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Two Sessions

![National emblem of the People's Republic of China](./assets/National_Emblem_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China_$2 The Two Sessions, known in Chinese as Lianghui (两会), refer to the annual plenary sessions of the National People's Congress (NPC), China's highest legislative body, and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), its principal advisory council, convened concurrently in Beijing each March.^[1]^[2]^[3] These gatherings, attended by nearly 3,000 NPC delegates and over 2,000 CPPCC members representing diverse sectors, ethnic groups, and political parties, focus on reviewing the implementation of the prior year's national economic and social development plan, deliberating the draft plan for the upcoming year, and approving the central government's budget.^[1]^[4] The centerpiece is the Government Work Report delivered by the Premier, which outlines policy priorities, sets quantitative targets such as GDP growth rates, and signals shifts in economic strategy amid challenges like post-pandemic recovery and international tensions.^[5]^[6] While the NPC holds formal powers to enact laws, amend the constitution, and confirm key appointments including the Premier and State Council members, its proceedings predominantly endorse agendas shaped by the Communist Party of China's central leadership, functioning more as a mechanism for policy ratification and public communication than independent deliberation.^[7]^[8] The CPPCC, comprising non-Communist Party participants, contributes through consultative proposals on issues ranging from social welfare to technological advancement, though without binding authority.^[9]^[10] Notable outcomes from recent sessions include adjustments to fiscal policies, emphasis on high-quality development through innovation and consumption stimulation, and affirmations of continuity in core directives under Xi Jinping's administration, reflecting the events' role in aligning elite consensus with national objectives.^[11]^[6]

Overview

Definition and Components

The Two Sessions, known in Chinese as lianghui (两会), denote the annual plenary sessions of the National People's Congress (NPC) and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convened concurrently in Beijing, typically in March.^[4] These meetings, which last about two weeks, focus on reviewing government work reports, approving the national budget, setting economic targets, and endorsing high-level personnel appointments, though decisions largely align with prior directives from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Central Committee.^[2] In practice, the sessions exhibit near-unanimous approval rates for proposed legislation and policies, reflecting the NPC's role as a formal ratification body rather than an independent deliberative assembly.^[12] The primary component, the NPC, functions as China's unicameral legislature and the highest organ of state power under the 1982 Constitution.^[13] Composed of nearly 3,000 deputies indirectly elected for five-year terms by provincial-level people's congresses from 35 electoral units (including provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, and special administrative regions), the NPC convenes annually to exercise powers such as amending the constitution, enacting basic laws, electing the president, vice president, premier, and Central Military Commission chairman, and supervising the State Council.^[7]^[14] Its Standing Committee, with about 170 members, handles legislative work between sessions, including drafting bills and conducting oversight.^[15] The CPPCC serves as an advisory and consultative body within China's "multiparty cooperation and political consultation" system, emphasizing the united front uniting the CCP with eight other registered parties and non-party elites.^[16] The National Committee, numbering over 2,000 members from diverse sectors including ethnic minorities, intellectuals, business leaders, and religious figures, meets annually to offer proposals on policy matters, conduct democratic supervision over government organs, and facilitate patriotic unity without binding legislative authority.^[17]^[18] Proposals from CPPCC members, often numbering in the thousands per session, are forwarded to relevant state bodies for consideration, though implementation depends on alignment with CCP priorities.^[17]

Timing and Format

The Two Sessions refer to the annual plenary sessions of the National People's Congress (NPC) and the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), which convene concurrently in early March each year in Beijing. The CPPCC session typically opens one day before the NPC session, with both lasting about one week; for instance, in 2025, the CPPCC met from March 4 to March 10, while the NPC session ran from March 5 to March 11.^[2]^[19] This timing aligns with the end of the Chinese Lunar New Year period and precedes the NPC Standing Committee's spring session, allowing for policy synchronization under Chinese Communist Party oversight.^[20] The format emphasizes structured proceedings at the Great Hall of the People, beginning with preparatory meetings for credential reviews and presidium elections.^[21] Opening ceremonies feature keynote reports, including the premier's government work report and budget proposals for the NPC, alongside proposal submissions and consultations for the CPPCC. Subsequent days involve delegate group discussions, specialized committee deliberations on legislation and oversight, and limited public sessions like press conferences.^[20] Closing sessions culminate in votes on resolutions, which are pre-aligned with party directives, with the entire process compressed since 2018 to roughly 10-14 days from prior lengths of up to three weeks.^[11] These meetings accommodate over 3,000 NPC deputies and 2,000 CPPCC members, respectively, through parallel tracks that facilitate unified policy endorsement.^[22]

