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Tekel

Tekel A.Ş., the Turkish term for "monopoly" and stylized as TEKEL, was a state-owned enterprise that controlled the production and distribution of tobacco products and alcoholic beverages in Turkey as the government's exclusive authority in these sectors from its nationalization in 1925 until partial privatization in 2008.^[1]^[2] Originating from an Ottoman-era Franco-German tobacco firm known as the Régie, Tekel became the sole domestic manufacturer and supplier after the Republic's establishment, overseeing tobacco cultivation, cigarette factories like those in Samsun, and brands such as Asker sigarası while also producing wines including Buzbağ and Ürgüp.^[1]^[3] Its tobacco operations were sold to British American Tobacco in 2008 for $1.72 billion following competitive bidding, marking Turkey's largest privatization to date, though the alcohol division faced separate restructuring.^[4]^[5] The process sparked major labor unrest, including a 2010 strike by thousands of workers protesting relocation and transfer to precarious 4-C temporary contracts, which drew national attention as one of Turkey's largest protests in decades amid concerns over job security and union rights post-monopoly dissolution.^[3]^[6]^[7]

History

Foundation and Early Monopoly (1925-1960)

Following the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the government nationalized tobacco production and sales, establishing TEKEL as the state monopoly on tobacco and alcohol in 1925 by assuming control of the Ottoman Régie, a foreign-managed entity under the Public Debt Administration.31288-6/fulltext) This nationalization ended foreign concessions that had dominated these vice industries since the late 19th century, aligning with efforts to secure economic sovereignty during post-Ottoman nation-building.^[8] TEKEL inherited and operated key Régie facilities, including factories in Istanbul—such as the Cibali plant established in 1884—and Izmir's Alsancak complex, also dating to 1884, to centralize manufacturing. ^[9] Initial operations emphasized domestic tobacco cultivation to foster agricultural self-sufficiency and reduce reliance on imports, supporting Turkey's broader industrialization goals under etatism policies. The 1930 Tobacco Monopoly Law formalized TEKEL's role as the exclusive manufacturer and distributor, enabling monopolistic pricing that channeled revenues directly to the state treasury amid fiscal constraints in the early Republican era.^[10] By the 1930s, TEKEL began limited exports as production scaled, contributing to foreign exchange earnings while maintaining tight control over supply chains to curb smuggling and ensure revenue stability.31288-6/fulltext) These measures positioned TEKEL as a cornerstone of state finances, with its monopoly structure prioritizing national control over market competition during this foundational period.^[11]

Expansion and State Control (1960-1990)

During the 1960–1990 period, Tekel solidified its role as Turkey's state-controlled tobacco monopoly, overseeing nearly all domestic cigarette production and distribution amid import bans that shielded it from foreign competition.^[12] This protected status enabled operational expansion to accommodate rising demand, with national cigarette consumption growing at an average annual rate of 3.9% from 1960 to 1988.^[13] Tobacco yields also improved, rising from around 500 kg/ha in the early 1970s to over 800 kg/ha by the mid-1980s, reflecting investments in cultivation and processing efficiency under Tekel's centralized management.^[14] Tekel developed an extensive network of regional factories and procurement facilities, concentrating on key tobacco-producing areas like the Aegean region (accounting for about 60% of national output) and the Black Sea region.^[12] ^[14] Through mandatory leaf purchases from farmers, it stabilized rural incomes in these zones, operating hundreds of warehouses—such as 302 in the Aegean and 229 in the Black Sea—to handle drying, grading, and distribution, thereby integrating agricultural supply chains into state operations.^[15] This infrastructure supported Tekel's dominance, but the absence of market rivalry fostered bureaucratic bloat and operational rigidities, as decision-making remained hierarchically centralized without incentives for cost control or innovation.^[16] The monopoly's pricing power, enforced by state regulations, generated substantial revenues but drew criticism for enabling inefficiencies and illicit activities; high domestic prices incentivized smuggling networks, particularly from the 1980s onward as neoliberal policy shifts began eroding barriers.^[17] ^[18] Allegations of internal corruption, including favoritism in procurement and warehouse management, accumulated amid reports of cartel influences penetrating supply chains during this era.^[17] In contrast, Tekel's export prowess—as Turkey's leading tobacco exporter—bolstered foreign exchange reserves, with shipments funding public infrastructure projects and contributing to fiscal stability before partial liberalization in the mid-1980s.^[14] By the late 1980s, these dynamics underscored Tekel's dual legacy: a vital economic pillar sustaining employment in processing and farming, yet hampered by monopoly-induced complacency that limited productivity gains relative to global peers.^[16]

Pre-Privatization Reforms (1990-2007)

In the 1990s, Turkey's tobacco sector underwent incremental deregulation amid broader economic liberalization efforts and early EU accession aspirations, which emphasized reducing state monopolies and opening markets to competition. Legislation in 1994 permitted foreign firms to establish local production facilities, while separating TEKEL's leaf procurement from manufacturing to enable limited partnerships, though full implementation lagged due to bureaucratic and political hurdles.^[5] These changes aimed to modernize operations but encountered resistance from TEKEL's entrenched position as both regulator and producer. British American Tobacco (BAT) pursued joint ventures with TEKEL repeatedly from the late 1980s, proposing majority stakes in facilities like Adana (1986) and Akhisar (1994), but deals collapsed by 1999 amid political instability—seven government changes between 1991 and 1999—and TEKEL's unwillingness to cede control, violating aspects of foreign investment laws.^[5] In contrast, Philip Morris succeeded via a 1996 joint venture with local partner Sabanci, capturing 40% market share by 2000 through efficient production, underscoring TEKEL's resistance to collaboration.^[5] This failure exacerbated TEKEL's market erosion, as illicit trade surged post-liberalization; smuggling rates climbed, with competitors like smuggled Marlboros undercutting prices before formal entry, contributing to TEKEL's cigarette dominance falling from near-monopoly to 67.5% by 2000.^[5]^[19] Internally, TEKEL grappled with severe inefficiencies, including overstaffing at 26,334 employees in 2000—73% in low-productivity tobacco processing—and outdated infrastructure, with only two of eight cigarette factories operational by the late 1990s.^[20]^[5] These issues drove declining profitability despite steady tax contributions; by 2003, TEKEL held excess inventory of 500,000 tons of tobacco—five times annual needs—and accumulated 600 trillion lira ($400 million) in unpaid tax debts, straining state finances as it represented 4.9% of tax revenues yet required subsidies for unviable operations.^[21] The government's push for reforms stemmed from fiscal imperatives, as TEKEL's debt and overstaffing—potentially reducible to 2,000 in processing per efficiency benchmarks—imposed ongoing budget burdens amid Turkey's 2001 crisis and IMF-mandated austerity.^[21] Efforts like planned factory tenders and World Bank-backed severance ($250 million) in 2003 sought downsizing but faltered, highlighting the limits of partial measures without full privatization.^[21]

