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White-bellied pangolin

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is a nocturnal, arboreal mammal endemic to the moist tropical lowland forests and secondary growth areas of equatorial Africa, ranging from Guinea in the west to Tanzania in the east.^[1] This species is distinguished by its body armor of overlapping keratin scales covering the dorsal surface and sides, leaving the ventral area pale or white, a long prehensile tail adapted for climbing, and a specialized diet consisting primarily of ants and termites extracted from nests using a sticky, extensible tongue.^[2]^[3] Females typically produce a single pup after a gestation period of about 150 days, with limited data available on lifespan but estimates suggesting up to 20 years in the wild for pangolins generally.^[3]^[4] Listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List, the white-bellied pangolin has experienced inferred population declines exceeding 50% over the past three generations, driven primarily by intensive poaching for its scales—prized in traditional Asian medicine—and flesh for bushmeat, alongside habitat loss from deforestation.^[5]^[1] As one of Africa's four pangolin species, it exemplifies the broader crisis facing these unique anteaters, which are among the most trafficked mammals globally, with enforcement challenges exacerbating the threat despite international protections under CITES Appendix I.^[6]^[5]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Classification and Naming

The white-bellied pangolin bears the binomial name Phataginus tricuspis (Rafinesque, 1821), with the specific epithet "tricuspis" deriving from Latin roots meaning "three-pointed," in reference to the distinctive tricuspid shape of its keratinous scales.^[7]^[8] The genus Phataginus was coined by Rafinesque for arboreal African pangolins, originally as a subgenus under Manis, but elevated to generic rank in modern taxonomy to reflect phylogenetic distinctions from Asian and terrestrial African species.^[9] Prior to this separation, the species was classified as Manis tricuspis.^[10] Its full taxonomic classification is as follows:

Rank	Taxon
Kingdom	Animalia
Phylum	Chordata
Class	Mammalia
Order	Pholidota
Family	Manidae
Genus	Phataginus
Species	P. tricuspis

Common names include white-bellied pangolin, tree pangolin, and three-cusped pangolin, the latter emphasizing the scale morphology that inspired the scientific name.^[11]^[12]

Evolutionary History

The order Pholidota, which includes the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), originated in Europe during the Eocene epoch, with the earliest known fossils, such as Eurotamandua joresi, dating to approximately 47 million years ago from the Messel locality in Germany.^[13] The fossil record indicates that pangolins were present in Europe through the Miocene and into the early Pleistocene, with the youngest European specimen, Smutsia olteniensis, from Romania around 1.9–2.2 million years ago, after which they disappeared from the continent, likely due to climatic cooling and habitat changes.^[14] ^[15] This European cradle facilitated initial diversification before dispersal to Africa and Asia via land bridges or vicariance events during the Paleogene.^[16] Molecular phylogenetic analyses, incorporating complete mitochondrial genomes and nuclear loci, reveal that the African pangolin lineages, including Phataginus, diverged from Asian forms (Manis spp.) between 23 and 38 million years ago, spanning the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, consistent with tectonic shifts and forest expansions in Africa.^[17] ^[18] Within the African clade, the arboreal genus Phataginus—encompassing P. tricuspis and its sister P. tetradactyla—emerged as a distinct lineage alongside ground-dwelling genera like Smutsia, with initial diversification estimated between the late Eocene and late Oligocene (approximately 35–25 million years ago), driven by adaptations to forested environments.^[19] These arboreal specializations, such as prehensile tails and keratinous scales for climbing, likely evolved in response to selective pressures from insect-rich canopies, though direct fossils of Phataginus remain absent, limiting paleontological corroboration to inferred molecular timelines.^[20] The sparse fossil record for modern African pangolins underscores reliance on genetic data, which indicate P. tricuspis maintains high haplotype diversity reflective of ancient population stability rather than recent bottlenecks, suggesting evolutionary resilience prior to anthropogenic pressures.^[21] Phylogenetic reconstructions position Phataginus as basal among extant African taxa in some analyses, highlighting its retention of primitive traits like three-clawed manus suited for arboreal foraging, which trace back to early pholidotan ancestors.^[22]