Historical Background

Establishment in the Early PRC

The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) held its First Plenary Session from September 21 to 30, 1949, marking its formal establishment as a united front organization uniting the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with non-Communist parties and groups.^[16]^[23] This session adopted the Common Program, which functioned as the provisional constitution of the newly founded People's Republic of China (PRC), outlined the state's political, economic, and social policies, and proclaimed the establishment of the central people's government on October 1, 1949.^[18]^[24] The CPPCC initially served both legislative and consultative roles in the absence of a permanent national legislature, reflecting the CCP's strategy to consolidate power through multi-party cooperation under its leadership.^[23] By the early 1950s, the need for a formalized supreme organ of state power prompted the transition to a more structured legislative body, as the CPPCC's ad hoc nature limited sustained governance.^[14] The National People's Congress (NPC) was established as the PRC's highest organ of state power through the convening of its First Session from September 15 to 28, 1954, in Beijing.^[25]^[26] This session, attended by 1,147 deputies elected indirectly through local people's congresses, adopted the 1954 Constitution, which enshrined the NPC as the sole legislative authority, and the Organic Law of the NPC.^[25] The NPC also elected key state leaders, including Mao Zedong as chairman of the PRC, formalizing the separation of legislative functions from the CPPCC.^[14] Following the NPC's creation, the CPPCC shifted to a purely advisory and consultative role, continuing to meet periodically to provide policy recommendations while aligning with CCP directives.^[27] The practice of holding annual sessions of the NPC and CPPCC in parallel, later termed the "Two Sessions" (Lianghui), emerged in this foundational period, with the bodies convening jointly in Beijing to deliberate national agendas, though the NPC retained primary decision-making authority.^[28] These early meetings emphasized economic reconstruction and socialist transformation, setting precedents for ritualized approval of government work reports and five-year plans under tight CCP oversight.^[14] Disruptions occurred during political campaigns, such as the Anti-Rightist Movement in 1957, which curtailed deliberative openness.^[23]

Reforms and Institutionalization Post-1978

Following the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in December 1978, which shifted national priorities toward economic reform and opening up, the National People's Congress (NPC) and Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) underwent reforms to formalize their operations and align with modernization goals, including building a rudimentary legal framework. The CPPCC resumed regular activities in February 1978 after a 12-year suspension during the Cultural Revolution, marking its reintegration into the political system as a consultative body under principles of multiparty cooperation articulated by Deng Xiaoping, such as long-term coexistence and mutual oversight among political parties.^[16]^[29] These changes positioned the CPPCC to contribute to united front work, with its functions—political consultation, democratic supervision, and participation in governance—enshrined in the national framework.^[16] The NPC's institutionalization accelerated with the adoption of a revised constitution in December 1978, which emphasized the restoration of legal order and the NPC's role as the highest organ of state power, though it retained provisions for party guidance in leadership selections.^[30] A pivotal advancement came in 1979 with the passage of the Electoral Law for the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses, which mandated direct elections at the county level and introduced secret balloting, aiming to enhance representativeness while maintaining indirect selection for higher levels.^[31] Legislative committees, dormant since the 1950s, were reestablished, enabling specialized review of bills and increasing the NPC's capacity for oversight and representation beyond pre-Cultural Revolution levels.^[31] The 1982 Constitution, promulgated on December 4 by the fifth NPC, further entrenched these reforms by expanding the Standing Committee's (NPCSC) powers to interpret the constitution, enact laws during intersessional periods, and supervise administrative enforcement, thereby professionalizing legislative processes to support economic policies like decollectivization and foreign investment.^[30]^[32] Post-1978 legislative activity surged, with the NPC and NPCSC enacting foundational laws such as the 1979 Criminal Law, the 1980 Marriage Law revisions, and subsequent codes on civil procedure and economic contracts by the mid-1980s, totaling dozens of statutes to underpin market-oriented reforms. For the CPPCC, the sixth National Committee in 1983 adopted a revised charter that clarified its advisory mechanisms and organizational structure, facilitating proposal submissions on policy matters, with over 1,000 proposals reviewed annually by the 1990s to inform governance.^[27] These developments institutionalized the Two Sessions as annual platforms for agenda-setting and endorsement, with NPC sessions growing to include about 3,000 deputies by the 1980s, focusing on budget approvals and leadership transitions amid economic liberalization.^[33] However, reforms preserved the Chinese Communist Party's dominance, as delegate nominations and major decisions required prior party vetting, limiting independent deliberation despite procedural enhancements.^[32] Subsequent iterations, such as 1990s constitutional amendments under Jiang Zemin, codified multiparty consultation as a core system, but empirical assessments note persistent constraints on oversight efficacy due to centralized control.^[16]^[31]