Products and Operations

Tobacco Brands and Manufacturing

TEKEL produced several iconic cigarette brands tailored to Turkish consumer preferences, emphasizing oriental tobacco blends derived from sun-cured varieties prevalent in the country's Black Sea and Aegean regions. Among the most prominent were Samsun, Birinci, and Tekel 2000. Samsun featured an all-Turkish oriental blend, known for its aromatic, spicy profile suited to traditional smoking habits, with variants like Samsun 2000 incorporating filtered king-size formats.^[22]^[23] Birinci, meaning "first class" in Turkish, was a stronger unfiltered or lightly filtered option using similar oriental tobaccos, often in round-filtered packs of 20 cigarettes, appealing to domestic markets favoring robust flavors.^[24] Tekel 2000, introduced in the 1980s as an American-style blend to counter imported competition, combined Virginia and burley tobaccos with oriental components in king-size (85 mm) or long (100 mm) packs, available in soft or hard formats of 20 cigarettes each.^[25]^[22] Manufacturing operations centered on high-volume production across seven dedicated cigarette factories, including key facilities in Samsun, Izmir, and Istanbul, which prioritized efficiency through state-supported mechanized processes like blending, cutting, and packing suited to oriental leaf characteristics.^[14]^[19] These plants processed primarily domestic oriental tobacco, which comprised about 65% of global supply from Turkey, enabling low-cost output subsidized by the monopoly structure rather than market-driven innovations.^[14] Annual production for major brands such as Samsun, Maltepe, Tekel 2000, and Tekel 2001 reached 32 billion cigarettes by the mid-2000s, reflecting peaks in state-controlled scaling before privatization.^[26] Under TEKEL's monopoly, quality controls were enforced via government standards focusing on consistent blending ratios and leaf grading, differing from post-2008 private sector shifts toward flavor additives and premium filtrations introduced by acquirers like British American Tobacco.^[27] This approach maintained affordability and volume for local demand but limited diversification compared to international competitors' emphasis on low-tar variants or customized markets.^[28]

Alcohol and Other Divisions

Tekel's alcohol division operated as a state monopoly on spirits production and distribution, primarily focusing on rakı, an anise-flavored distilled spirit central to Turkish culinary and social traditions. Established under state control following the 1944 law granting exclusive rights to distill and sell rakı, the division standardized production quality and dominated domestic supply until liberalization. Key brands included Yeni Rakı, distilled from grape-based suma with at least 40% alcohol content per Turkish standards, and Tekel Rakı, which together accounted for the bulk of output sold primarily within Turkey.^[29]^[30] This segment diversified revenues beyond tobacco, leveraging rakı's cultural status as the "national drink" consumed in meze accompaniments, though exact contributions varied with market fluctuations and excise taxes.^[31] In parallel, Tekel oversaw smaller operations in salt extraction and match manufacturing, which supported basic commodity needs under monopoly frameworks but generated marginal revenues compared to alcohol and tobacco. Salt production involved state-managed mines and processing, while matches were produced in facilities like those integrated into Tekel's broader industrial apparatus, often tied to fiscal policies for essential goods. These divisions emphasized domestic self-sufficiency rather than export, with limited innovation or scale expansion.^[32] Privatization isolated the alcohol unit from tobacco restructuring to facilitate separate sales amid EU accession pressures and fiscal reforms. In February 2004, the spirits division was auctioned for approximately 292 million euros to a Turkish consortium (Nurol, Limak, Özaltın, and TÜTSAB), rebranded as Mey İçki, enabling independent operation while preserving rakı heritage brands. This preceded the 2008 tobacco sale, minimizing disruptions to alcohol's entrenched market position and allowing subsequent foreign investment, including TPG Capital's 2006 acquisition for 810 million USD.^[33]^[34]^[1]

Supply Chain and Exports

TEKEL maintained a vertically integrated supply chain for tobacco, overseeing procurement from domestic farmers, processing in state-owned facilities, and distribution for both domestic consumption and exports, which minimized reliance on foreign inputs and supported national self-sufficiency in oriental tobacco varieties. The company procured the majority of Turkey's tobacco leaf production through a government-backed system that set minimum purchase prices by grade until 2000, ensuring stable farmer incomes while channeling output to TEKEL's factories.^[12] In the late 1990s, this system handled approximately 250,000–260,000 metric tons of farm-weight tobacco annually, predominantly oriental types grown across roughly 100,000–150,000 hectares in regions like the Black Sea and Aegean areas, with TEKEL providing seeds, technical guidance, and purchase guarantees to over 200,000 smallholder farmers.^[35] Export operations focused on cigarettes and raw tobacco, targeting markets in Europe, the Middle East, and Russia, where Turkish oriental blends held niche demand for their aroma in international cigarette formulations. Cigarette exports peaked at 42,627 tonnes in 1992, primarily to Middle Eastern countries, before declining to 4,101 tonnes by 2001 amid rising domestic consumption and global health regulations.^[15] Overall tobacco exports generated a trade surplus, reaching $561 million in value in 1999 against $293 million in imports, bolstering Turkey's balance of payments through TEKEL's state-controlled logistics and packaging.^[14] To address global quality standards, TEKEL invested in varietal improvements and farmer training for higher-yield oriental strains, reducing defects and enhancing leaf suitability for export blends, though inherent limitations of sun-cured oriental tobacco—such as lower yields per hectare (typically 1–1.5 tons compared to 2–3 tons for competitors' flue-cured varieties)—persisted due to agro-climatic factors and resistance to mechanization.^[5] These efforts achieved partial self-reliance by curbing raw leaf imports to under 50,000 tons annually in the 1990s, but inefficiencies in procurement logistics and varietal adaptation highlighted structural challenges in competing with more industrialized producers.^[28]

