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Svingerud Runestone

The Svingerud Runestone, also known as the Hole Runestone, is an inscribed sandstone artifact discovered in fragments at the Svingerud grave field in Hole, Norway, representing the oldest archaeologically dated runestone from Scandinavia.^[1] Unearthed during excavations in 2021–2023 by archaeologists from the University of Oslo's Museum of Cultural History, the fragments—totaling over 100 kg from a single large slab—were reassembled in 2025, revealing multiple layers of inscriptions carved at different times during the Roman Iron Age.^[1] Radiocarbon dating of associated cremated bones from the graves places the stone's use between 50 BC and AD 275, encompassed within the 95.4% probability range from the Bayesian model (190 BC–AD 415), making it significantly earlier than previously known runestones.^[1] The inscriptions on the reassembled stone include early runic sequences such as "idiberug," interpreted as a possible personal name like "Idibera" or "Idibergu," alongside the initial futhark runes "f u þ" and a carving formula "ek g/wulu:faḥido:runo," indicating "I, G/Wulu, colored/carved the rune."^[2]^[1] Non-linguistic marks, including grids and zigzags, suggest experimental writing practices, while the stone's deliberate fragmentation and distribution across multiple burials highlights its ritual reuse in funerary contexts over generations.^[1] This find, one of only about 30 pre-550 CE runestones in Norway and the sole example from before 300 CE with secure archaeological dating, challenges prior assumptions about the origins and development of runic writing, linking it to broader Roman-era influences in Scandinavia.^[2]^[3] Analysis led by runologist Kristel Zilmer and a team including Steinar Solheim and others underscores the stone's role in illuminating early literacy and cultural practices, with 3D models now available for further study.^[1] The artifact's discovery has prompted reevaluation of rune-stone traditions, suggesting that such monuments were not merely memorial but actively repurposed in Iron Age societies.^[3]

Discovery

Initial Discovery

The Svingerud Runestone was initially discovered in late 2021 during routine archaeological excavations at the Svingerud burial field in Hole municipality, Viken county, Norway.^[2]^[4] The find occurred as part of a cultural heritage management project investigating the site, led by a team from the University of Oslo's Museum of Cultural History, with excavations conducted from 2021 to 2023.^[2] Key contributors included archaeologist Steinar Solheim and runologist Kristel Zilmer, who helped identify and contextualize the inscriptions.^[3]^[2] The initial fragments—two pieces of reddish-brown Ringerike sandstone—were unearthed in grave contexts within the burial field.^[1] One fragment (designated Hole 2) was recovered from a flat cremation grave (A4367) at a depth of about 60 mm, alongside burned bones and charcoal, while the other (Hole 1) came from a nearby grave (A1790).^[1] The runic carvings on these pieces were immediately recognized during the excavation process, marking a significant moment in the fieldwork.^[2] The Svingerud site is an extensive Iron Age burial ground featuring several documented graves, including mounds and flat graves linked to Roman Iron Age practices.^[1] However, the runestone fragments were situated in an earlier stratigraphic layer, approximately 40–50 cm below a younger grave mound, suggesting deposition in a prehistoric context.^[2] Upon discovery, the team provisionally dated the fragments to between AD 1 and 250 based on their stratigraphic position relative to dated graves above and initial radiocarbon analysis of associated organic material from the cremation pit, which yielded a range of AD 1–225 (2σ).^[2]^[1] This assessment highlighted the potential significance of the find as one of the earliest known examples of runic writing in Scandinavia.^[4]

Additional Fragments

During continued excavations in 2022 and 2023, several additional fragments, including pieces forming Hole 3 and approximately 160 small fragments recovered via sieving, with runic and non-runic markings were found from the Svingerud grave field in Hole, Norway.^[1] These pieces interlock precisely with the original fragments like a jigsaw, reconstructing a larger slab measuring approximately 30 cm in height.^[1] The artifact's designation has sparked debate, with some researchers and media adopting the name "Hole Runestone" to reflect the site's municipality, while runologists continue to use "Svingerud Runestone" for consistency with the discovery location.^[5] Archaeological evidence, including the fragments' distribution across graves and surfaces, indicates deliberate fragmentation, likely for ritual deposition or material reuse in Iron Age practices.^[1] A February 2025 study in the journal Antiquity, authored by Steinar Solheim and colleagues, analyzed these developments and substantiated the stone's multi-phase use through layered inscriptions possibly by multiple scribes.^[1]