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Adaptations

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is a small, semi-arboreal mammal with a slender body adapted for both terrestrial foraging and climbing. Adults typically measure about 100 cm in total length, with the tail accounting for roughly half of this, and weigh between 1 and 3 kg.^[3]^[23] The body is covered dorsally and laterally in overlapping keratinous scales that constitute approximately 20% of body weight, composed primarily of the protein alpha-keratin similar to human hair and nails.^[4] These scales are small, light brown to grey, and each features three projecting cusps—reflected in the species' specific epithet tricuspis—providing an armored exterior while leaving the face, underbelly, and inner limbs bare and softer.^[3] Key morphological features include an elongate, conical snout housing a toothless mouth and a long, protrusible tongue specialized for insectivory, supported by a hyoid apparatus that enables extension up to 25-40 cm.^[24] The limbs are robust with sharp, curved claws—particularly enlarged on the forefeet—for digging into soil or bark and gripping during ascent; hind claws are smaller but aid in propulsion. The tail is cylindrical, scaly, and muscular, functioning as a prehensile organ for grasping branches, balancing during locomotion, and even carrying offspring in females.^[3] Adaptations for its semi-arboreal lifestyle emphasize agility in forested environments: the lightweight build and flexible spine facilitate vertical climbing, while the tail wraps around trunks or limbs for stability when foraging or evading threats by ascending trees.^[3] Defensively, the interlocking scales form an impenetrable barrier when the animal curls into a tight keratinous ball, exposing only the hardened exterior and potentially lashing out with the edged tail; this posture, combined with emission of a pungent anal gland secretion, deters predators.^[25] The scales' layered structure may also contribute to innate immunity by trapping pathogens, as evidenced by embedded antimicrobial proteins and metabolites in related pangolin species.^[26]

Sensory and Locomotor Features

The white-bellied pangolin exhibits poor vision, which limits its ability to visually detect or track prey effectively.^[1] It compensates primarily through an acute sense of smell, enabling detection of subterranean ant and termite colonies at distances sufficient for foraging.^[1] Auditory cues play a subordinate role, with studies on related pangolin species showing no significant reliance on hearing for prey location under controlled conditions.^[27] The distal tip of its prehensile tail bears a specialized, bare sensory pad that provides tactile feedback for precise branch gripping and arboreal navigation.^[28] Adapted for semi-arboreal locomotion, the white-bellied pangolin employs large, curved claws on all limbs to ascend smooth tree trunks and scale branches, facilitating access to elevated foraging sites.^[29] Its prehensile tail, comprising nearly half its body length, functions as a fifth appendage for balance, suspension, and propulsion during climbing maneuvers.^[2] Terrestrial movement occurs quadrupedally at moderate speeds, though the species prefers vertical and horizontal arboreal travel, including occasional swimming across water barriers.^[29] These features support its nocturnal, canopy-oriented lifestyle in forested habitats.^[30]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is distributed across equatorial Africa, primarily in the humid tropical forests of West and Central regions, with extensions into parts of East and southern Africa. Its range spans from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in the west to northern Kenya in the east and northern Angola in the south, encompassing the Guineo-Congolian forest biome.^[31]^[32] This species occurs in at least 23 countries, including Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Uganda, and Angola. The distribution is associated with lowland rainforests, gallery forests, and secondary forests up to elevations of about 1,500 meters, though records indicate a preference for areas below 700 meters. Genetic studies reveal cryptic lineages corresponding to geographic regions, such as West African, Central African, and Gabon clades, suggesting historical fragmentation influenced by forest refugia during Pleistocene climate shifts.^[33]^[21]^[34]