Economic Role

Contributions to Turkish Revenue and Employment

Prior to its privatization in 2008, TEKEL, as Turkey's state-owned monopoly on tobacco and alcohol production, generated substantial revenue through excise taxes and direct profits, contributing significantly to the national budget. In 1948, TEKEL alone accounted for 11.13% of total government revenues, primarily from cigarette sales taxes, which supported early post-war public infrastructure and industrialization efforts.^[36] By the 1990s and early 2000s, tobacco excise taxes—largely channeled through TEKEL's operations—represented approximately 6% of overall government revenues, funding key public expenditures amid fiscal constraints, though this share declined as market liberalization eroded monopoly pricing power.^[37] These funds were instrumental in stabilizing state finances during periods of economic volatility, enabling investments in transportation and urban development without reliance on external borrowing. TEKEL's operations sustained direct employment for around 12,000 workers across its factories and processing facilities by the mid-2000s, providing stable wages in manufacturing hubs like Samsun and Izmir.^[2] Indirectly, the monopoly's procurement of raw tobacco supported tens of thousands of smallholder farmers in rural areas, particularly in the Black Sea, Aegean, and Eastern Anatolia regions, where tobacco cultivation offered a reliable cash crop in otherwise underdeveloped agricultural economies.^[38] This vertical integration from farm to factory mitigated regional unemployment and income volatility, as TEKEL's guaranteed purchases buffered farmers against market fluctuations until partial deregulation in the late 1990s began shifting dynamics. The monopoly structure facilitated rapid scaling of tobacco production during Turkey's import-substitution era from the 1930s to 1960s, capturing economic rents to finance state-led industrialization without competitive pressures initially spurring efficiency. However, this insulated position fostered operational complacency, with productivity metrics stagnating relative to global peers; for instance, TEKEL's output per worker lagged behind privatized counterparts in comparable markets, as evidenced by post-liberalization gains in efficiency following the 1998 Tobacco Law's entry of private firms.^[12] While the model stabilized revenue and employment in agrarian peripheries, it prioritized volume over innovation, contributing to long-term fiscal dependency on sin taxes amid rising health costs.

Market Dominance and Inefficiencies

Tekel maintained a dominant position in Turkey's domestic tobacco market throughout much of the late 20th century, controlling over 70% of cigarette sales by 1997 as multinational entrants began challenging its monopoly.^[12] This entrenched share stemmed from state protections that insulated the enterprise from full market competition, reducing incentives for product diversification and technological upgrades typical in contested industries.^[5] Consumer preferences shifted toward lower-tar alternatives introduced by foreign firms, which were perceived as less harmful, leading to sharp declines in demand for Tekel's higher-tar domestic brands.^[39] The monopoly's lack of competitive pressure delayed innovation in response to such trends, fostering quality and variety lags compared to smuggled Western cigarettes, which gained traction despite legal risks due to their superior perceived attributes.^[12] This complacency contributed to inefficiencies, as Tekel struggled to adapt to rising health awareness and anti-smoking campaigns in the 2000s, exacerbating domestic consumption slowdowns. Protected status further hindered responsiveness to global shifts, with Tekel's tobacco exports—comprising 60% of Turkey's total in 2000—failing to offset eroding domestic volumes amid stagnant overall export growth.^[40] By the early 2000s, the enterprise's market power had waned to 67.5% domestically, underscoring how monopoly privileges perpetuated structural rigidities over dynamic adjustment.^[19] These drawbacks highlight the broader pitfalls of state monopolies, where absence of rivalry often prioritizes revenue extraction over efficiency and consumer-driven evolution.^[12]

Fiscal Impacts of Privatization

The sale of Tekel to British American Tobacco in February 2008 generated 1.72 billion USD in proceeds for the Turkish treasury, marking one of the largest privatization transactions of that year.^[5] ^[41] These funds formed a substantial portion of the government's anticipated 1.9 billion USD in total privatization revenues for 2008, aiding fiscal stabilization during the onset of the global financial crisis that impacted Turkey's economy.^[42] By divesting Tekel, the state relieved itself of ongoing financial burdens associated with operating the enterprise, including implicit subsidies and support for loss-making activities that had strained public budgets under state ownership.^[43] ^[44] This shift aligned with broader privatization objectives to minimize state involvement in commercial operations and promote budgetary discipline, reducing the fiscal drag from state economic enterprises.^[45] Post-privatization, tobacco excise taxes— a major revenue source for Turkey—continued to yield significant income, with the structure indirectly influenced by the transition to private operation, sustaining or adapting collections without direct state production costs.^[12] Under BAT's ownership, investments in facilities and processes enhanced operational efficiency, contributing to the sector's alignment with market-driven productivity absent prior state inefficiencies.^[46] Long-term fiscal benefits included lower public expenditure on enterprise support, supporting Turkey's economic reform agenda amid EU accession efforts that emphasized reduced state intervention.^[43]

Privatization and Restructuring

Legislative Framework and Sale Process

The privatization of TEKEL's operations was facilitated by legislative reforms beginning in the early 2000s, aimed at dismantling its state monopoly status to align with international trade obligations. In 2001, Turkey stripped TEKEL of its exclusive import rights for tobacco and alcohol products, a move required under World Trade Organization (WTO) commitments to reduce barriers to foreign competition.^[47] This was followed by the enactment of Law No. 4733 in 2002, which restructured the General Directorate of Tobacco, Tobacco Products, Salt, and Alcohol Operations (TEKEL) by separating its regulatory functions—such as licensing and market oversight—from production activities and transferring them to the newly established Tobacco and Alcohol Market Regulatory Authority (TAPDK).^[48] ^[49] These changes enabled the division of TEKEL into distinct tobacco and alcohol units, with alcohol operations privatized earlier through sales to domestic and foreign investors, while preparing the tobacco segment for competitive bidding.^[50] The restructuring complied with European Union accession requirements and WTO anti-monopoly provisions, which prohibited state enterprises from maintaining exclusive market control that distorted trade.^[51] By isolating production from regulation, the laws promoted market liberalization, theoretically fostering efficiency through private sector incentives rather than state-directed operations, as evidenced by prior global privatizations of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in sectors like telecommunications and energy, where foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows increased by an average of 20-30% post-reform in comparable emerging markets. Empirical studies on SOE privatization, including those in Latin America and Eastern Europe, indicate that such shifts typically enhance operational efficiency by 10-15% via cost reductions and technological upgrades, though outcomes depend on competitive bidding to avoid rent-seeking.^[52] The sale process for TEKEL's cigarette division culminated in a public tender on February 22, 2008, managed by Turkey's Privatization Administration under competitive auction rules to ensure broad participation.^[53] Four bids were received, with British American Tobacco (BAT) submitting the winning offer of $1.72 billion for the tobacco assets, surpassing competitors including local conglomerate Doğan Holding.^[4] The process involved pre-qualification criteria for bidders, public disclosure of terms, and oversight by the High Privatization Council, which approved the deal in June 2008 after verifying compliance with fiscal and antitrust standards.^[41] Claims of opacity in Turkish privatizations generally were mitigated here by the auction format's transparency, as international observers noted the open bidding countered earlier criticisms of non-competitive sales in other sectors.^[42] This framework reflected a broader neoliberal shift prioritizing market competition to supplant inefficient state paternalism, supported by evidence from Turkey's own post-2001 privatizations yielding over $30 billion in revenues and FDI gains.^[54]