Physical Description

Material and Dimensions

The Svingerud Runestone is crafted from brownish sandstone quarried locally in the Oslofjord region, a material commonly used for early Scandinavian monuments due to its availability and workability.^[2] This reddish-brown variety, known as Ringerike sandstone, provides a stable base for incisions while reflecting the geological characteristics of the area.^[1] The reassembled slab is substantial, with the 12 main fragments alone weighing 107 kg, indicating a large original monument compared to later runestones.^[1] In material and scale, it resembles other early runic artifacts like the Einang stone, though its size highlights its origins as a significant early monument.^[1] Its surface shows weathering from exposure, yet retains clear, shallow incisions suitable for runic carving, with one side smoothed flat for inscriptions and the opposite remaining rough from natural quarrying.^[2]

Condition and Reconstruction

The Svingerud Runestone was discovered during excavations at the Svingerud grave field from 2021 to 2023, with initial fragments such as Hole 2 recovered in 2021 and the three main pieces (Hole 1, Hole 2, and Hole 3) from different burial contexts, suggesting post-inscription fragmentation. In early 2025, additional fragments—including approximately 160 smaller pieces under 20 mm—were identified through systematic sieving of excavated soil, bringing the total to 12 main fragments weighing 107 kg from what is now understood as a single original slab. Analysis of these new fragments revealed cleaner breaks indicative of deliberate human intervention, likely to distribute inscribed sections across multiple graves over time.^[1]^[6] Reconstruction efforts, led by a team from the Museum of Cultural History at the University of Oslo in early 2025, involved meticulous puzzle-fitting of the fragments based on edge alignment and inscription continuity. Researchers employed 3D scanning to create high-resolution digital models, enabling precise virtual reassembly without physical contact that could cause further damage; photogrammetry techniques were used to map and align the irregular edges and shallow incisions. This non-destructive approach confirmed that the fragments originated from one monument, with the main pieces fitting together like a jigsaw, though large portions of the original surface remain missing. Challenges included overlapping break lines that partially obscured rune sequences and ornamental marks, as well as erosion from weathering that had shallowed some incisions, complicating full interpretation.^[1]^[2]^[7] The reassembled stone is currently in stable but fragile condition, with eroded edges and faint markings on the recovered surface, protected through application of consolidants to prevent further deterioration. Since its discovery, all fragments have been stored in climate-controlled facilities at the Museum of Cultural History to maintain optimal humidity and temperature, ensuring long-term preservation ahead of any public exhibition.^[1]

Inscriptions

Script and Markings

The Svingerud Runestone is inscribed using the Elder Futhark, the earliest known runic alphabet consisting of 24 characters, which was employed in early Germanic-speaking regions during the Roman Iron Age.^[1] The carvings are shallowly incised and exhibit uneven execution, reflecting early experimentation in runic writing.^[2] These incisions were likely made with a sharp tool, such as the tip of a knife or needle.^[1] Across the reassembled fragments, at least 10-12 distinct runes are visible, with more extensive sequences identified on the primary pieces: one side features approximately 25 runes in five groupings, including the eight-rune sequence i d i b e r u g (transliterated as idiberug), while another side bears 19 runes in a continuous band, and a third fragment displays 16-17 runes such as ek-g/wulu:faḥido:runo.^[1] Additional isolated runes include the initial three of the futhark: f (ᚠ), u (ᚢ), and þ (ᚦ).^[2] Some runes show variant forms, such as an elongated or multi-pocket b with up to four pockets and a diagonal-branched e, deviating from standardized shapes seen in later Younger Futhark developments.^[1] The arrangement suggests a possible grid-like structure on certain faces, with runes separated by dots or aligned in rows.^[2] Non-runic markings accompany the runes, including geometric symbols like triangular and zigzag shapes, as well as grid patterns and faint scratches that may represent ornamental or stylized elements rather than alphabetic signs.^[1] These elements, some of which overlie or intersect the runic incisions, indicate hand-chiseled experimentation, potentially including practice strokes or decorative motifs.^[2] The 2025 reassembly of fragments from multiple graves reveals evidence of multi-layered inscriptions, with superimposed carvings suggesting the stone's reuse over time during the Roman Iron Age; this palimpsest-like quality highlights varying carving hands and phases, from initial incisions to subsequent alterations.^[1]^[8]