Preferred Habitats and Microhabitats

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) primarily inhabits moist tropical lowland forests in equatorial Africa, where it is most abundant in closed-canopy primary forests.^[35] It also occurs in secondary forests, forest-savanna mosaics, and Guinea savanna woodlands, though densities decline in more open or degraded habitats.^[36] In West Africa, populations favor patches of primary forest amid savanna-forest transitions, while in Central Africa, they extend throughout the continuous forest zone.^[36] Preference for forested over non-forested areas is evident from burrow distributions, with over 80% of recorded burrows in forest habitats rather than adjacent grasslands or farmlands.^[37] Microhabitats emphasize arboreal features suited to its semi-arboreal lifestyle, including tree hollows and cavities for diurnal shelter, often 10–15 meters above ground in Gabon.^[36] Individuals curl within these elevated refuges, sometimes incorporating epiphytes for camouflage, and occasionally use ground burrows in less disturbed forest understory.^[37] Foraging occurs in the forest canopy and on trunks, targeting ant and termite colonies accessible via climbing, with ground-level activity in open forest patches or gallery forests.^[38] Site selection avoids proximity to human settlements (optimal 1,500–1,700 meters away) and roads (800–1,200 meters), minimizing disturbance in dense-dry or wooded savanna microhabitats.^[37]^[39]

Ecology and Behavior

Diet and Foraging Strategies

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) maintains a specialized myrmecophagous diet consisting exclusively of ants (Formicidae) and termites (Isoptera: Termitoidae), with no evidence of consumption of other invertebrates or plant matter in wild populations.^[40] Analysis of stomach contents from 25 wild individuals revealed 105 ant species and 39 termite species across samples, indicating broad prey diversity despite individual specialization; a single pangolin consumed up to 31 ant species and 13 termite species.^[40] This dietary selectivity aligns with the species' arboreal and semi-terrestrial habits, targeting colonies in tree bark, fallen logs, leaf litter, and subterranean mounds. Foraging occurs nocturnally and solitarily, with individuals relying heavily on olfaction to detect prey colonies, as evidenced by enlarged olfactory bulbs in brain anatomy studies. The pangolin uses powerful foreclaws to excavate or tear open nests—ripping bark from trees or digging into soil and wood—followed by rapid lapping with a protrusible, sticky tongue up to 40 cm long coated in viscous saliva to capture insects en masse. Lacking teeth, it ingests prey whole, aided by gastric grinding via ingested soil and stones in its muscular stomach. Arboreal foraging predominates, facilitated by a prehensile tail for balance while climbing trunks and branches to access arboreal termite galleries, though ground-level raids on mounds and litter occur during dry seasons when prey is more surface-active. Daily intake can exceed 20,000 insects, supporting high metabolic demands in fragmented forest habitats.^[40]

Daily Activity and Movement Patterns

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) displays predominantly nocturnal activity, emerging at dusk to forage and retreating to rest sites by dawn.^[1]^[41] This pattern aligns with its forest-dwelling lifestyle, minimizing exposure to diurnal predators and daytime heat in equatorial habitats.^[38] During daylight hours, individuals shelter in tree hollows, burrows, or dense vegetation tangles, remaining largely inactive to conserve energy.^[1] These rest sites provide protection and camouflage, reflecting adaptations to its semi-arboreal existence.^[42] Movement occurs both terrestrially and arboreally, with the species using powerful foreclaws for digging and climbing, aided by a prehensile tail for balance and grasping.^[41] On the forest floor, it travels quadrupedally, frequently along fallen logs and understory paths, which facilitates efficient navigation and predator avoidance.^[38] Arboreal traversal involves deliberate, deliberate scaling of trunks and branches to access food resources or escape threats.^[1] Quantitative data on daily ranging distances remain scarce due to the animal's cryptic behavior and challenges in field tracking, though camera trap studies confirm nocturnal peaks in detections along linear forest features.^[38] Solitary habits limit social movement influences, emphasizing individual foraging circuits within home ranges.^[1] White-bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis) are predominantly solitary, with adults maintaining individual territories and exhibiting minimal social interactions beyond brief mating periods and maternal-offspring associations. Females typically give birth to a single pup after a gestation of approximately 150 days, carrying the young on their backs or tails for protection and transport during the early months of life until weaning occurs around three months of age. This maternal bond represents the primary form of sociality observed, as adults otherwise avoid conspecifics to reduce competition for resources in their arboreal and terrestrial foraging niches. Observations in both wild and captive settings confirm that lasting pair bonds or group formations do not occur, aligning with the species' secretive, nocturnal lifestyle that minimizes encounters.^[1]^[35]^[43] Predators of the white-bellied pangolin primarily include leopards, pythons, and potentially large raptors such as crowned eagles, which exploit the species' arboreal habits in forested habitats. Hyenas and lions pose lesser threats due to the pangolin's preference for tree canopies and understory, though juveniles separated from mothers may face higher vulnerability. Defensive strategies rely on the keratin scales covering 100% of the body except the underside, which interlock to form an effective armor; when threatened, individuals rapidly curl into a compact ball, shielding the head, limbs, and soft belly while exposing only the impenetrable dorsal surface. Arboreal escape via climbing prehensile tails and limbs provides an additional evasion tactic, though this behavior's efficacy against persistent predators like pythons remains limited. These adaptations have historically kept natural predation rates low relative to anthropogenic threats, as evidenced by infrequent predation records in field studies.^[29]^[44]^[1]^[30]