Composition and Participants

National People's Congress (NPC)

The National People's Congress (NPC) comprises 2,977 deputies serving five-year terms, elected indirectly through 35 electoral units that include provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, and special administrative regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.^[13]^[34] Deputies are selected via a process where candidates, nominated by electoral units and required to outnumber available seats by 20 to 50 percent, are approved by secret ballot in provincial-level people's congresses.^[35] This indirect mechanism, originating from the Electoral Law of the NPC and Local People's Congresses, prioritizes candidates aligned with state policies, with nominations often vetted through party and organizational channels prior to voting.^[36]^[7] Demographically, deputies predominantly reflect China's Han majority, with ethnic minorities accounting for approximately 12 percent of seats to ensure representation from all 55 officially recognized groups, though smaller groups may have only one delegate each.^[34]^[37] The body includes delegates from diverse occupational backgrounds, such as workers, farmers, intellectuals, entrepreneurs, and members of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), which elects a fixed contingent of about 300 deputies.^[14] Women hold around 26 percent of seats in recent sessions, though male dominance persists, and urban-rural balances are maintained through allocated quotas per electoral unit.^[37] Participants extend beyond full deputies to the NPC Standing Committee, a smaller body of about 170 members that convenes between annual sessions to handle legislative review, supervision, and appointments.^[13] Standing Committee members are elected by the full NPC and include key figures like the chairman, who holds significant ceremonial and protocol roles. Deputies and committee members operate under the overarching authority of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with a substantial majority—over 95 percent in recent congresses—being CCP members, ensuring policy continuity with central directives.^[37]

Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)

The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) functions as China's principal united front organization, facilitating consultation between the Communist Party of China (CPC) and non-CPC elites across political parties, ethnic groups, and social sectors. Established on September 21, 1949, through its First Plenary Session from September 21 to 30, it initially served to consolidate support for the newly founded People's Republic by incorporating former Kuomintang members, democratic parties, and patriotic figures into a CPC-led framework.^[23] ^[38] The CPPCC operates without legislative authority, instead submitting advisory proposals on political, economic, and social matters to CPC and state organs, aligning with the party's united front strategy to co-opt influential non-party actors while maintaining centralized control.^[16] ^[39] The CPPCC's National Committee comprises around 2,172 members for its 14th term, elected in 2023 for a five-year cycle, with similar numbers attending annual sessions.^[40] ^[41] Members are selected by the standing committee at each level to represent diverse constituencies, including the eight minor democratic parties (such as the China Democratic League and Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang), non-party independents, national and local people's organizations, ethnic minorities (with dedicated seats for groups like Uyghurs and Tibetans), religious figures, private entrepreneurs, intellectuals, artists, scientists, and overseas Chinese.^[42] Approximately 40% of members hold CPC membership, ensuring ideological alignment, while the majority derive from united front categories designed to broaden symbolic participation without diluting CPC dominance; for instance, earlier committees included over 600 women and representatives from all 55 ethnic minorities.^[23] Local committees mirror this structure at provincial, municipal, and county levels, numbering over 600,000 members nationwide, and report to the national body.^[41] In the context of the Two Sessions, CPPCC participants convene annually in Beijing, typically preceding or concurrent with the National People's Congress, to review government work reports, deliberate draft policies, and submit roughly 1,000-3,000 proposals per session for CPC consideration—such as economic development suggestions or social harmony initiatives—though adoption depends on party vetting rather than independent decision-making.^[43] ^[44] The Standing Committee, with a chairman (currently Wang Huning, a CPC Politburo member) and vice-chairmen from non-CPC backgrounds, handles intersessional duties like inspections and targeted consultations.^[18] This setup promotes the appearance of consultative democracy but operates as an extension of CPC influence, where proposals rarely challenge core policies and serve to legitimize decisions through elite endorsement.^[45]