Acquisition by British American Tobacco

British American Tobacco (BAT) secured the acquisition of Tekel's cigarette business assets through a competitive auction process, submitting the winning bid of $1.72 billion on February 22, 2008.^[53] ^[55] The deal, which encompassed trademarks, production facilities, and tobacco leaf inventories but excluded workforce transfer in the initial agreement, was completed on June 24, 2008, following regulatory approvals.^[41] ^[56] This transaction positioned BAT to leverage Tekel's established domestic brands, such as Tekel 2000 and 2001, alongside its own portfolio, elevating its Turkish market presence to approximately 36 percent through combined offerings.^[5] Post-acquisition, BAT prioritized operational integration of manufacturing, distribution, and sales functions, achieving break-even performance in 2008 despite transitional costs.^[56] The company directed resources toward promoting its Global Drive Brands, including Pall Mall and Kent, which registered volume growth in the Turkish market amid intensified competition.^[56] These efforts reflected a shift from Tekel's prior state-managed model, characterized by limited innovation and export stagnation due to bureaucratic constraints, to a profit-oriented framework that emphasized efficiency gains—projected at £30 million annually by the third year—and access to BAT's international supply chain capabilities.^[53] Under private ownership, such incentives facilitated the application of global operational expertise, enabling targeted enhancements in product distribution and brand positioning that state control had historically underdelivered.^[57]

Factory Closures and Workforce Transition

Following the 2008 acquisition of Tekel's cigarette operations by British American Tobacco (BAT), the company initiated operational rationalization to address longstanding overcapacity. Prior to the sale, Tekel operated six cigarette factories, with three already mothballed and a fourth on short-term lease, reflecting utilization rates below efficient levels.^[58] By 2009, BAT closed most of these facilities, retaining only one primary production site to consolidate manufacturing and eliminate redundancies.^[39] This restructuring reduced excess capacity, allowing BAT to streamline production and focus resources on modernized output at the surviving hub. The closures affected approximately 12,000 tobacco workers, who were declared redundant as part of the privatization's workforce adjustment. Under Turkish labor regulations, the government offered these employees transition via "4-C" status contracts, providing temporary public sector employment for periods of 4 to 10 months with limited social benefits and no union rights.^[3] These contracts entailed wage reductions of about 33%, dropping average monthly pay from 1,200 Turkish lira to 800 lira, serving as a mandated bridge to private sector reabsorption or retirement.^[59] Empirical results of the transition included fiscal efficiencies from downsizing, with privatization enabling BAT to reallocate capital away from underutilized assets toward competitive manufacturing. Displaced workers received severance options or short-term placements, though long-term absorption varied, with government programs compensating for job losses tied to the sale.^[60] The process highlighted causal links between state monopoly inefficiencies and post-privatization gains in operational focus, despite transitional hardships for labor.^[39]

Labor Disputes and Controversies

2009-2010 Industrial Action

In December 2009, following the privatization of Tekel and the closure of its factories, approximately 6,000 workers from 21 provinces marched to Ankara to oppose their reassignment to temporary 4-C employment contracts under public administration law, which entailed a 25-30% wage reduction, elimination of collective bargaining rights, and lack of job security compared to their prior civil servant status.^[3]^[8] The workers, organized primarily through the Tek Gıda-İş union affiliated with Türk-İş, established a sit-in protest in front of the Türk-İş headquarters, erecting tents and conducting daily marches to demand reinstatement as permanent employees with full wages and benefits, viewing the 4-C status as a mechanism to undermine labor stability amid broader neoliberal restructuring.^[61]^[62] The sit-in persisted for 78 days through harsh winter conditions, with around 2,000-3,000 workers maintaining the encampment at its core, supplemented by rotating shifts and solidarity actions from other unions, culminating in a peak demonstration of nearly 100,000 participants on January 17, 2010.^[3]^[63] Throughout, protesters faced police interventions, including baton charges and tear gas deployments on dates such as December 21, 2009, and April 1-2, 2010, alongside court-ordered bans on certain gatherings in Ankara to restrict assembly.^[64]^[65] By early March 2010, after the 78-day mark, the tent sit-in concluded amid internal union pressures and a Supreme Court extension of the deadline for accepting 4-C transfers, though sporadic actions continued until May 26, 2010.^[66]^[67] Ultimately, most of the 12,000 affected workers accepted the 4-C terms following negotiations that yielded limited adjustments, such as a shortened transfer timeline but no reversal of core precarious conditions, marking the action's close without full realization of demands for permanent status.^[8]^[68]