Reproduction and Development

Mating and Gestation

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) reproduces aseasonally, with mating occurring throughout the year in response to environmental cues rather than fixed seasons. As solitary animals, adults interact primarily during reproductive encounters, which are inferred to be brief and nocturnal given the species' crepuscular activity patterns and arboreal lifestyle. Specific courtship rituals are undocumented in the wild due to observational challenges, though captive records suggest males may vocalize or use scent marking to attract females, consistent with behaviors in related pangolin species. Male home ranges often overlap multiple female territories, facilitating opportunistic pairings, but polyandry or polygyny levels remain unquantified.^[6]^[45]^[46] Gestation in female white-bellied pangolins endures roughly 150 days (approximately five months), culminating in the delivery of typically one offspring, with twins reported infrequently in both wild and captive settings. Parturition transpires in concealed arboreal nests or tree cavities, where the altricial neonate—covered in soft scales that harden within days—weighs about 200-300 grams and measures 20-25 cm in length. This extended gestation relative to body size (compared to smaller insectivores) aligns with the species' low reproductive output, yielding an interbirth interval of 1-2 years, which constrains population recovery amid high mortality risks. Peer-reviewed veterinary case studies document occasional dystocia linked to scale impaction or fetal malposition, necessitating interventions in ex situ populations, though wild incidence is unknown.^[45]^[43]^[47]

Offspring Care and Growth

Females typically give birth to a single offspring following a gestation period of approximately 150 days, with the newborn appearing pink, hairless, and helpless except for a ring of white scales around the tail base.^[1]^[45] The young cannot walk at birth and remains dependent on the mother for mobility and protection.^[45] Maternal care is provided exclusively by the female, with the offspring clinging to her prehensile tail and being carried during foraging and arboreal movement for several months until it develops sufficient strength and coordination.^[1]^[45] Nursing lasts about four months, after which weaning occurs around six months, though the young continues to accompany the mother for an extended period, potentially up to two years, during which it learns foraging behaviors and independence.^[1] In response to threats, the mother curls her body around the offspring, which also forms a defensive ball, enhancing survival against predators.^[30] Growth progresses rapidly post-weaning, with juveniles developing full scalation and climbing abilities within the first year; sexual maturity is reached at around two years of age.^[30] Limited data exist on precise growth metrics due to the species' elusive nature and nocturnal habits, but adults measure 35–60 cm in head-body length, with the tail comprising nearly half, indicating substantial postnatal elongation and scaling.^[45]