Proceedings and Agenda

Opening Ceremonies and Reports

The annual sessions of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) and the National People's Congress (NPC), collectively known as the Two Sessions, begin with formal opening ceremonies typically held in early March at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. The CPPCC session opens first, usually on a Monday or Tuesday, presided over by its chairperson, who delivers an opening address emphasizing political consultation, democratic supervision, and participation in state affairs under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).^[46]^[47] These ceremonies include the arrival of delegates from various non-CCP parties, mass organizations, and sectors, followed by procedural formalities such as agenda approval, but lack the legislative reports central to the NPC session.^[48] The NPC session opens the following day, marked by a more elaborate ceremony attended by nearly 3,000 delegates, including CCP leaders and state officials, with proceedings broadcast nationally.^[49] NPC Chairman Zhao Leji presides, announcing the session's agenda, which includes reviewing key state documents. A pivotal element is the delivery of the Government Work Report by Premier Li Qiang, presented on the opening day to outline the State Council's achievements from the prior year, economic targets such as around 5% GDP growth, policy priorities like technological self-reliance and consumption stimulation, and fiscal measures including budget deficits.^[4]^[50] This report, prepared by the State Council and submitted for NPC deliberation, serves as the primary policy blueprint, with its content reflecting CCP Politburo directives finalized months earlier.^[51] Additional reports introduced at or near the NPC opening include the NPC Standing Committee's work report, delivered by its vice chairman, detailing legislative activities such as law revisions and supervision efforts from the previous year.^[52] Final accounts of the central budget and state revenue-expenditure are also presented for review, though detailed budget deliberations follow later in the session. These documents, drawn from official state data, undergo nominal scrutiny by delegates, with proposals and recommendations submitted for feedback, totaling over 8,000 in recent sessions.^[53] While state media portray these openings as showcases of unity and progress, independent analyses note their scripted nature, aligning closely with pre-determined CCP outcomes rather than open debate.^[6]

Deliberations and Voting

Deputies of the National People's Congress (NPC) conduct deliberations primarily through small-group meetings, where they review and discuss key documents such as the government work report, national economic and social development plan, budget, and draft laws.^[54] These sessions allow delegates to propose amendments, submit bills (requiring support from a delegation or at least 30 deputies), and offer suggestions, which are then forwarded to relevant committees for refinement.^[55] Senior leaders, including members of the Politburo Standing Committee, participate in specific groups to listen to feedback and explain policies, fostering a structured exchange before plenary sessions.^[54] In the 2024 session, for example, NPC deputies submitted over 8,000 suggestions, with 95.1% addressed by government departments post-session.^[56] Voting in the NPC occurs during plenary sessions, typically via electronic means for routine resolutions or secret ballot for critical elections like state leadership positions, overseen by appointed scrutineers to ensure procedural integrity.^[57] Items put to vote include approval of the central budget, development plans, personnel appointments, and legislative drafts, often resulting in near-unanimous outcomes reflecting pre-session consensus within the Chinese Communist Party framework. In the 2024 annual session, the resolution on the 2023 national economic plan passed with 2,952 votes in favor, 3 against, and 10 abstentions out of 2,965 delegates; similarly, the 2024 budget resolution received 2,935 yes votes, 5 no, and 26 abstentions from 2,966 delegates.^[58] Such results, consistently above 99% approval in recent sessions, underscore the body's role in formalizing decisions largely vetted upstream by party mechanisms.^[58]^[59] In parallel, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) focuses on consultative deliberations without binding voting authority, emphasizing proposal submission and policy advice during group and plenary discussions.^[41] CPPCC members deliberate on the same core reports as the NPC, offering input through thousands of annual proposals that influence but do not mandate government action. In 2024, over 4,800 CPPCC proposals were handled by state organs, contributing to policy adjustments in areas like economic development and social governance.^[56] This process aligns with the CPPCC's mandate for multiparty consultation under Communist Party leadership, prioritizing unity and supplementary perspectives over adversarial voting.^[41]

