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Superior cervical ganglion

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is the largest and most superior of the three paravertebral sympathetic ganglia in the cervical sympathetic chain, serving as a key relay station in the autonomic nervous system for sympathetic efferent innervation to structures in the head and neck.^[1] Located bilaterally at the levels of the second (C2) and third (C3) cervical vertebrae, it lies anterior to the transverse processes, lateral to the longus colli muscles, and anteromedial or medial to the internal carotid arteries.^[1] This ganglion receives preganglionic fibers from the upper thoracic spinal cord (primarily T1-T2) via the sympathetic trunk and synapses second-order neurons to distribute postganglionic fibers through various branches, including the internal and external carotid nerves, gray rami communicantes to the upper cervical spinal nerves (C1-C4), and the superior cardiac nerve.^[2] Structurally, the SCG is an elongated, oval-shaped or fusiform body, typically measuring 10-32 mm in length, 4.6-8 mm in width, and 1.8-2.7 mm in thickness, formed by the fusion of the paravertebral ganglia from C1 to C4 spinal levels.^[1] It contains clusters of postganglionic sympathetic neurons that modulate visceral and vascular functions, contributing to the "fight or flight" response through effects such as pupil dilation (mydriasis), inhibition of lacrimal gland secretion, vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels, and piloerection in the head and neck.^[2] Notable branches include the deep petrosal nerve, which joins the greater petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal for innervation of the lacrimal gland, and contributions to the pharyngeal plexus for vasomotor control of pharyngeal mucosa.^[1] Clinically, the SCG is significant due to its role in conditions like Horner syndrome, where disruption (e.g., from trauma, surgery, or tumors) leads to ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, anhidrosis, and enophthalmos on the affected side.^[1] Surgical interventions, such as superior cervical ganglion block or targeted anesthetic injections (e.g., with buprenorphine for opioid analgesia), are employed for managing chronic pain syndromes like neuropathic facial pain or cluster headaches, with the ganglion's superficial position in the neck facilitating access via anterior approaches.^[1] Anatomical variants, such as elongation extending to C5 or multiple branching patterns (up to seven types), can influence procedural risks during neck surgeries like cervical discectomies.^[1]

Anatomy

Location and gross structure

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is the largest and uppermost of the three cervical sympathetic ganglia along the sympathetic trunk, formed by the fusion of the paravertebral ganglia derived from spinal nerves C1 through C4.^[1]^[3] This structure serves as a key relay point for sympathetic outflow to the head and neck, integrating preganglionic inputs from upper thoracic levels. The SCG exhibits a characteristic spindle-shaped, elongated oval, or cylindrical gross morphology, with dimensions typically ranging from 1 to 3 cm in length and 0.5 to 1 cm in width.^[3]^[1] It houses approximately 760,000 to 1,040,000 postganglionic sympathetic neurons, far exceeding those in other cervical ganglia.^[4] The ganglion is enveloped by a dense connective tissue capsule that provides structural integrity and is situated within loose areolar connective tissue, facilitating its position along the sympathetic chain.^[5] Positioned bilaterally in the upper neck, the SCG lies anterior to the transverse processes of the C2 and C3 vertebrae, superior to the carotid bifurcation, lateral to the longus colli muscle, and anteromedial to the internal carotid artery within the retrostyloid space.^[1]^[6]^[7] Anatomical variations are documented, including shifts in location from C1 to C5 levels and occasional fusion with the middle cervical ganglion, as observed in cadaveric studies; congenital absence of the SCG is exceedingly rare.^[3]^[8]

Anatomical relations

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is situated posterior to the internal carotid artery and internal jugular vein, which are enclosed within the carotid sheath, positioning it along the medial aspect of these major vessels in the upper neck.^[2]^[9] This posterior relation places the SCG in close proximity to the carotid sheath structures, which is clinically significant during surgical interventions such as carotid endarterectomy or neck dissections, where inadvertent damage can occur due to the ganglion's embedded position in the deep cervical fascia.^[2]^[10] Anteriorly, the SCG lies in front of the longus capitis muscle, while laterally it is positioned adjacent to the pharynx, contributing to its embedding within the retropharyngeal or retrostyloid space.^[2]^[10] It is located superior to the middle cervical ganglion, which lies at the level of the C6 vertebra, with the two connected by the cervical sympathetic trunk running along the prevertebral fascia.^[2] Nearby, the vagus nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve course in close proximity within the carotid sheath, occasionally forming communicating branches with the SCG, which underscores the need for precise anatomical identification in procedures involving the lower cranial nerves.^[1]^[2] Superiorly, the SCG relates to the hyoid bone at the approximate level of the C3 vertebra, while inferiorly it approaches the thyroid gland, spanning from the base of the skull down to the mid-cervical region.^[9]^[2] The ganglion receives its vascular supply primarily from branches of the ascending pharyngeal artery, with occasional contributions from the superior thyroid artery, ensuring adequate perfusion in its deep location.^[1]^[2] Venous drainage occurs via accompanying veins that empty into the internal jugular vein through posterior branches.^[1] Lymphatic drainage from the SCG proceeds to the deep cervical lymph nodes, facilitating regional immune surveillance in the neck.^[1]^[2]