Human Interactions

Traditional Uses and Cultural Significance

In traditional West African medicine, body parts of the Phataginus tricuspis (white-bellied pangolin) are prescribed by healers for treating a range of physical, psychological, and spiritual conditions, with scales and bones featuring most prominently due to their perceived efficacy. In Ghana, surveys of traditional practitioners in Kumasi identified 13 usable parts addressing 35 ailments, including scales for rheumatism, convulsions, and spiritual protection against malevolent forces, as well as financial prosperity rituals; bones for rheumatism, stroke, and general pains; and the head for infertility, headaches, and heart disease.^[48] Scales and bones recorded the highest cultural importance indices (1.083 and 0.500, respectively), indicating entrenched roles in local pharmacopeia.^[48] In Sierra Leone, ethnomedicinal documentation from Bombali district healers revealed 22 parts used for 59 conditions spanning 17 international disease categories, with scales exhibiting the highest use value for spiritual ailments like warding off evil via charms, oil for skin diseases, meat for digestive issues, and bones for musculoskeletal disorders.^[49] Comparable practices occur in Nigeria, where scales target rheumatism and spiritual afflictions, and the intact animal is occasionally employed in rituals purportedly conferring invisibility.^[49] Meat also serves in charms for chieftains or as a subsistence protein source, though preparation methods vary by ailment and remain tied to oral traditions rather than standardized protocols.^[48] Culturally, the white-bellied pangolin embodies mystical attributes in certain communities, symbolizing protection and prosperity through ritual incorporation, as evidenced by its prioritization in spiritual and economic enhancement practices over purely nutritional roles.^[48] This significance manifests in beliefs attributing supernatural potency to its keratinous scales and skeletal elements, often harvested opportunistically from arboreal habitats.^[49] Regional variation exists, however; in Cameroon's forest-savanna transition zones, cultural symbolism is subdued among diverse ethnolinguistic groups, with encounters viewed pragmatically for hand-captured meat consumption rather than ritual veneration.^[50] Such uses reflect adaptive local knowledge systems, where the species' elusiveness reinforces perceptions of rarity and potency.^[48]

Economic and Subsistence Exploitation

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is primarily exploited for subsistence through bushmeat hunting by rural communities in its West and Central African range, where meat consumption drives the majority of harvests. In Nigeria's Cross River region, 98% of hunted individuals are targeted for food, with meat rated highly for palatability and fetching 3-4 times the local market value of scales per animal. Across Central Africa, annual hunting is estimated at 420,000 individuals using area-based models, though broader population-scaled methods suggest 0.42-2.71 million pangolins (including P. tricuspis), with approximately 50% consumed locally for subsistence.^[51]^[52] Local economic exploitation involves selling whole animals or parts in urban markets, where meat serves as a protein source and scales command modest prices for traditional medicine. In Benin, scales are used medicinally for conditions like rheumatism and infertility, with local trade prices ranging from USD 10.39-29.59 per kg, while whole pangolins fetch USD 4.52-24.83 for West African buyers and up to USD 73.38 for international clients. In Cameroon's forest-savanna transition zone, P. tricuspis—the most traded species—sells for USD 4-15 per whole animal primarily for meat (76% of respondents), with scales valued at USD 0.76 per individual or USD 3.84 per kg locally. Approximately 41% of harvested pangolins are sold rather than consumed, supporting small-scale commercial networks.^[53]^[54]^[51] Commercial trade extends to international trafficking of scales, primarily to Asia, though this is secondary to local bushmeat demand for P. tricuspis. Seizures indicate scales from ~200,000 African pangolins (across species) intercepted between 2015-2018, with 2,010 kg traded from 2013-2015 equating to ~5,576 individuals. In Nigeria, an estimated 21,000 P. tricuspis are killed annually, with <30% of scales entering trade networks despite global demand.^[52]^[55]

Threats and Conservation

Primary Threats and Causal Factors

The primary threats to the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) stem from overexploitation through poaching and illegal trade, targeting its scales for use in traditional Asian medicine and its meat as bushmeat for local consumption.^[56]^[57] This demand-driven harvesting has led to population declines of approximately 50% across parts of its range in West and Central Africa over the past 21 years, with the species classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to these unsustainable levels of exploitation.^[58]^[56] Poaching is facilitated by organized international trafficking networks and opportunistic local hunting, compounded by weak enforcement of CITES Appendix I protections, which prohibit commercial trade but fail to curb supply chains originating from source countries like Nigeria, Cameroon, and Ghana.^[59]^[57] Habitat loss and fragmentation represent a secondary but significant causal factor, driven by deforestation from logging, agricultural expansion, and slash-and-burn practices that reduce available arboreal and forested environments essential for the species' foraging and shelter needs.^[57]^[1] In regions such as Benin, modeling indicates range contractions and population extirpations linked to these land-use changes over the last two decades, with the pangolin's low reproductive rate—typically one offspring per year—limiting natural recovery from combined pressures.^[60] The species' arboreal lifestyle heightens vulnerability to habitat disturbance, as even moderate human encroachment disrupts ant and termite populations critical to its diet, creating a feedback loop of nutritional stress and reduced fitness.^[57] These threats interact causally: habitat degradation increases encounter rates for poachers by concentrating pangolins into remnant forest patches, while trade economics incentivize intensified hunting amid declining densities.^[1] Genetic studies reveal effective population sizes in West Africa have plummeted to 520–590 individuals from historical highs, underscoring the compounded impact of exploitation and environmental loss without evidence of stabilizing factors in current data.^[61]