Leadership Transitions

The National People's Congress (NPC) session within the Two Sessions serves as the primary venue for formalizing leadership transitions in China's state apparatus, particularly during the first annual session following a National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which occurs every five years. Delegates to the NPC, numbering approximately 2,977 in recent sessions, vote on nominations for key positions including the President and Vice President of the People's Republic of China, the Premier and Vice Premiers of the State Council, the President of the Supreme People's Court, the Chief Procurator of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, and members of the Central Military Commission. These elections follow nominations put forward by the Presidium of the NPC, which in practice reflects decisions made by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee in advance, ensuring alignment with party priorities.^[57] The process adheres to constitutional requirements under Article 62 of the PRC Constitution, stipulating simple majorities for approval, though outcomes consistently show near-unanimous support, with opposition votes typically numbering in the single digits or zero.^[60] Major transitions unfold over several days in the NPC's annual meeting, often concluding the session. For instance, during the first session of the 14th NPC on March 10, 2023, Xi Jinping was elected President for a third consecutive term, receiving 2,952 votes in favor, zero against, and three abstentions from a total of 2,977 delegates. The following day, March 11, 2023, Li Qiang was elected Premier, succeeding Li Keqiang, with 2,952 votes in favor, zero against, and one abstention, marking a shift toward greater emphasis on technological self-reliance in economic policy. Similar patterns occurred in prior cycles; in the 2018 session of the 13th NPC, Xi was re-elected President amid constitutional amendments abolishing presidential term limits, approved by 2,958 votes to two against. These events underscore the ceremonial nature of NPC votes, as substantive selections occur through opaque CCP internal processes, with no public campaigning or alternative candidates permitted.^[57] The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convening concurrently, handles its own leadership elections, such as selecting the Chairman of the National Committee, but these carry advisory weight rather than executive authority. In the 2023 CPPCC session, Wang Huning was elected Chairman on March 4, replacing Wang Yang, in a vote reflecting CCP alignment on united front work. Transitions at both bodies reinforce CCP dominance, as NPC and CPPCC delegates are predominantly party members or affiliates, limiting independent input. Mid-term sessions, such as the 2025 Two Sessions, focus less on wholesale changes, approving instead routine appointments like State Councilors or ministerial roles, with no major upheavals reported that year amid economic stabilization efforts. Critics, including reports from Western analysts, note that this structure precludes competitive politics, prioritizing loyalty to CCP directives over deliberative selection.^[6]^[57]