Neural connections

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) serves as a key relay station in the sympathetic nervous system, receiving preganglionic afferents primarily from the intermediolateral cell column of the spinal cord at segments T1 to T2, known as the ciliospinal center of Budge-Waller.^[2] These preganglionic fibers exit the spinal cord via the ventral roots, join the white rami communicantes at thoracic levels, and ascend through the sympathetic trunk to synapse within the SCG.^[2] This pathway ensures that sympathetic outflow to the head and neck originates from upper thoracic spinal sources, without involvement from parasympathetic systems.^[1] Postganglionic efferents from the SCG emerge to form extensive plexuses that distribute sympathetic fibers throughout the head and neck. The internal carotid nerve arises from the SCG and contributes to the internal carotid plexus, which ascends along the internal carotid artery to the skull base, providing innervation to cerebral vessels, the eye, and associated structures.^[9] Similarly, the external carotid nerve forms the external carotid plexus around the external carotid artery, supplying vasomotor and sudomotor fibers to the face, scalp, and salivary glands.^[9] Additional branches include the superior cardiac nerve, which descends to join the cardiac plexus for sympathetic input to the heart, and contributions to the pharyngeal plexus via pharyngeal branches.^[11] The SCG also establishes communications with adjacent neural structures to integrate sympathetic signaling. It connects with cranial nerves IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (vagus) through branches that join the pharyngeal plexus, facilitating coordinated innervation of pharyngeal musculature and glands.^[11] Furthermore, gray rami communicantes link the SCG to the cervical plexus (C1–C4 spinal nerves), allowing sympathetic fibers to hitchhike along somatic nerves for distribution to the skin and deeper tissues of the neck.^[1] These interconnections underscore the SCG's role as a purely sympathetic ganglion, lacking direct parasympathetic inputs and focusing on efferent relay without reciprocal autonomic modulation.^[9]

Histology

Cellular composition

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) consists primarily of postganglionic sympathetic neurons, which form the core cellular population responsible for transmitting signals to target tissues in the head and neck. These neurons include principal ganglion cells, characterized as large, multipolar structures with extensive dendritic arborizations, and small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells, which are smaller and often clustered, exhibiting distinct morphological features such as dense core vesicles visible under electron microscopy.^[12]^[10] Neuron density in the human SCG averages approximately 4,455 cells per mm³, reflecting a relatively low packing compared to smaller mammals, with the total neuron count estimated at around 1 million—though this figure aligns with macroscopic volume assessments detailed elsewhere.^[13] Subtypes among these neurons encompass predominantly noradrenergic principal cells alongside a minor cholinergic population, contributing to the ganglion's diverse output capabilities.^[10] Supporting these neurons are glial cells, primarily satellite glial cells that envelop individual neuronal somata and dendrites to form protective sheaths, and Schwann cells that ensheath axons within the ganglion, primarily supporting unmyelinated postganglionic fibers; resident immune cells, such as macrophages, are present under normal conditions, though additional infiltration (e.g., lymphocytes) is minimal.^[14] The synaptic organization features preganglionic fibers from the spinal cord forming predominantly axo-dendritic synapses onto postganglionic neuron dendrites, facilitating integrated signal processing with minimal axo-somatic contacts.^[15] Age-related changes in the SCG include a progressive reduction in neuronal density and total neuron number, with studies indicating morphological alterations such as increased lipofuscin accumulation and decreased neurofilament expression in older individuals.^[16]

Neurochemical properties

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) primarily consists of postganglionic sympathetic neurons that utilize norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) as their main neurotransmitter, accounting for the majority of efferent fibers innervating head and neck structures. A smaller subset of these fibers, particularly those targeting sweat glands, employs acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter, reflecting a specialized cholinergic component within the otherwise adrenergic sympathetic outflow.^[1]^[17] Neuropeptides play a key role in modulating neurotransmitter release and defining functional subsets of SCG neurons. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is co-expressed with norepinephrine in vasoconstrictor neurons, enhancing vasoconstrictive effects through co-release mechanisms. In contrast, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is associated with vasodilator neuron populations, where it facilitates dilation in target vascular beds. These neuropeptide profiles contribute to the neurochemical diversity observed in immunohistochemical studies of the ganglion.^[18]^[19] SCG neurons exhibit expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine biosynthesis, which is essential for norepinephrine production and is present in nearly all principal neurons. The ganglion lacks significant GABAergic elements among its postganglionic neurons, with any GABA immunoreactivity primarily attributable to preganglionic inputs rather than intrinsic synthesis. Electrophysiological classification distinguishes low-threshold and high-threshold neurons based on their sensitivity to preganglionic stimulation, correlating with functional phenotypes such as secretomotor (low-threshold, NPY-negative) and vasoconstrictor (high-threshold, NPY-positive) types.^[20]^[21]^[18] Target tissues innervated by SCG fibers express alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, which mediate the effects of released norepinephrine, providing a biochemical interface for sympathetic signaling in vascular and other structures.^[22]