Population Trends and Status Assessments

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with a population trend assessed as decreasing.^[5] This status reflects inferred declines of up to 40% over the approximate three-generation period from 1998 to 2019, under IUCN criteria A4cd, adopting a precautionary approach due to intense poaching pressure and habitat loss across its range in equatorial Africa.^[57] No comprehensive global population estimates are available, attributable to the species' arboreal and nocturnal habits, which hinder direct surveys, compounded by widespread illegal harvesting that suppresses observable densities.^[34] Regional assessments reveal acute localized contractions. In West Africa, genetic analyses indicate an 85–98% reduction in effective population size (N_e) over the past 3,200–400 years, with contemporary N_e estimates of 520–590 individuals in surveyed populations, signaling critically low genetic diversity and vulnerability to further stochastic losses.^[62] Modeling efforts in Benin project a one-third shrinkage in the species' occurrence range over recent decades, correlating with elevated hunting rates and forest conversion.^[60] These trends align with broader pangolin declines, where trafficking data suggest sustained extraction exceeding reproductive capacity, as the white-bellied pangolin constitutes a primary target in African scale seizures.^[21] In June 2025, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed listing the white-bellied pangolin as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act, emphasizing persistent overexploitation and habitat threats without evidence of stabilization.^[57] Ongoing monitoring challenges persist, with calls for enhanced camera-trap deployments and genetic sampling to refine trend projections, though enforcement gaps in source countries limit data reliability.^[60]

Conservation Interventions and Challenges

The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) benefits from Appendix I listing under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) since 2017, which bans international commercial trade and requires non-detriment findings for any exceptions.^[57] ^[63] Most range states, including Cameroon, Ghana, and Uganda, have enacted national legislation prohibiting hunting, trade, and possession, though implementation varies.^[34] Anti-poaching patrols operate in protected areas such as Cameroon's Dja Faunal Reserve, where efforts target illegal snares and bushmeat hunting as of 2025.^[64] Habitat protection initiatives include land securing in Uganda to counter mining and logging threats, alongside reforestation involving local communities.^[65] Research and monitoring interventions emphasize camera trapping enhanced by local ecological knowledge, as demonstrated in Cameroon's Deng-Deng National Park, improving detection rates for elusive arboreal populations.^[66] The Pangolin Specialist Group has developed standardized monitoring protocols since 2018, including guidance for population assessments and post-release tracking of confiscated individuals.^[67] Community engagement programs, funded by grants like those from the Rufford Foundation, promote awareness and alternative livelihoods in Ghana to reduce subsistence poaching.^[68] Emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence for trade detection, aim to bolster enforcement against scale trafficking.^[69] Persistent challenges undermine these measures, with illegal poaching for meat and scales driving inferred population declines of up to 50% over three generations, per IUCN assessments.^[5] Habitat fragmentation from agricultural expansion, logging, and infrastructure development exacerbates vulnerability, particularly in West and Central African forests.^[64] Weak enforcement, corruption, and porous borders facilitate ongoing illicit trade to Asian markets despite CITES prohibitions.^[67] Data deficiencies, including unreported seizures and sparse population surveys, impede precise status tracking and adaptive management.^[63] Local attitudes favoring consumption for purported medicinal or nutritional value further complicate community buy-in for conservation.^[70]