Interpretations

The primary interpretation of the main runic sequence on the Svingerud Runestone, known as "idiberug," proposes it as a personal name, likely that of a woman named Idibera or a variant such as Idibergu.^[2] Alternative readings suggest it could denote a kin group as "Idiberung" or function as a dedicatory phrase like "for Idiberug," potentially commemorating a buried individual in the associated grave field.^[1] Runologist Kristel Zilmer, leading the initial analysis in 2023, emphasized these possibilities while noting the inscription's brevity and lack of a full formulaic structure typical of later runestones.^[2] Additional sequences present further interpretive challenges in Proto-Norse, the precursor to Old Norse, using early variants of the Elder Futhark script that allow for ambiguities in rune forms and phonetic values. One fragment (Hole 3) features what appears to be a carver's signature, read as ek g/wulu:faḥido:runo, translating roughly to "I, [Gul(l)u or similar], painted/wrote the rune," with the name possibly female due to the -u ending, a marker in early runic nominatives.^[1] Other markings, including grids, zigzags, and partial futhark lists like fuþ, have been suggested as experimental or non-linguistic elements, potentially serving as boundary indicators given the stone's upright positioning or as part of a memorial tradition linked to the site's burials.^[2] In 2025, new fragments reassembled from the site introduced additional unclear symbols, interpreted by archaeologist Steinar Solheim and colleagues as potentially experimental or ornamental elements, though no definitive translation emerged due to fragmentation and variant rune usage.^[1] These updates, building on James Knirk's 2023 preliminary readings of the script's archaic features, propose a ritual significance, with the stone possibly reused over generations in funerary contexts rather than as a single coherent monument.^[9] However, no complete sentence has been identified, complicating efforts to discern a unified purpose. Scholarly debates center on whether the stone qualifies as a "true" runestone—intended for public commemoration—or merely a practice piece for rune experimentation, given the multiple carving hands, irregular markings, and absence of standardized formulas seen in later examples.^[6] Knirk highlighted the linguistic ambiguities inherent in Proto-Norse, where rune variants could alter readings significantly, while Zilmer and Solheim argue the diversity points to evolving runic traditions rather than casual scribbling.^[2] These interpretations underscore the stone's role in illuminating early runic literacy, though consensus remains elusive amid the inscriptions' brevity and the site's archaeological context.^[1]

Historical Context

Archaeological Site

The Svingerud grave field is situated in Hole municipality, Buskerud County, approximately 40 km northwest of Oslo, Norway, adjacent to Lake Tyrifjorden in a historically rich district known for Iron Age artifacts.^[1]^[2] This Iron Age cemetery encompasses a compact area with four grave mounds and two flat graves, reflecting a sequence of burial practices primarily involving cremations.^[1] The site's layout indicates layered use over time, with flat graves often positioned beneath later mounds, and it forms part of a broader regional necropolis in eastern Norway featuring similar prehistoric burials.^[2] The grave field was active from around 400 BC to AD 400, with the most intensive burial activity occurring between 50 BC and AD 250, spanning the late Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age periods, and extending into the early Migration Period.^[1] Excavations uncovered six graves containing cremated human remains mixed with charcoal, typically deposited in simple pits or urns without elaborate structures.^[1]^[2] Representative grave goods include pottery sherds, bronze brooches, belt fittings, iron needles or pins, and fragments of bone combs, alongside occasional items like spurs, attesting to the social status and daily life of the deceased.^[1] Three grave mounds were documented in prior surveys, but systematic excavation from 2021 to 2023 by the University of Oslo's Museum of Cultural History revealed additional features as part of a cultural resource management effort ahead of infrastructure development.^[1]^[2] The runestone, designated as fragment Hole 2, was discovered in flat grave A4367, a modest cremation pit located 40–50 cm beneath the overlying grave mound A140.^[1]^[2] This grave held cremated bones from an adult, scattered charcoal, and minimal accompanying items, notably a bronze spur typologically consistent with Roman Iron Age artifacts, but no other significant goods.^[1]^[2] Its stratigraphic position below burials from the Migration Period underscores the site's prolonged use, with A4367 representing one of the earliest phases amid a progression of interments that incorporated both flat and mounded forms.^[1] The lakeside setting near Tyrifjorden likely contributed to the selection of this location for ancestral commemorations in the Iron Age landscape.^[2]