Functions

Ocular and glandular innervation

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) provides postganglionic sympathetic fibers that innervate key ocular structures, primarily through the internal carotid plexus, which accompanies the internal carotid artery into the cavernous sinus and subsequently reaches the orbit via the superior orbital fissure. These fibers target the dilator pupillae muscle of the iris, inducing mydriasis (pupil dilation) in response to low light or stress conditions, mediated by α1-adrenergic receptors and norepinephrine release. Additionally, the same pathway supplies the superior tarsal muscle, also known as Müller's muscle, located in the upper eyelid, where sympathetic activation elevates the eyelid to maintain an alert posture, contributing to the overall widening of the palpebral fissure during arousal.^[23]^[10]^[24] Sympathetic outflow from the SCG also modulates glandular secretions in the head and neck, exerting primarily inhibitory effects on secretory activity to conserve resources during sympathetic dominance, such as in fight-or-flight scenarios. For the lacrimal gland, postganglionic fibers travel via the internal carotid plexus and deep petrosal nerve, passing through the pterygopalatine ganglion without synapsing, before reaching the gland through the zygomatic and lacrimal nerves; this innervation reduces tear production via α1-adrenergic signaling, contrasting with parasympathetic stimulation that promotes secretion. Recent studies as of 2025 have shown that this inhibition occurs through the noradrenaline-α1a-Ucp2 pathway on acinar and myoepithelial cells, which is relevant to dry eye disease pathogenesis.^[25]^[26] Similarly, the submandibular salivary gland receives sympathetic input from the SCG via the external carotid plexus, leading to vasoconstriction and diminished watery saliva output, resulting in thicker secretions; norepinephrine acts on α- and β-receptors to achieve this inhibition.^[27] Furthermore, SCG sympathetic activity exhibits circadian modulation, influencing intraocular pressure (IOP) and aqueous humor dynamics through rhythmic norepinephrine release, which peaks during wakefulness to optimize visual acuity and fluid balance. This input promotes vasoconstriction in the ciliary body and trabecular meshwork, potentially lowering IOP by enhancing outflow facility, as evidenced in diurnal variations where sympathetic tone correlates with reduced aqueous production during active periods. Such modulation underscores the SCG's role in integrating environmental cues, like light exposure, with ocular homeostasis.^[28]^[29]^[30]

Vascular and pilomotor effects

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) mediates sympathetic vasoconstriction in cerebral, facial, and meningeal arteries through postganglionic fibers that release norepinephrine, primarily acting on alpha-adrenergic receptors to induce smooth muscle contraction. This innervation occurs via the internal carotid plexus for cerebral and meningeal vessels and the external carotid plexus for facial arteries, contributing to the maintenance of systemic blood pressure by modulating vascular tone in the head and neck.^[31]^[32]^[2] Postganglionic fibers from the SCG also activate piloerector (arrector pili) muscles in the skin of the scalp, face, and neck, resulting in piloerection or "goosebumps" as a response to cold exposure or emotional stimuli. These fibers distribute through the external carotid plexus to target cutaneous structures, enhancing insulation by erecting hairs. The SCG's external carotid plexus further extends sympathetic innervation to vessels supplying the scalp, ear, and thyroid gland, regulating local blood flow via similar adrenergic mechanisms.^[9]^[33] In thermoregulation, the SCG plays a key role by increasing cutaneous vasoconstriction in the head and neck during cold exposure, reducing peripheral blood flow to conserve core body heat as part of the sympathetic cold-defense response. This effect is driven by noradrenergic signaling from SCG neurons to vascular smooth muscle. Additionally, recent morphological studies indicate a controversial contribution of SCG fibers to the superior cardiac nerve, potentially modulating atrial rate through indirect sympathetic pathways, though functional evidence remains limited.^[34]^[35]