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Tree Pangolin | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
They are also capable swimmers and climbers, and they can run faster than you might think, if needed. ... The tree pangolin is also known as a white-bellied ...<|separator|>
[30]
About Pangolins
White-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) – Endangered. Giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea) – Endangered. Ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) – Vulnerable.
[31]
[PDF] Amazing Species: African White-bellied Pangolin - Amazon S3
Feb 21, 2015 · It is distributed across West and Central Africa from Guinea-Bissau through Guinea, Sierra Leone, to the Congo basin and as far east as south- ...<|separator|>
[32]
White-bellied Pangolin Phataginus tricuspis - Palm Oil Detectives
Jan 18, 2021 · White-bellied Pangolin Phataginus tricuspis. Endangered · Appearance and Behaviour · Diet · Reproduction and Mating · Geographic Range · Threats.Appearance And Behaviour · Faqs · Further InformationMissing: size | Show results with:size<|separator|>
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Geographical range of the white- bellied pangolin ( P. stricuspis )....
Source: Anonymous (2014b). Range : Angola, Benin, Central African Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, ...
[34]
Species Spotlight: The Gentle and Quirky White-Bellied Pangolin
May 21, 2021 · White-bellied pangolins look like armadillos, except that they have scales, not rings. They get their name from the white patch on their bellies.Missing: diet | Show results with:diet
[35]
White-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis () - ScienceDirect.com
Solitary and nocturnal, the white-bellied pangolin is semi-arboreal and apparently most abundant in moist tropical lowland forest. Breeding is continuous and a ...
[36]
[PDF] Phataginus tricuspis tree PangoLin (afriCanwhite-beLLieD PangoLin)
Habitat In West Africa, found in patches of primary forest in both the savanna/forest mosaic and in the Guinea savanna, and in central Africa throughout the ...
[37]
(PDF) Habitat Suitability Modelling of White-Bellied Pangolin ...
Sep 26, 2024 · The burrows were most common in areas with weak human disturbance (i.e., 1,500–1,700 m from settlements), 800–1,200 m from roads, and within 300 ...
[38]
Adapting camera‐trap placement based on animal behavior ... - NIH
May 10, 2023 · Adapting camera‐trap placement based on animal behavior for rapid detection: A focus on the Endangered, white‐bellied pangolin (Phataginus ...
[39]
habitat and threats to the arboreal pangolin population (phataginus ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The species frequents open forests, gallery forests, dense-dry forests, wooded savannahs, shrub savannahs. But nevertheless, it has a strong ...
[40]
Termitoidae) in the diet of wild white‐bellied pangolin (Phataginus ...
Apr 29, 2024 · An improved understanding of pangolin feeding behavior and prey selection may help inform conservation husbandry efforts.
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Evaluation of the application of methods used to detect and monitor ...
Activity patterns: N = Nocturnal; D = Diurnal. Locomotor categories: A ... Phataginus tricuspis, White-bellied pangolin, N, A, F, S, M, S, 1.54. Phataginus ...
[42]
The Four African Pangolin Species
Found across southern and eastern Africa, this species leads a mostly solitary and nocturnal life. ... The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) is the ...
[43]
Tree Pangolin - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio
Its scales act like armor, and its legs and its tail wrap around and protect its soft underparts. It is able to roll away from danger, if needed. Lifestyle.Missing: defense mechanisms
[44]
Pangolins - Species, Size, Habitat, Diet, Predators, & Pictures
May 9, 2025 · African pangolins face the greatest predation pressure from lions, hyenas, and raptors such as eagles. Adaptations. Since these animals are ...
[45]
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tricuspis/
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Captive breeding of pangolins: current status, problems and future ...
Jun 8, 2015 · We reviewed the status and existing problems in captive breeding of pangolins, including four aspects, the naturalistic habitat, dietary husbandry, ...
[47]
COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PREGNANCY AND ...
Key words: African white-bellied pangolin, caesarian surgery, dystocia, pangolin, Phataginus tricuspis. INTRODUCTION. Pangolins are insectivorous mammals ...
[48]
Knowledge and Uses of African Pangolins as a Source of Traditional ...
13 pangolin body parts are used for 35 ailments, with scales and bones most common for spiritual protection, rheumatism, financial rituals, and convulsions.
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Ethnomedicinal use of African pangolins by traditional medical ...
Nov 20, 2014 · It was found that 22 pangolin parts are used to treat various ailments and conditions under 17 international categories of diseases.
[50]
https://doi.org/10.1177/19400829211028138
[51]
Assessing Africa‐Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data