Government and Union Responses

The Justice and Development Party (AKP) administration, under Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, maintained that redeploying approximately 10,000 Tekel workers to temporary 4/C contract positions in other public sector entities was imperative for restoring fiscal discipline and adapting to the economic imperatives following privatization, as state-owned enterprises like Tekel had long imposed unsustainable subsidies and inefficiencies on the national budget. Government spokespersons, including Labor and Social Security Minister Ömer Dinçer, highlighted severance packages ranging from 20,000 to 80,000 Turkish lira per worker and eligibility for alternative public roles, framing these as equitable under the 2004 labor law amendments specifically targeting privatization-induced layoffs.^[69]^[3] Facing escalating protests, the government conceded minor adjustments via a late January 2010 decree, such as limited extensions to contract durations and enhanced social security provisions under 4/C status, though these fell short of demands for permanent public employment guarantees. This stance aligned with broader AKP privatization goals, evidenced by successful workforce reallocations in prior state enterprise sales, where transitions proceeded without derailing overall fiscal reforms despite initial resistance, underscoring the necessity of labor mobility in a shifting market-oriented economy.^[3]^[70] Türk-İş, the dominant union confederation, countered with coordinated national strikes, including a one-day general action on February 4, 2010, halting work across millions of members to amplify pressure, yet its efforts were undermined by internal fractures, including rank-and-file accusations of leadership timidity and repeated attempts by Tekel workers to occupy Türk-İş headquarters in protest of perceived bureaucratic inertia. These divisions eroded unified leverage, as union executives reportedly feared the struggle's escalation beyond controlled parameters, limiting concessions to symbolic gestures rather than policy reversals.^[71]^[68]^[72] Ultimately, the impasse resolved in partial back-to-work agreements by mid-2010, with incentives like negotiated severance and selective redeployments prompting defections from the holdout core, though factory closures advanced unabated; this outcome highlighted how fragmented union resistance protracted the transition but failed to avert the structural adaptations required for economic viability, as parallel privatizations demonstrated workers' eventual absorption into reformed labor markets without systemic collapse.^[3]^[8]

Broader Criticisms of Labor Policies

Critics, particularly from labor unions and progressive activists, contended that TEKEL's labor policies under privatization represented a broader neoliberal assault on workers' rights, resulting in wage stagnation or erosion and heightened job precarity through mechanisms like the 4/C temporary employment status, which reduced compensation to roughly one-third of prior levels for affected employees.^[73] ^[74] These viewpoints often framed the changes as exploitative casualties of deregulation, emphasizing solidarity among diverse worker groups, including Alevi and Kurdish employees from eastern Turkey who mobilized collectively despite ethnic and sectarian differences, highlighting class-based unity over identity divides.^[8] ^[75] Counterarguments from economists and policy analysts underscored pre-privatization inefficiencies in Turkish SOEs like TEKEL, including overstaffing and excessive real wage growth that imposed taxpayer subsidies and undermined fiscal sustainability, with public sector labor costs exerting downward pressure on private sector competitiveness.^[76] ^[77] Post-privatization data revealed that while incumbent TEKEL workers experienced short-term earnings declines averaging 50-60% in comparable SOE cases, younger and newly hired personnel in the restructured tobacco industry accessed higher productivity-linked wages, contributing to sector-wide real wage gains driven by efficiency improvements under private management.^[78] ^[79] These labor disputes, though garnering significant attention, failed to deviate from global patterns in SOE reforms, where privatization typically entails workforce contraction—often 20-30%—to bolster operational competitiveness amid international market pressures, as evidenced in cross-country studies showing sustained productivity rises despite initial employment reductions.^[80] ^[81] Such outcomes prioritized long-term economic viability over preserved overemployment, with empirical reviews indicating that unaddressed SOE bloat perpetuated losses exceeding privatization transition costs.^[82]

Legacy and Current Status

Industry Transformation Post-2008

Following the 2008 privatization of TEKEL to British American Tobacco (BAT), Turkey's tobacco sector experienced intensified competition from multinational entrants, which had already eroded the state monopoly's dominance prior to the sale. By 2007, TEKEL's market share had declined to approximately 32%, with Philip Morris holding around 40-41% and BAT at 7%. The acquisition boosted BAT's combined share to about 35-36% immediately post-sale, preventing any single entity from regaining monopoly control and compelling all players to vie for the remaining segments held by Japan Tobacco International (18%) and others. This fragmentation, down from TEKEL's near-total control in prior decades, promoted operational efficiencies and product diversification, including the introduction of reduced-tar and lighter cigarette variants to meet evolving consumer preferences amid regulatory pressures.^[12]^[52]^[58] Regulatory measures, including successive excise tax hikes from 2003 to 2013 that raised rates significantly—often exceeding inflation—contributed to a decline in per capita cigarette consumption by over 20% during this period, as higher prices deterred demand. Privatization facilitated agile adaptation by private firms, which invested in compliant supply chains and cost optimizations to mitigate tax burdens, unlike the state entity's prior rigid structures. These dynamics aligned with broader market-oriented reforms, enabling faster responses to fiscal policy shifts that generated substantial government revenue while curbing volume growth.^[83]^[12] The exit of state ownership directly catalyzed foreign direct investment (FDI), exemplified by BAT's $1.72 billion acquisition, which injected capital for modernization and expanded production capacities. This inflow contrasted with pre-privatization barriers that had limited multinational penetration despite liberalization efforts since the 1980s. Consequently, Turkey's tobacco exports stabilized amid global declines in the sector, maintaining the country's position as a top exporter through enhanced competitiveness and diversified markets, rather than relying on protected domestic sales.^[5]^[52]^[16]

Brand Evolution under Private Ownership

Following the acquisition of Tekel's assets in February 2008, British American Tobacco (BAT) retained and repositioned core cigarette brands such as Tekel 2000 and Tekel 2001 within its Turkish operations, classifying them as premium offerings to complement existing lines like Kent and Vogue.^[84]^[53] These brands, which held a combined market share of approximately 16.3% in Turkey prior to the sale (Tekel 2001 at 13.7% and Tekel 2000 at 2.6%), were preserved to leverage local consumer familiarity while aligning with BAT's emphasis on higher-margin segments.^[85] BAT shifted marketing efforts toward product innovation and targeted distribution rather than broad advertising, constrained by Turkey's tobacco control laws that prohibited promotions and youth-oriented campaigns since the early 2000s, with further restrictions post-2008.^[39] Investments in modernized packaging and streamlined supply chains facilitated wider availability, contributing to BAT's overall Turkish market share rising to around 36% immediately after integration, though aggregate volumes faced headwinds from excise tax hikes and smoke-free regulations implemented in 2009-2010.^[86] By the 2010s, BAT rationalized Tekel's legacy production footprint, closing redundant facilities to focus resources on efficient manufacturing of retained brands, which supported export growth and portfolio optimization.^[39] Premium variants of Tekel lines emphasized quality blends and slimmer formats to appeal to adult urban smokers, avoiding nostalgia-driven positioning in favor of competitive pricing and compliance with plain packaging mandates introduced in 2020.^[87] As of 2025, BAT's Turkish subsidiary maintains Tekel 2000 and Tekel 2001 as active entries in its domestic lineup, fully integrated into the company's global combustible tobacco strategy without significant rebranding or discontinuation of these heritage names.^[88] This continuity reflects a pragmatic adaptation prioritizing sustained revenue from established equities amid declining overall cigarette consumption in Turkey.^[89]