Endocrine and vestibular influences

The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) provides sympathetic innervation to the pineal gland through postganglionic fibers that travel along the tentorium cerebelli and enter via the conarian nerve.^[36] These fibers release norepinephrine, which acts primarily through beta-adrenergic receptors to stimulate melatonin synthesis in pinealocytes, thereby regulating circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.^[37] This noradrenergic input is essential for the gland's rhythmic function, as the mammalian pineal remains non-functional without intact sympathetic innervation from the SCG.^[38] Experimental studies demonstrate that ablation of the SCG disrupts this noradrenergic input, leading to dampened amplitude in pineal melatonin rhythms and altered responses to photoperiod changes.^[39] For instance, unilateral SCG denervation reduces pineal melatonin content and urinary metabolites, while bilateral removal abolishes the daily melatonin peak, underscoring the ganglion's critical role in photoperiodic signaling.^[40] The SCG also contributes to vestibular sympathetic innervation, with postganglionic fibers originating ipsilaterally and entering the inner ear via the internal auditory meatus along the labyrinthine and vestibular arteries.^[41] These fibers reach the semicircular canals and otoliths, modulating sympathetic tone in response to vestibular stimulation during motion; this vestibulo-sympathetic reflex promotes vasoconstriction to redistribute blood flow, potentially supporting balance by stabilizing cerebral perfusion amid postural changes.^[42] Indirectly, SCG-derived sympathetic fibers influence endocrine function through perivascular plexuses around the thyroid gland, where alpha-1 adrenergic stimulation modulates hormone release, including inhibition of parathyroid hormone secretion that may secondarily affect thyroid activity.^[43] Additionally, rare branches from the SCG via the internal carotid plexus in the cavernous sinus provide a scanty sympathetic supply to the neurohypophysis, potentially influencing posterior pituitary hormone dynamics.^[44]

Clinical significance

Horner's syndrome

Horner's syndrome is a clinical condition resulting from disruption of the oculosympathetic pathway, which carries sympathetic innervation from the hypothalamus to the eye and face, often involving the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) in postganglionic lesions.^[45] The syndrome is characterized by a classic triad of symptoms: ptosis (partial drooping of the upper eyelid due to denervation of the superior tarsal muscle), miosis (constricted pupil from unopposed parasympathetic tone on the dilator pupillae), and anhidrosis (reduced sweating on the ipsilateral face due to loss of sudomotor innervation).^[45] In cases involving SCG dysfunction, the lesion is postganglionic, leading to facial anhidrosis that may be subtle or limited to the forehead and nose because of partial sparing from external carotid branches.^[46] These symptoms arise from interruption of postganglionic fibers traveling along the internal carotid artery plexus after synapsing in the SCG.^[1] The causes of Horner's syndrome are classified as central (first-order neuron, e.g., brainstem stroke), preganglionic (second-order, e.g., brachial plexus injury), or postganglionic (third-order, involving the SCG or its outflow).^[47] Lesions specifically at the SCG produce a postganglionic form, distinguished by the absence of widespread body anhidrosis seen in preganglionic types and the potential for supersensitivity to adrenergic agents in denervated tissues.^[45] Diagnostic features include an apparent enophthalmos (sunken eye appearance due to ptosis and miosis), iris heterochromia (difference in iris color, particularly in congenital cases where the lesion develops early in life), and a positive dilation lag (slower pupil dilation in dim light).^[46] Confirmation typically involves pharmacological testing: cocaine drops fail to dilate the affected pupil, while apraclonidine reverses anisocoria by enhancing denervation supersensitivity.^[47] Etiologies targeting the SCG include tumors such as schwannomas, paragangliomas, or metastatic lesions compressing the ganglion in the neck; trauma from penetrating injuries or skull base fractures; and iatrogenic damage during procedures like carotid endarterectomy, where dissection near the carotid sheath affects postganglionic fibers.^[45] Internal carotid artery dissection is a critical cause, often presenting acutely with pain and potentially leading to ischemic complications if untreated.^[48] In congenital cases linked to SCG malformation, symptoms may manifest at birth with heterochromia as a hallmark.^[46] Treatment primarily focuses on identifying and addressing the underlying cause, such as surgical resection of tumors or anticoagulation for carotid dissection, to prevent progression.^[47] Symptomatic relief for ocular features can be achieved with topical apraclonidine eye drops, which constrict the normal pupil and elevate the ptotic lid, improving cosmesis and function without systemic effects.^[45] Prognosis depends on etiology reversibility, with postganglionic SCG lesions often carrying a better outlook if the cause is benign and isolated.^[46]