Role in Governance

Formal Legislative Functions

The National People's Congress (NPC), as China's highest organ of state power, exercises formal legislative authority during its annual plenary session, which forms a core component of the Two Sessions, primarily through the enactment, amendment, and interpretation of laws as stipulated in Article 62 of the Constitution. This includes the power to amend the Constitution itself, formulate and revise basic laws on criminal, civil, administrative, and state organ matters, and address other fundamental legal frameworks when the Standing Committee deems it necessary. Legislative bills are adopted by a simple majority vote among the approximately 3,000 deputies present, with constitutional amendments requiring a two-thirds majority.^[30]^[61] During the Two Sessions, typically held in March, NPC deputies deliberate draft laws submitted by the State Council, the NPC Standing Committee, the Supreme People's Court, the Supreme People's Procuratorate, or special committees, focusing on priority areas such as economic development, national security, and social governance. For instance, the NPC has the exclusive authority to enact core statutes like the Criminal Law and Civil Code, with plenary sessions serving as the venue for final approval of major drafts after preliminary reviews by the Standing Committee. In practice, sessions often involve voting on bundled legislative items, including approvals of the national budget and five-year economic and social development plans, which carry quasi-legislative force under Article 62(15).^[62]^[61] The NPC Standing Committee, operating between plenary sessions, handles routine legislation, but the Two Sessions plenary reinforces formal oversight by examining enforcement of existing laws and ratifying treaties with legislative implications, such as those affecting territorial integrity or economic cooperation. Deputies may propose bills—numbering in the hundreds annually, as seen with 269 proposals submitted in one recent session—though adoption rates remain low without prior alignment through internal channels. These functions underscore the NPC's constitutional role in codifying state policy into law, distinct from the advisory proceedings of the concurrent Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.^[30]^[63]

Advisory and Symbolic Dimensions

The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convened during the Two Sessions, functions primarily as a consultative and advisory body to the National People's Congress (NPC) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), offering proposals on policy matters drawn from its approximately 2,100 national committee members representing non-CCP parties, independents, and various sectors.^[41]^[64] These members deliberate government work reports, submit suggestions—numbering in the thousands annually—and engage in group discussions to refine inputs, with a stated emphasis on multiparty cooperation and patriotic united front principles under CCP leadership.^[41]^[63] However, the advisory influence is constrained, as proposals are filtered through CCP oversight, and implementation depends on alignment with predetermined party directives rather than independent deliberation.^[12]^[65] In practice, the NPC's advisory elements involve deputies reviewing and discussing legislative drafts during sessions, but these processes culminate in near-unanimous approvals, underscoring the endorsement rather than origination of policies.^[66] For instance, in the 2025 Two Sessions, CPPCC proposals were highlighted for their "pivotal role" in policymaking by official accounts, yet external analyses describe the body as largely powerless, serving to legitimize CCP decisions through formalized consultation.^[63]^[65] This dynamic reflects a system where advisory inputs provide expertise—such as from business leaders or ethnic representatives—but do not alter core outcomes, as evidenced by consistent alignment with Politburo priorities announced prior to sessions.^[2]^[67] Symbolically, the Two Sessions project national unity and policy continuity, convening nearly 5,000 delegates in Beijing to showcase inclusive governance amid CCP dominance, with extensive media coverage amplifying signals on economic targets or leadership transitions.^[10]^[64] The events serve as a platform for controlled public engagement, where delegates from diverse backgrounds—ethnic minorities, professionals, and overseas Chinese—participate in ceremonies and press interactions, reinforcing the narrative of "whole-process people's democracy" as articulated in official discourse.^[68]^[41] Yet, this symbolism often masks substantive limitations, with critics noting the gatherings' role in manufacturing consensus rather than fostering genuine pluralism, as voting patterns and outcomes remain predictably synchronized with party lines.^[12]^[66] The sessions' annual timing in March, post-Lunar New Year, further enhances their ceremonial weight, positioning them as a ritual of state renewal despite underlying centralization.^[6]