Jun 29, 2017 · We estimate that between 0.42 and 2.71 million pangolins (Phataginus spp. and S. gigantea) were hunted each year in Central Africa (sampled ...
[52]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL content does not contain specific information about *Phataginus tricuspis*, its geographic range, countries of occurrence, distribution, extent of occurrence, assessment date, maps, or range size. It only includes a generic email link and text about rating a translation, which is unrelated to the species or IUCN Red List data.
[53]
Ethnozoological and commercial drivers of the pangolin trade in Benin
Mar 23, 2021 · Pangolins are trafficked in unsustainable volumes to feed both local and global trade networks for their meat and the medicinal properties ...
[54]
Pangolin hunting and trafficking in the forest–savannah transition ...
Mar 30, 2023 · Pangolins have long been hunted for food and for their scales, but information on local hunting strategies in African range countries and ...
[55]
Pangolins in West Africa hunted for food rather than for illicit scales ...
Jun 13, 2025 · Dr Charles Emogor holding a white-bellied pangolin retrieved from a hunter who participated in the study. Credit: Alex Moore. The latest ...
[56]
The 8 Species - Pangolin Specialist Group
Asia · Indian pangolin. (Manis crassicaudata), Endangered ; Africa. White-bellied pangolin. (Phataginus tricuspis), Endangered ; Africa · Giant pangolin. (Smutsia ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
Endangered Species Status for Seven Species of Pangolin
Jun 17, 2025 · The Indian pangolin is classified as critically endangered by the IUCN, with projected population declines exceeding 80 percent between 2019 ...
[58]
Pangolins Inch Closer to Extinction - - WildAid
Dec 16, 2019 · The White-bellied and giant ground pangolin populations have fallen by 50%, while the Philippine pangolin population has fallen by 80% over the last 21 years.
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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposes Endangered Species Act ...
Jun 16, 2025 · One of the main threats to pangolins is wildlife trafficking, a crisis that includes the poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of endangered ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[60]
Modeling population extirpation rates of white‐bellied and giant ...
Jun 14, 2023 · ... (Phataginus tricuspis) and giant (Smutsia gigantea) pangolins being the most traded species (Challender et al., 2020; Emogor et al., 2021 ...
[61]
Conservation genetics of the white‐bellied pangolin in West Africa
Mar 1, 2024 · Our work derives from an unprecedented, exhaustive genetic survey of the pangolin trade in three countries from West Africa (Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Ghana).
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Conservation genetics of the white-bellied pangolin in West Africa
Mar 1, 2024 · We observed a 85%-98% decline in the effective population size of WBP occurring c. 3200 to 400 ya, with current numbers (520-590) at the ...
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Lack of data and reporting gaps hamper global efforts to protect ...
Aug 27, 2025 · Pangolins were transferred to CITES Appendix I in 2017, the highest level of international protection from unsustainable trade, which bans ...Missing: Phataginus | Show results with:Phataginus
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Protecting Pangolins from Poachers in Cameroon's Dja Faunal ...
Feb 14, 2025 · Habitat loss due to expanding settlements and infrastructure exacerbates the problem, fueling the illegal wildlife trade and bushmeat market.
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Protecting Habitat for Four Species of Endangered Pangolin in ...
Securing this land will benefit pangolins, the most trafficked mammal on Earth, protecting them from poaching and preventing habitat loss from mining, logging, ...
[66]
Using local ecological knowledge to improve the effectiveness of ...
Sep 22, 2025 · Using local ecological knowledge to improve the effectiveness of detecting white‐bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis ) using camera traps: A ...
[67]
Conservation - Pangolin Specialist Group
IUCN Red List Assessments show all eight pangolin species threatened. IUCN publishes Red List assessments drafted by the Pangolin Specialist Group at the first ...
[68]
Saving the White-Bellied Pangolin: Research and Community Action ...
Jul 1, 2025 · The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) ... poaching, illegal wildlife trade, habitat loss, and limited public awareness.
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Unlocking the power of artificial intelligence for pangolin protection
Apr 1, 2025 · While interventions from conservation biology have offered pangolins a glimmer of hope, there is an urgent need to enhance protective measures.
[70]
Perception on the conservation of Phataginus tricuspis, reflections ...
Oct 24, 2024 · This study evaluates local communities' knowledge, attitude, and perception towards the critically endangered African Tree Pangolin and its conservation.