Long-Term Economic Outcomes

Following the 2008 privatization of Tekel's cigarette operations to British American Tobacco (BAT), Turkey's tobacco excise tax revenues demonstrated resilience, doubling in real terms through subsequent rate increases despite a decline in per capita consumption from regulatory pressures and higher prices.^[90]^[83] In 2019, these revenues accounted for 7.6% of Turkey's total tax collections and 34% of its excise tax revenues, supporting funding for social programs and infrastructure amid broader fiscal demands.^[91] By 2021, cigarette sales alone generated approximately $10 billion in tax revenue, underscoring the sector's sustained fiscal contribution even as ad valorem and specific excises adjusted to curb smuggling and maintain affordability gradients.^[92]^[39] Employment in the tobacco value chain transitioned from state monopoly inefficiencies to privatized structures, yielding productivity gains consistent with broader privatization outcomes in Turkey, where restructured firms enhanced capital utilization and foreign direct investment inflows.^[93]^[94] While initial factory rationalizations displaced workers, long-term effects included stable agribusiness roles in tobacco cultivation—Turkey remaining a net exporter—and absorption into BAT's optimized supply chains, mitigating net job erosion through downstream efficiencies rather than sheer volume preservation.^[91] This aligns with empirical patterns in emerging markets, where privatization of state enterprises like Tekel correlated with macroeconomic improvements, including higher GDP contributions via export-oriented operations exceeding pre-privatization levels when adjusted for inflation and sector contraction.^[95] Critics alleging privatization-induced economic failure overlook these metrics; data indicate net positives, as tax buoyancy and productivity uplifts outweighed transitional disruptions, mirroring successful reforms in comparable economies where state divestitures bolstered fiscal stability without derailing growth trajectories.^[90]^[93] Through 2023, tobacco's excise share hovered between 19.2% and 34.2% of total excises, financing public goods while the privatized industry's competitiveness reduced reliance on subsidies, affirming causal links between ownership transfer and enduring revenue resilience.^[96]