Surgical interventions and complications

Cervical sympathectomy, involving ablation of the superior cervical ganglion (SCG), has historically been employed to treat conditions such as primary hyperhidrosis affecting the face and scalp, as well as Raynaud's phenomenon in the upper extremities, by interrupting sympathetic outflow to reduce excessive sweating or vasospasm.^[49] This procedure, first described for hyperhidrosis in 1920, targets the SCG to control craniofacial sweating but is now rarely performed due to high risks of complications.^[50] Recent advancements from 2021 to 2025 have shifted toward less invasive techniques, including ultrasound-guided SCG blockade for managing chronic headaches, orofacial pain, and cluster headaches, offering targeted sympathetic interruption with local anesthetics or opioids for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.^[51] Additionally, endovascular approaches using computed tomography (CT) navigation enable precise transmural access to the SCG, facilitating minimally invasive interventions for sympathetic modulation in pain syndromes.^[52] Common complications of SCG-targeted interventions include compensatory hyperhidrosis, where sweating increases in untreated body areas due to autonomic imbalance, gustatory sweating triggered by eating, and incomplete Horner's syndrome manifesting as partial ptosis or miosis from unintended oculosympathetic disruption.^[53] These risks are heightened in surgical sympathectomy but reduced in image-guided blocks, though transient Horner's syndrome is a common and expected sign of successful blockade, observed in 100% of ultrasound procedures in one study.^[51] Studies from 2024 have enhanced interventional precision through sono-anatomy, confirming the SCG's visibility on high-resolution ultrasound at frequencies of 5–7 MHz, appearing as a hypoechoic structure posterior to the carotid sheath at the C2–C3 level, which aids in safe needle placement for radiology-guided blocks.^[54] This visualization supports applications in pain management and reduces procedural errors. Therapeutic uses extend to sympathetic blocks for conditions like chronic head and neck pain, with extensions from stellate ganglion blockade techniques applied to PTSD and refractory chronic pain, where bilateral SCG targeting modulates hyperarousal and neuropathic symptoms through temporary sympathetic inhibition.^[55]

Associated neurological disorders

Familial dysautonomia, also known as Riley-Day syndrome, is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the IKBKAP gene, leading to a significant reduction in the neuronal population of the superior cervical ganglion (SCG).^[56] These mutations result in 50–70% loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the SCG, primarily affecting noradrenergic sympathetic neurons essential for autonomic regulation.^[57] This neuronal depletion contributes to widespread autonomic instability, manifesting as cardiovascular dysregulation, gastrointestinal dysmotility, and sensory deficits due to impaired sympathetic outflow from the SCG.^[58] In Parkinson's disease, Lewy body pathology involving alpha-synuclein aggregates extends to the peripheral autonomic nervous system, including noradrenergic neurons in the SCG.^[59] This degeneration disrupts sympathetic neurotransmission, leading to reduced norepinephrine release and contributing to orthostatic hypotension, a common non-motor symptom affecting up to 50% of patients.^[60] The presence of Lewy bodies in SCG neurons correlates with the severity of autonomic impairment, distinguishing it from central dopaminergic loss in the substantia nigra. Multiple system atrophy (MSA) features degeneration of preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the intermediolateral cell column of the spinal cord, which disrupts inputs to the SCG and exacerbates dysautonomia.^[61] This central pathology results in postganglionic neuronal hypofunction within the SCG, as evidenced by depleted synaptic vesicles in axodendritic synapses, leading to profound orthostatic hypotension, urinary incontinence, and thermoregulatory failure in over 90% of cases.^[62] Unlike postganglionic involvement in Parkinson's disease, the preganglionic loss in MSA underscores a primarily central mechanism of autonomic failure.^[63] Diabetic autonomic neuropathy commonly affects postganglionic sympathetic fibers originating from the SCG, resulting in aberrant reinnervation where denervated sweat glands receive parasympathetic cholinergic fibers. This miswiring causes gustatory sweating, characterized by facial flushing and perspiration triggered by food intake, particularly in long-standing diabetes with microvascular complications.^[64] The condition reflects broader SCG-mediated sympathetic denervation hypersensitivity, impacting vascular and sudomotor control in the head and neck.^[65] Recent research from 2023 to 2025 has explored SCG involvement in the autonomic symptoms of long COVID, with interventions targeting the cervical sympathetic chain showing promise in alleviating dysautonomia.^[66] Studies indicate that sympathetic overactivity contributes to persistent orthostatic intolerance and fatigue in affected individuals.^[67] Cervical sympathetic blocks have demonstrated symptom relief in preliminary trials, suggesting a role for SCG modulation in managing post-viral autonomic dysregulation.^[68]