Dating Methods

The dating of the Svingerud Runestone relies on contextual archaeological evidence rather than direct analysis of the stone itself, as sandstone cannot be reliably dated using standard methods like radiocarbon due to its inorganic nature. Instead, scholars have employed stratigraphic positioning, radiocarbon dating of associated organic materials, and typological comparisons of the rune forms to establish its chronology within the Roman Iron Age, specifically the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. These approaches confirm the runestone's early origin, predating the standardization of runic inscriptions in later periods.^[1] Stratigraphic analysis places the runestone fragments in an early layer of the Svingerud grave field. The primary fragment (Hole 2) was recovered from grave A4367, which lies beneath mound A140, a later feature dated to the 5th century AD through associated artifacts and radiocarbon samples. This positioning anchors the runestone to a pre-5th-century context, with grave A1790 (containing another fragment, Hole 1) being stratigraphically even older than A4367. Such layering indicates the runestone was deposited during the initial phases of site use, between AD 1 and 250.^[1]^[2] Radiocarbon dating provides the most precise temporal framework, applied to organic remains directly associated with the graves. Charcoal and cremated human bones from grave A4367 yielded calibrated dates of 50 BC to AD 275, with a 68.3% probability between AD 155 and 275, while similar analysis from grave A1790 produced dates of 15 BC to AD 195 (68.3% probability). These results were processed using Bayesian modeling in OxCal software to account for the grave field's multi-phase use, confirming the runestone's placement in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. Overall, 29 radiocarbon samples from the site span 400 BC to AD 400, but the relevant graves cluster tightly in the early Roman Iron Age.^[1] Typological comparison of the rune forms further supports this early dating, as the inscriptions employ the Elder Futhark script in a proto-runic style characteristic of the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. Specific rune shapes, such as the angular forms for *f, *u, and *þ, align closely with those on the Vimose comb from Denmark, dated to circa AD 160 through associated bog deposits and artifact typology. This similarity underscores the runestone's position among the earliest known runic carvings on stone, before the script's evolution in the Migration Period.^[1]^[10] In 2025, the discovery and reassembly of additional fragments from the same early graves reinforced these dating methods, confirming the runestone's original deposition in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD and excluding possibilities of medieval reuse. The new pieces, integrated via 3D modeling, fit within the same stratigraphic and radiocarbon contexts, providing a more complete view of the monument without altering the established chronology.^[1]

