD increasing in trends[109] |
| Dissociatives | Ketamine | Detachment, analgesia | Upward trends in party use[110] |
| Depressants | GHB, benzodiazepines | Sedation, disinhibition | GHB rising; benzos for comedown[109] |