History and research

Historical discoveries

In the mid-19th century, French physiologist Claude Bernard conducted pioneering experiments on the sympathetic nervous system, demonstrating its role in pupil dilation through electrical stimulation of the cervical sympathetic nerve, including the superior cervical ganglion, in animal models such as rabbits.^[69] These studies, reported around 1852, established that sympathetic activation leads to mydriasis (pupil dilation) and vasodilation in the head and neck, laying foundational insights into autonomic control of ocular functions.^[70] Building on this work, in the 1890s, British physiologist John Newport Langley advanced understanding of the superior cervical ganglion's (SCG) organization through detailed dissections and functional experiments in cat models. Langley mapped the ganglion's topography, identifying distinct regions responsible for innervating specific targets like the eye and salivary glands, and differentiated preganglionic fibers (originating from the spinal cord) from postganglionic fibers (emerging from the SCG to peripheral effectors).^[71] His observations, published in key papers such as those in the Journal of Physiology, confirmed the SCG as a relay station in the sympathetic chain, with preganglionic inputs synapsing onto postganglionic neurons. Early 20th-century studies explored the SCG's regenerative capacity and plasticity following injury. These findings, building on anatomical work by researchers like Ranson and Billingsley, highlighted the potential for sympathetic pathways to reorganize after trauma.^[72] A major breakthrough came in the 1950s with the discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF) by Rita Levi-Montalcini, who utilized explants of chick sympathetic ganglia, including the SCG, in tissue culture assays.^[73] Working with Viktor Hamburger, Levi-Montalcini identified NGF as a protein promoting robust axonal outgrowth from these ganglia when exposed to tumor-derived extracts, demonstrating its specificity for sensory and sympathetic neurons.^[74] This work, culminating in the isolation and characterization of NGF, earned Levi-Montalcini the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and revolutionized understanding of neurotrophic factors in neural development and maintenance. In the early 20th century, clinical applications emerged with sympathectomy procedures targeting the SCG and its cardiac branches to alleviate angina pectoris. Surgeons like Thomas Jonnesco performed cervical sympathectomies to interrupt sympathetic vasoconstrictor signals to the heart, aiming to reduce pain from coronary insufficiency.^[75] These interventions, often involving resection of the superior and middle cervical ganglia, provided symptomatic relief in select cases, marking an early therapeutic use of SCG manipulation despite risks like Horner's syndrome.^[76]

Modern research developments

Recent morphological studies have elucidated variations in the arterial supply to the superior cervical ganglion (SCG), primarily derived from 3–4 branches of the ascending pharyngeal artery that approach anteriorly and posteriorly, forming a capillary network around neurons. These branches exhibit consistent patterns across specimens, with uniform microvessel density (mean of 83 in the upper part and 82.7 in the lower part, p=0.953), suggesting reliable vascular accessibility for interventional procedures.^[77] Concurrently, advances in ultrasound imaging have refined the sono-anatomy of cervical sympathetic ganglia, including the SCG located at C2–C4 anterior to the longus capitis muscle, appearing as a hypoechoic oval structure connected by the sympathetic trunk; this facilitates precise ultrasound-guided blocks for pain management by distinguishing it from adjacent lymph nodes lacking hilar structures.^[54] In cardiac research, a 2024 systematic review analyzed 76 studies to assess the SCG's role in autonomic innervation, concluding that direct contributions to atrial innervation are limited and debated, with most evidence supporting indirect pathways via other plexuses or sympathetic overdrive in disease states. Three-dimensional reconstructions highlighted SCG connections to structures like the nodose ganglion but underscored minimal direct atrial targeting across species, emphasizing the need for species-specific investigations.^[35] Studies on neuroplasticity have explored SCG responses to injury, revealing sympathetic axon remodeling after axotomy or compression, though conditioning electrical stimulation does not enhance regeneration, potentially due to persistent inhibitory factors in the microenvironment. This has implications for recovery in conditions like stroke, where SCG-derived sympathetic overdrive may exacerbate autonomic dysregulation. Emerging therapeutic applications include ultrasound-guided SCG blocks combined with triptans, which achieved superior headache relief (73.3% pain reduction at 24 hours vs. 49.4% with triptan alone) and reduced monthly migraine days in retrospective trials.^[78] Addressing research gaps in aging, recent analyses indicate progressive sympathetic neuron dysfunction, with age-related changes in SCG excitability contributing to autonomic symptoms.^[79] As of 2025, transcriptomic studies have further implicated the SCG in hypertension regulation through differential gene expression in sympathetic neurons.^[80] Additionally, research has shown that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) enhances SCG neuron activity, promoting hyperalgesia in models of chronic sleep deprivation.^[81]