Significance

Runological Importance

The Svingerud Runestone, radiocarbon dated to between 50 BC and AD 275, represents the earliest known archaeologically dated runestone, significantly advancing the chronology of Elder Futhark, the oldest runic alphabet.^[1] This dating predates previous examples, such as the Vimose comb from around AD 160, and pushes the origins of runic writing back by at least two centuries from earlier estimates that placed the Elder Futhark's emergence in the second century AD.^[1] It is the sole example from before 300 CE with secure archaeological dating. By establishing a secure early timeline, the stone provides critical evidence for the development of runic scripts in Scandinavia during the late Iron Age, filling a previously undocumented gap between proto-runic markings and more standardized forms.^[1] The artifact's inscriptions offer key insights into early literacy in Scandinavia, suggesting that runic writing was in use by the local Germanic-speaking populations as early as the first century BC, rather than solely through later migrations.^[1] This challenges traditional theories positing that runes evolved primarily from Old Italic scripts encountered by Germanic tribes during Roman-era contacts in continental Europe, instead supporting an indigenous Scandinavian innovation or adaptation much earlier.^[11] Features like the multi-pocket 'b' rune and zigzag motifs on the stone further highlight experimental forms not seen in later inscriptions, underscoring its role in tracing the script's formative stages.^[1] Analysis of the fragmented inscriptions reveals multi-phase use, with distinct carving episodes across the pieces (designated Hole 1, 2, and 3), indicating the stone was reused and reinscribed over multiple generations within its dated span.^[1] This longevity—potentially spanning up to 300 years—demonstrates the evolving nature of runic traditions on a single artifact, from initial memorial functions to later additions, and provides a rare longitudinal view of script development absent in more uniform later runestones.^[1] Comparatively, the Svingerud Runestone bridges the divide between hypothetical proto-runes and established Elder Futhark examples like the Rosseland runestone (c. 400 AD), influencing ongoing reassessments of early runic corpora by offering a benchmark for stylistic and orthographic evolution.^[1] Its discovery has prompted scholarly reevaluation of runestone chronologies, emphasizing the need for integrated archaeological and epigraphic approaches.^[1] The runestone's significance has catalyzed research initiatives from 2023 to 2025, including digital reconstructions via 3D modeling to facilitate global access and analysis of its inscriptions, enhancing runic databases and collaborative studies in runology.^[1] These efforts underscore its potential to elevate early runic heritage in international contexts, though formal recognitions remain under discussion.^[1]

Cultural Impact

The Svingerud Runestone, discovered in a burial context at the Svingerud grave field in eastern Norway, likely served as a memorial or personal marker, reflecting early commemorative practices in communities during the Roman Iron Age.^[2] Its inscriptions, possibly including a personal name like "Idibera," suggest it functioned to honor individuals or kin in funerary settings, indicating emerging literacy among social elites capable of rune carving.^[2] This points to specialized knowledge in writing systems predating widespread use, highlighting social stratification where such markers denoted status or remembrance in burial rituals.^[1] The stone's deliberate fragmentation and reuse across multiple graves underscores potential ritual significance, including magical or protective functions attributed to early runes, as well as ties to ancestor veneration practices.^[2] Researchers propose that the stone was intentionally broken to associate specific inscriptions with successive burials, allowing for layered dedicatory intents over time and reflecting evolving funerary customs.^[1] Such practices may have invoked runes' symbolic power for safeguarding the dead or invoking continuity with forebears, common in early Germanic traditions.^[3] Located in the Viken region, the runestone provides evidence of cultural continuity between early Germanic and Norse societies in pre-Viking Scandinavia, demonstrating sustained runic traditions from as early as 50 BCE.^[1] It illustrates regional adaptations of writing in an area known for Iron Age artifacts, bridging continental influences with local identity formation.^[2] In modern times, the runestone has been exhibited at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo since 2023 and has received media attention.^[2]^[3] Scholarly debates persist on whether it represents indigenous rune development or importation via Roman contacts, with evidence suggesting inspiration from Latin alphabets but unique local adaptations.^[2]^[1]

Exhibition and Preservation

Current Display

The Svingerud Runestone is housed at the Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo, Norway, which oversees its custody and research.^[2] It was publicly exhibited there as part of a temporary display from January 21 to February 26, 2023, allowing visitors to view the reassembled fragments alongside explanations of its runic inscriptions and historical context.^[2] ^[12] Following the discovery of additional fragments and reassembly in early 2025, the runestone is undergoing ongoing research and conservation efforts. Access is limited to authorized researchers, with high-resolution images and details available through the museum's online collections and related publications.^[13]

Conservation Efforts

Following its discovery in 2021, the Svingerud Runestone fragments underwent post-discovery stabilization and cleaning to prepare them for study and storage.^[1] The runestone is maintained under controlled environmental conditions in storage to minimize deterioration. Key challenges in conservation stem from the sandstone's porosity, which can lead to issues such as salt efflorescence and material loss in porous stones. The artifact's fragmented state necessitates reliance on non-destructive techniques.^[1] The runestone is managed by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage, which oversees national preservation strategies, with day-to-day care handled by the Museum of Cultural History at the University of Oslo.^[14] Digitization efforts include 3D models of the fragments, available for further study and virtual access.^[1]

References

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