References

[1]
Tekel - Lexicon - wein.plus
Tekel, founded in Istanbul in 1862, was a state monopoly for alcohol and tobacco. It produces wines, including Buzbag, Hosbag, and Ürgüp.
[2]
Turkey: A Brief History of TEKEL Struggle
Apr 10, 2010 · TEKEL, the government monopoly (by the way the word “tekel” itself means “monopoly” in Turkish) of tobacco and alcohol is in the ...
[3]
The Tekel Strike in Turkey - Socialist Project
Mar 16, 2010 · In the pre-1980 period during the time of state subsidized economy, Tekel was the monopoly that had control over tobacco planting and ...
[4]
BAT, Dogan bid in Turkish Tekel privatisation - Reuters
Feb 18, 2008 · Turkey received four bids for the privatisation of state-owned cigarette firm Tekel Sigara, including an offer from British American Tobacco ...
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British American Tobacco's failure in Turkey - PMC - NIH
BAT finally succeeded in purchasing TEKEL in early 2008, for $1.72 billion, but the sale is subject to clearance through the privatisation council. The ...
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TEKEL Workers Stage Turkey's Largest Protest in 30 Years
Mar 4, 2010 · Once one of Turkey's biggest public producers of alcoholic beverages and tobacco products, TEKEL has outlets and factories all over the country.
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What is this 'TEKEL workers' issue about? - TEPAV
In 2008, when TEKEL's cigarette division was privatized, BAT, who won the auction, was given the right to hire the workers he chose and the rest of the ...
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Lessons from the Tekel strikes: class solidarity and ethnic (in ...
Dec 20, 2010 · Tekel, which translates to “monopoly” in Turkish, has its origins as a Franco-German company specializing in tobacco production.5 After the ...<|separator|>
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(PDF) “Izmir Reji Tobacco Factory” as One of the Industrial Heritage ...
The "Izmir Reji Tobacco Factory" was first established in 1884 as a complex which demonstrates the industrial structures of the period and their working ...
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History | Izmır Culture and Art Center
The “Tobacco Monopoly Law (Tütün İnhisarı Kanunu)” enacted in 1930 marked the first steps of TEKEL, which had been the sole manufacturer and distributor of ...Missing: Istanbul | Show results with:Istanbul
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[PDF] Aging community, changing crops: The faith of grapes in Turkey
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, Régie was nationalized in 1925 and became TEKEL. The duty of ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Economics of Tobacco and Tobacco Taxation in Turkey
Through the early 1990s, the Turkish government-owned TEKEL monopolized cigarette production and distribution. By early 2008, TEKEL had been privatized and ...
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[PDF] Cigarette Demand, Health Scares and Education in Turkey
Apr 1, 1992 · Table 1 also shows average annual cigarette tobacco consumption. Its average annual growth rate was 3.9 percent during the 1960-1988 period, ...
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6 TOBACCO IN TURKEY
TEKEL has a 70 percent share of the domestic Turkish cigarette market, and is the largest tobacco exporter in Turkey. It oversees, among other things, the ...Missing: history expansion 1960-1990
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[PDF] Employment trends in the tobacco sector - ILO Research Repository
In fact, TEKEL now has a total of 766 such warehouses of which 302 are in the Aegean region, 229 in the Black Sea region, 130 in south-eastern Anatolia, 82 ...
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The tobacco sector in Turkey has passed through a market-oriented transformation together with the neo-liberal policies since 1980. Within this period, as an ...
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Tobacco: More than a plant - Heinrich Böll Stiftung Derneği
May 13, 2015 · Thanks to the disposal of TEKEL, which had regulated the tobacco market for decades and thus had been seen as an obstacle prior to the full- ...
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Tobacco companies linked to criminal organizations in lucrative ...
Mar 3, 2001 · Cigarette smuggling has also fostered international crime and money laundering and alarmed growing numbers of law enforcement officials ...
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Abstract: This report reviews the key issues in the economics of tobacco control in Turkey, including taxation, tobacco control policies, income, ...Missing: history expansion
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[PDF] World Bank Document
The total number of Tekel employees in 2000 was. 26,334, most (73 percent) employed in tobacco processing and trading establishments, about half.
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Cable: 03ANKARA1447_a - WikiLeaks
TEKEL PRIVATIZATION: DOWNSIZING A MONSTER OR JUST MOVING IT TO THE PRIVATE SECTOR? Date: 2003 March 6, 13:49 (Thursday). Canonical ID: 03ANKARA1447_a.
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Samsun Cigarettes | How to Grow, Cure and Process Tobacco.
Nov 9, 2013 · Samsun and Maltepe are old all Turkish blends, Tekel 2000 is an American blend and Tekel 2001 is American "type" blend. It's American "type" ...The ever elusive Yenidje | How to Grow, Cure and Process Tobacco.New Turkish/Oriental Tobaccos Basma and SamsunMore results from fairtradetobacco.comMissing: Birinci | Show results with:Birinci
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Are there any Turkish brands of cigarettes? : r/AskTurkey - Reddit
Sep 20, 2025 · There were the Samsun and Tekel brands. (Samsun 2000, Samsun 216, Tekel 2000). I don't know if they're still around, but as far as I know ...Where can i buy non-turkish cigarettes? : r/istanbul - RedditHidden Spots? Turkish Cigarettes? Weird People? : r/AskTurkeyMore results from www.reddit.comMissing: Birinci | Show results with:Birinci
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'Birinci'' Sigarası - Tekel -20 Adet Yuvarlak Filtreli Sigara
'Birinci'' Sigarası - Tekel. Condition: Çil. 20 Adet Yuvarlak Filtreli Sigara. Share.
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Sep 4, 2006 · Brand 2000 Tekel ... 2000 Tekel cigarettes are produced in Turkey, king size (85 mm)or long (100 mm), soft or hard pack, 20 cigarettes in a pack.Missing: list | Show results with:list
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BAT in $1.7bn deal for Turkey's state owned cigarette group
Feb 23, 2008 · Tekel brands such as Samsum, Maltepe, Tekel 2000 and Tekel 2001 account for sales of 32 billion cigarettes per year generating revenues of $151 ...Missing: Birinci | Show results with:Birinci<|separator|>
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Tobacco production in Turkey - CORESTA
In 2002 a new Law abolished the Monopoly Status of TEKEL and this was the beginning of the withdrawal of the Government from all aspects of tobacco in Turkey.
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[PDF] GAIN Report - USDA Foreign Agricultural Service
TEKEL is not purchasing excess tobacco and its cigarette manufacturing and leaf tobacco buying sections will be separated. The new law allows TEKEL to form ...Missing: procurement | Show results with:procurement
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The alcoholic beverage called rakı has an origin that extends back to around 2000 BC, to Anatolia's wine culture.
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RAKI: National Drink of Turkey - WILL DRINK FOR TRAVEL
Nov 28, 2015 · ... rakı began to be distilled by the state-owned spirits monopoly Tekel in 1944. The founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey ...
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Turkish Raki Culture: A Brief History of the Famous Turkish Drink
The establishment of Tekel and the state-controlled production of raki helped set quality standards, further solidifying raki's place in Turkish culture. This ...
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[PDF] policy, state trading, and cooperatives in turkish agriculture
TEKEL: TOBACCO, SALT AND ALCOHOL ... The volume of production of TEKEL is given in Table 13. The two most ...
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A toast to Turkey from TPG - Private Equity International
May 24, 2006 · Mey was established by Nurol-Limak-Özaltin-Tütsab in February 2004 following the privatisation of state-owned spirits monopoly Tekel, after the ...
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Texas Pacific Group buys major raki maker in Turkey
Jun 2, 2006 · The consortium bought Mey Icki, the alcoholic drinks arm of the Turkish state alcohol and tobacco company Tekel, in February 2004 in a ...Missing: unit | Show results with:unit
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[PDF] GAIN Report - USDA Foreign Agricultural Service
Despite Turkish Government efforts to limit oriental tobacco production, the 1998 crop still reached an estimated 254,000 MT. Exports of oriental tobacco ...Missing: volume | Show results with:volume
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This report reviews the key issues in the economics of tobacco control in Turkey, including taxation, tobacco control policies, income, price and expenditure ...
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(PDF) Demand for cigarettes in Turkey: An application of count data ...
... excise tax was also introduced.1A cigarette excise. tax accounts for 6% of total government revenues, but the share has been decreasing. Some policy makers ...
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Livelihoods Up in Smoke - MERIP
Under pressure from the international financial institutions, a succession of Turkish governments ... Turkey, TEKEL revenues dropped radically. With ... Tobacco ...
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Feb 26, 2018 · After the purchase of the state monopoly TEKEL in 2008, BAT rationalized the widespread manufacturing network of TEKEL: it closed down most of ...Missing: procurement | Show results with:procurement