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Dec 27, 2019 · In the eye, the intraocular pressure and ocular blood circulation were also mainly controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The influence ...
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Ocular Autonomic Nervous System: An Update from Anatomy to ...
Aqueous humor (AH) is a transparent fluid found in the anterior and posterior chambers. It is mainly responsible for nutrient delivery and IOP regulation. It is ...
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The Autonomic Nervous System and the Intraocular Pressure
One of the functions of the autonomic nervous system is the regulation of the intraocular pressure. ... Aqueous Humor · Adrenal Medulla · Ciliary Muscle. These ...
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Superior cervical ganglion stimulation results in potent cerebral ...
Nov 28, 2022 · We aimed to demonstrate that SCG stimulation in swine leads to significant cerebral vasoconstriction on digital subtraction angiography (DSA).Missing: meningeal | Show results with:meningeal
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The trigeminal system: The meningovascular complex— A review
Feb 18, 2021 · The sympathetic innervation of the cerebral blood vessels derives from the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion, with small contributions ...
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[PDF] The Anatomy of Spinal Sympathetic Structures in the Cat
... superior cervical ganglion. The resulting ratio of preganglionic fibers to ... piloerection of the hair of the face and neck of the cat. Foley and ...
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Control of cutaneous blood flow by central nervous system - PMC
Decreasing skin blood flow by cutaneous vasoconstriction greatly contributes to accumulation of central core heat, as a part of the cold-defense response or of ...
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The relevance of the superior cervical ganglion for cardiac ... - NIH
Feb 23, 2024 · There is indirect functional evidence that the SCG contributes to cardiac innervation as shown by its involvement in sympathetic overdrive ...
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Neural pathways and neurotransmitters affecting melatonin synthesis
... superior cervical ganglion, whose postganglionic sympathetic fibers, traveling along the tentorium cerebelli, enter the pineal gland via the conarian nerve.
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Cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling melatonin ... - PubMed
Norepinephrine (NE) released from superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons that provide sympathetic innervation to the pineal acts through alpha1- and beta ...
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Biorhythms and pineal gland - PubMed
Mammalian pineal is functional only if its peripheral sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical ganglion is intact. In contrast, melatonin ...
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Superior cervical ganglionectomy leads to dampening of amplitude ...
The sympathetic innervation to the pineal via the superior cervical ganglion determines the melatonin secretion, and superior cervical ganglionectomy (SCGx) ...
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Recovery of Function Following Unilateral Denervation, but Not ...
... Pineal Gland as Indicated by Measurements of Pineal Melatonin Content and Urinary Melatonin Metabolites ... superior cervical ganglion (unilateral ...
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Vestibular Sympathetic Nervous System in Guinea Pig - PubMed
The vestibular sympathetics originated in the ipsilateral superior cervical ganglion and entered the internal auditory meatus along the labyrinthine artery. At ...
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Vestibulo-Sympathetic Responses - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Redistributions of blood elicited by vestibular stimulation are mainly accomplished through the actions of the sympathetic nervous system, and have been termed ...
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Peripheral neuroendocrinology of the cervical autonomic nervous ...
... release, and c) alpha 1-adrenoceptor inhibition of parathyroid hormone release. ... Superior Cervical Ganglion / physiology*; Synaptic Transmission*; Thyroid ...
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Nov 23, 2019 · The nerve supply of the neurohypophysis is derived from two sources, a scanty sympathetic supply from the carotid plexus running with the ...
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Horner Syndrome - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The remaining fibers ascend along the internal carotid artery in the carotid plexus ... superior cervical ganglion, or along the course of the carotid artery.[10] ...Missing: scalp ear
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Horner Syndrome - EyeWiki
Jul 9, 2025 · ... cervical spinal cord (C8-T2 level, also called the ciliospinal center of Budge). The descending sympathetic tract is in close proximity to ...
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Horner syndrome: clinical perspectives - PMC
Apr 10, 2015 · Damage to the superior cervical ganglion can cause a postganglionic Horner syndrome as the ganglion lies about 1.5 cm behind the palatine tonsil ...
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Neuroimaging Strategies for Three Types of Horner Syndrome with ...
Postganglionic subtype. Variable causes from benign to life-threatening, Cocaine test (+), Superior cervical ganglion, Trauma including iatrogenic injury.
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Hyperhydrosis in - Journal of Neurosurgery
The first sympathectomy operation for hyperhydrosis was performed by Kotzareff in 1920. Early pioneering work in this form of surgical treatment is attributed ...
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(PDF) CERVICAL SYMPATHECTOMY - ResearchGate
Jul 11, 2021 · Sympathectomy is a procedure in which the nerves of the sympathetic nervous system are inactivated,. either by surgically cutting them or by ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Safety and utility of ultrasound-guided superior cervical ganglion ...
Apr 29, 2023 · Safety and utility of ultrasound-guided superior cervical ganglion block for headaches and orofacial pain: a retrospective, single-center study ...
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Anatomical Targeting of the Superior Cervical Ganglion on ...
This is the first anatomical study to provide pertinent targeting information for endovascular transmural access to the SCG using computed tomography ...
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Technical difficulties and complications of sympathectomy ... - PubMed
Feb 11, 2013 · The major complication is compensatory hyperhidrosis and, when severe, the patient may express regret for undergoing surgery. Improvements in ...Missing: cervical | Show results with:cervical