Integration with CCP Decision-Making

The Two Sessions function as a mechanism to formalize and legitimize decisions pre-determined by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) central leadership, particularly the Politburo Standing Committee, rather than serving as arenas for independent deliberation. Major policies, legislative proposals, and leadership transitions are formulated through CCP channels, such as party congresses and leading small groups, before being presented to the National People's Congress (NPC) for ratification and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) for consultation.^[69] For instance, following the 20th CCP National Congress in October 2022, the subsequent NPC session in March 2023 endorsed Xi Jinping's third term as state president and confirmed key appointments, reflecting prior party selections.^[69] CCP party groups embedded within the NPC and CPPCC apparatuses ensure alignment with party directives, overseeing agenda setting, candidate nominations, and voting outcomes to prevent deviations.^[69] Approximately 70-72% of NPC deputies are CCP members, with the remainder drawn from minor "democratic parties" and mass organizations that operate under CCP guidance, minimizing opportunities for substantive opposition.^[7] The NPC's Standing Committee, which handles routine legislative work between sessions, similarly operates under party pre-approval, as evidenced by near-unanimous passage rates for bills—over 95% approval in recent terms—indicating controlled rather than deliberative processes.^[69] The CPPCC's advisory role integrates with CCP decision-making through multiparty consultations that feed input into party policy formulation, but its recommendations lack enforcement power and are subordinate to CCP priorities.^[69] This structure underscores the Two Sessions' ceremonial function: publicizing CCP-endorsed targets, such as GDP growth or military budgets, while mechanisms like the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection enforce loyalty via ideological campaigns and personnel controls.^[69] Under Xi Jinping's centralization, authority has shifted further from state bodies to party organs, with NPC sessions increasingly serving to propagate unified narratives on issues like economic resilience and national security.^[69]

Criticisms and Limitations

Absence of Competitive Politics

The Two Sessions, comprising the National People's Congress (NPC) and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), operate without mechanisms for competitive electoral politics or adversarial deliberation, as all participants are selected through processes controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and required to align with its predetermined policy lines. NPC delegates, numbering around 2,977, are indirectly elected via lower-level congresses but vetted and approved by CCP organs to ensure loyalty, precluding open competition or independent candidacies that could challenge party directives. Similarly, CPPCC members, drawn from "democratic parties" and non-party figures, are hand-selected by the CCP's United Front Work Department, with no provisions for rival slates or public contests; these groups explicitly accept CCP leadership as a condition of participation.^[70]^[71] This structure manifests in session proceedings through ritualized approval rather than debate or contestation. NPC plenary votes on key legislation, budgets, and leadership appointments routinely achieve near-unanimity, reflecting advance coordination rather than genuine contest; for instance, in March 2023, all 2,952 attending NPC delegates unanimously endorsed Xi Jinping's third term as president, with no opposing votes recorded. Even on contentious measures, such as the 2020 Hong Kong national security law, approval stood at 2,878 in favor, one against, and six abstentions out of nearly 3,000 delegates. CPPCC sessions, lacking formal voting authority, focus on scripted consultations and proposals that reinforce CCP priorities, with no recorded instances of organized opposition or amendments altering core agendas.^[72]^[73] The absence of competitive politics stems from the CCP's constitutional monopoly on power, which prohibits independent political organizations and enforces ideological conformity via mechanisms like the united front system. While nominal "non-CCP parties" hold seats—comprising about 30% in the NPC and up to 60% in the CPPCC—these entities operate as advisory appendages, barred from fielding alternative leadership or policies; empirical data from session outcomes shows zero instances of vetoes or blocks against CCP-initiated items since the system's formalization in 1954. This contrasts with competitive legislatures elsewhere, where divided votes and amendments reflect pluralistic input, but in China, dissenting signals are rare and often symbolic, as evidenced by minimal abstentions or "no" votes in high-stakes approvals like the 2024 economic targets, passed by overwhelming majorities.^[74]^[75]