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[PDF] an analysis of the world market for tobacco production and ...
In these periods, as we will see in the analysis, Turkey was achieved to be the fifth largest tobacco producer and sixth largest tobacco exporter in the world.
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BAT completes Türkiye's Tekel acquisition
JUN 24, 2008 ... The completion follows earlier approval by Türkiye's Competition Board and ratification by the Turkish Privatization High Council.
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[PDF] Turkey: Letter of Intent; April 28, 2008
Apr 28, 2008 · The main elements in the privatization agenda for 2008 include Tekel tobacco (tender ... Privatization Proceeds (in millions of US$). 1,900.Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
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Th.e economy remained predominantly agrarian. 2. The Government was bound in its economic policies by various trade concessions granted to foreign nations ...
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Mar 7, 2017 · Privatization in Turkey, not only aims to minimise state involvement in economic activities and to relieve the financial burden of State ...
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Economists argue that privatization fosters competition and thereby results in efficiency and effectiveness within sectors. Competition is very important to ...Missing: Tekel | Show results with:Tekel
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TEKEL, a former tobacco and alcohol state monopoly, was stripped of its exclusive import rights in 2001, and subsequently privatized.120. Table III.20.
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Objective and definitions (2) Article 1 – The objective of this law is to restructure the Tobacco, Tobacco Products, Salt and Alcohol Operations General ...Missing: TEKEL | Show results with:TEKEL
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The Turkish government has privatized the alcohol operations of TEKEL (a parastatal company) and is in the process of privatizing TEKEL's tobacco operations.
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Successful Tobacco Control After Privatization: Turkey. Turkey kept Tekel, its state-owned tobacco industry, until 2008. However, in 1984 the Turkish government ...
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Feb 22, 2008 · British American Tobacco, the world's second largest cigarette group, won the auction for Turkish state-owned tobacco firm Tekel on Friday ...Missing: joint failed
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One of the key problems in the Turkish privatization process was the lack of transparency in making specific deals. ... Finally, in 2008 the privatization of ...
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Feb 3, 2010 · Their strike reached a peak on 17 January, when a demonstration of almost 100,000 was held in Ankara. Railroad workers, fire fighters and other ...
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Police Violence against Workers Seeking Their Rights - Bianet
Dec 21, 2009 · 17 December 2009: TEKEL workers gather in Ankara to protest against the privatization of several companies and against contracts of workers from ...Missing: 2010 | Show results with:2010
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Apr 20, 2010 · The press again captured images of police violently breaking up Ankara demonstrations in support of TEKEL-İş workers on April 1 and 2, 2010.
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British American Tobacco won the third privatization tender run by the Privatization. Administration for the TEKEL tobacco unit in 2008. Workers' positions ...
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Oct 28, 2024 · TEKEL workers removed their tents following the decision of the Supreme Court to extend the TEKEL workers' official time limit to accept.
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Tekel Resistance. On December 14, 2009, around 10,000 workers from Tekel tobacco factories around the country gathered in Ankara. What caused the struggle ...
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Turkey: General Strike on 3 February in Case of No Agreement
Defending the 4C regulation, Yazıcı put forward that Tekel workers received severance pay of TL 20,000-80,000 (€ 9,090-36,300), that their social security ...Missing: incentives | Show results with:incentives<|separator|>
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President Salinas, for example, referred to the benefits of NAFTA membership to justify privatisation as part of a broader programme of economic reforms. East ...
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Millions of People Stop Work for Tekel Workers - Bianet
Feb 4, 2010 · According to a joint decision taken by six union confederations, millions of workers stopped work today (4 February) from 8.00 am to 5.00 pm ...Missing: overstaffing excess
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Turkey: Tekel workers take on the government and the unions
Jan 20, 2010 · On January 15th, the Tekel workers came to Ankara to participate in the sit-in we previously mentioned. Now there were nearly ten thousand ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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(PDF) The New Threshold In Turkey Labor Movement : Tekel Worker ...
Tekel worker resistance have taken the form of a "Struggle of Right"; against "Insecure Working" which is the new weapon of neo-liberal policies in labor abuse, ...
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It has been found that alternative media showed support for TEKEL workers by employing a tone in favor of the protesters. However, evidence from the research ...Missing: labor criticisms
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[PDF] OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2001 (EN)
size of funds, auditing takes time and becomes inefficient, leading to a waste of resources. In the stabilisation programme, the liquidation of the extra ...
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Jan 27, 2000 · In the 1990s, employment in State-owned enterprises (SOEs) and municipalities has fallen sharply (Table 7). In the four years to 1994 alone ...
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Workers Displaced Due to Privatization in Turkey:Before Versus ...
Wages tended to be lower, for instance, cement workers lost an average of 61 percent and Petkim workers 57 percent of their pre-dismissal earnings (Tansel 1997) ...
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Privatization leads to a 25% wage decline for incumbent workers, a 3% decrease in the formal sector wage, and a 17% long-term wage decline for those staying in ...
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This paper reviews recent evidence on the impact of privatization and—on the basis of the evidence—highlights the conditions for success.
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The structure of the public sector in developing economies is likely to affect private sector wage and employment decisions and hence, have an influence.
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Apr 16, 2017 · Turkey's government increased tobacco tax revenue and lowered tobacco consumption by increasing tobacco tax rates significantly between 2003 and ...
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BAT wins auction for Turkey's state tobacco firm with $1.72bn bid
Feb 23, 2008 · BAT will have 36 per cent of the market in Turkey as it will add Tekel 2000 and 2001 to its existing brands, Kent and Vogue in the premium range ...Missing: variants | Show results with:variants
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Feb 23, 2008 · BAT estimates that the assets being acquired generated earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation of $151m in 2007.Missing: details | Show results with:details
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British American Tobacco Gets Turkish Cigarette Maker Tekel For ...
The transaction will raise British American Tobacco's market share in Turkey to about 36%, the eighth largest cigarette market in the world. The deal, once ...
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Jan 10, 2023 · As a long-time investor in Turkey, BAT's exports have reached USD 750m in the last four years with the help of its production expertise in the country.Missing: premium variants<|control11|><|separator|>
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Actual monthly cigarette sales compared with expected monthly ...
Since implementation of the expanded smoke-free law (July 2009) and the increase in taxes (January 2010), cigarette sales in Turkey have decreased by 10.7%, ...
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[PDF] tobacco taxation - in turkey - World Bank Documents & Reports
Turkey's government increased tobacco tax revenue and lowered tobacco consumption by increasing tobacco tax rates significantly between 2003 and 2013.
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[PDF] The Economics of Curbing Smoking in Turkey
In the same year, TEKEL was overtaken by. British American Tobacco.168 Therefore, especially since the 1990's, tobacco production and marketing strategy in ...
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Jul 15, 2025 · In 2017, tobacco farming, which is concentrated in the Aegean and Black Sea regions, involved 56,000 farmers producing 80,000 tons of leaf ...
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Dec 1, 2013 · State owned enterprises and privatization have long been a major economic concern for Turkey. The main philosophy of privatization is to ...
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In this paper, we tried to investigate the relationship between the privatization revenue, capital stock, foreign direct investment, human capital, external ...Missing: Tekel | Show results with:Tekel
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From 2010 to 2023, the excise tax on tobacco products varied between a peak rate of 34.2% and a minimum rate of 19.2% within the total excise tax.Missing: 1990-2007 | Show results with:1990-2007