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Sono-anatomy of the middle cervical sympathetic ganglion verified ...
Jan 30, 2024 · The aim of this study was to explore the sonographic features of this ganglion in anatomical specimens and cadavers and evaluate the feasibility ...
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Effect of Stellate Ganglion Block Treatment on Posttraumatic Stress ...
Nov 6, 2019 · A 1990 report described a case of reflex sympathetic dystrophy co-occurring with PTSD in which right-sided SGB treatments reduced PTSD symptoms.
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IKBKAP/ELP1 gene mutations: mechanisms of familial ...
The identification of the mutations that cause familial dysautonomia (FD), an autosomal recessive disorder that impacts sensory and autonomic neurons.
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Familial dysautonomia model reveals Ikbkap deletion causes ...
Oct 30, 2013 · We found that the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)+ neurons in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) was reduced by nearly 70% in Ikbkap CKO ...
[57]
Tissue-Specific Expression of a Splicing Mutation in the IKBKAP ...
In the autonomic nervous system, superior cervical sympathetic ganglia are also reduced in size, because of a severe decrease in the neuronal population.
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Lewy pathology in the submandibular gland of individuals ... - PubMed
Lewy pathology (LP) was present in the submandibular glands and cervical superior ganglia in PD (9/9 cases) and iLBD (2/3 cases) but not in MSA or controls.
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Among the most debilitating manifestations of autonomic dysfunction in PD is orthostatic hypotension (OH), which is a sustained fall in blood pressure (BP) on ...Missing: superior cervical
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Multiple system atrophy | MedLink Neurology
Multiple system atrophy is a mostly sporadic degenerative disorder with a highly variable anatomic distribution and clinical picture.Missing: cervical | Show results with:cervical
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42 Autonomic ganglia and preganglionic neurons in autonomic failure
In superior cervical ganglia (SCGs) of three control subjects (ages 16, 64, 98 years), the mean packing density of neurons in areas of neuropil averaged 7.1 ...<|separator|>
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Autonomic dysfunction in multiple system atrophy - PubMed Central
Apr 8, 2025 · The autonomic dysfunction of MSA involves the comprehensive control of cardiovascular, urinary, reproductive, and gastrointestinal functions by the autonomic ...Missing: superior cervical dysautonomia
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Facial Sweating After Food: A New Sign Of Diabetic ... - jstor
cholinergic sweat fibres at the level of the superior cervical ganglion. The distribution of the diabetic gustatory sweating in the territory of the ...
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Gustatory sweating may develop as a symptom of autonomic dysfunction in patients with diabetes. It is reported in long-standing diabetes mellitus with ...
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Cervical sympathetic block to treat Long COVID: a scoping review
Oct 1, 2025 · CSB may offer symptom relief in Long COVID, particularly for fatigue, brain fog, and dysautonomia. However, the evidence remains preliminary ...Missing: superior ganglion NPY expression 2023 2024
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Neural Mechanisms in Cardiovascular Health and Disease
May 22, 2025 · Although denervation from the superior cervical ganglia did not have immediate effects, the long-term absence of local cardiac sympathetic ...
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Reduction of long COVID symptoms after stellate ganglion block
This study suggests that neuromodulation may provide relief of Long COVID symptoms for at least a subset of individuals, and provides support for prospective ...
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Horner syndrome: clinical perspectives | EB - Dove Medical Press
Apr 10, 2015 · This syndrome was initially described in animals by the French physiologist Claude Bernard ... cervical cord with sympathetic spasm of the pupil ...
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Claude Bernard and his revelations in physiology - PubMed
Dec 3, 2013 · ... 1850, and he proceeded to show that section of the cervical fibres of the sympathetic chain led to congestion and increased temperature on ...Missing: pupil dilation superior ganglion
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[PDF] Langley, John Newport
Dec 15, 2012 · His initial studies from 1875 to 1890 were directed at the processes of glandular secretion, whilst the second period concerned work on the ...Missing: cat models
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[PDF] The superior cervical ganglion and the cervical portion of the ...
Observations on the superior cervical ganglion and the nerves immediately associated with it are reported and what is known concerning the sympathetic ...Missing: John topography 1890s
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The Superior cervical ganglion and the cervical portion of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In the past it has been held that no interneurones exist in the ganglion. Ranson & Billingsley (1918) stated, 'So far as we have been able to ...
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[PDF] Rita Levi-Montalcini - THE NERVE GROWTH FACTOR - Nobel Prize
Sensory and sympathetic ganglia explanted from 8-day chick embryos in a semi-solid medium in proximity to, but not in contact with, fragments of mouse sarcoma ...
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History of Surgical Treatment of Ischemic Heart Disease—Pre ...
Mar 27, 2007 · Jonnesco (1916) performed the first human cardiac sympathectomy by removing the middle and inferior cervical ganglia and the first thoracic ...
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History of Sympathectomy
Starting in the 1930's, doctors changed their approach to the cervical-thoracic sympathetic chain, using new procedures that preserved the stellate ganglion ...
[77]
Arterial supply and morphological characteristics of sympathetic ...
Mar 5, 2024 · The superior cervical sympathetic ganglion (SCSG) is the first and the largest of the three cervical sympathetic ganglia. It lies lateral to the ...<|separator|>
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Ultrasound-guided block of the superior cervical ganglion ... - Frontiers
Aug 27, 2025 · Safety and utility of ultrasound-guided superior cervical ganglion block for headaches and orofacial pain: a retrospective, single-center study ...
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Sympathetic motor neuron dysfunction is a missing link in age ... - eLife
Dec 3, 2024 · Aging reduces the potassium M current in sympathetic motor neurons, resulting in a hyperactive phenotype that can be reversed by ...