Control by the Chinese Communist Party

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) maintains dominant control over the Two Sessions—the annual meetings of the National People's Congress (NPC) and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)—through the vetting of delegates, pre-determination of agendas, and ratification of party-formulated policies. The NPC, with 2,977 delegates in the 14th Congress (2023–2028), draws primarily from CCP ranks and its allied "democratic parties" within the united front framework, ensuring ideological alignment; approximately 72% of delegates in the preceding 12th NPC were CCP members.^[7] Candidate selection occurs indirectly via provincial-level congresses, but requires CCP approval at each stage to filter out non-conforming individuals, resulting in a body that reflects party priorities rather than broad electoral competition.^[57]^[76] Leadership transitions and key appointments during NPC sessions follow CCP nominations, with the Central Committee proposing candidates for roles like president, premier, and State Council members; these are then endorsed by the NPC presidium and approved via votes that conventionally exceed 95% support. For example, in March 2023, Xi Jinping secured unanimous approval for his third presidential term from all 2,952 voting delegates, while the 2024 session saw a constitutional revision pass 2,883–8 with nine abstentions.^[57]^[77]^[78] Such outcomes stem from the CCP's prior consensus-building in bodies like the Politburo Standing Committee, where substantive policy debates occur, rendering NPC proceedings largely confirmatory.^[15] The CPPCC, comprising over 2,100 members from non-CCP groups, functions as an advisory forum under CCP oversight, with its leadership and proposals coordinated to reinforce party lines without binding authority.^[65] Discussions during the Two Sessions focus on amplifying CCP initiatives, such as economic targets or foreign policy, but lack veto power; empirical patterns of synchronized agendas and unanimous endorsements across sessions demonstrate the CPPCC's integration into the party's united front apparatus for mobilizing elite consensus.^[79] This control mechanism, evident in the absence of rejected major legislation since the NPC's inception in 1954, prioritizes policy continuity over adversarial deliberation, as dissenting votes remain marginal (typically under 3% for salient items).^[15]^[10]

Human Rights and Representation Issues

The National People's Congress (NPC) and Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convened during the Two Sessions, feature delegates selected through indirect elections controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with candidates vetted for political loyalty rather than subjected to competitive or direct popular voting.^[80]^[81] NPC delegates, numbering around 2,977 in recent sessions, are elected every five years by provincial-level people's congresses, but the CCP influences nominations and outcomes to ensure alignment with party directives, resulting in approximately 72% of NPC members being CCP affiliates.^[7] This process prioritizes "broad representativeness" through quotas for ethnic minorities (about 12-15% of delegates), women, and professionals, yet excludes independent or dissenting voices, as evidenced by the disqualification of candidates perceived as disloyal.^[80]^[82] The CPPCC, as a united front body, includes non-CCP participants from eight minor "democratic parties" and independents, comprising roughly one-third of its over 2,000 members, but these groups operate under CCP guidance and avoid challenging core policies.^[7] Former delegates have described the assemblies as "rubber stamps" that lack mechanisms for genuine accountability or opposition, with deliberations confined to endorsing pre-approved agendas rather than reflecting diverse constituency interests.^[82] Representation of marginalized groups, such as Uyghurs or Tibetans, remains symbolic, as delegates from these areas must adhere to CCP narratives on regional policies, precluding advocacy for autonomy or reform.^[81] Human rights concerns during the Two Sessions include heightened suppression of dissent to maintain order, with authorities detaining activists and increasing surveillance in Beijing; for instance, in March 2019, security measures rounded up petitioners and protesters ahead of the meetings to prevent disruptions over issues like Xinjiang detentions and trade policies.^[83] The sessions rarely address documented abuses, such as mass detentions in Xinjiang or restrictions on religious and ethnic minorities, instead rubber-stamping budgets and laws that expand state control, including surveillance technologies criticized for enabling arbitrary arrests.^[84]^[85] Internal dissent within sessions is minimal, with delegates adhering to official lines to avoid repercussions, as public criticism of CCP leadership or policies is stifled, limiting any platform for rights advocacy.^[86] This structure perpetuates a cycle where representation issues compound human rights gaps, as unaccountable delegates approve measures without scrutiny from affected populations.^[87]

Policy Impacts and Outcomes

Economic Policy Announcements

The Two Sessions serve as the primary forum for announcing China's annual economic targets and policy directions, primarily through the Government Work Report delivered by the Premier at the National People's Congress (NPC) opening session. This report outlines macroeconomic goals, fiscal measures, and sectoral priorities, which are then formalized via NPC approvals of the national budget and development plans. These announcements reflect the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) central economic planning, emphasizing state-directed stimulus amid challenges like post-COVID recovery, property sector distress, and external trade pressures.^[4]^[88] Key macroeconomic targets include the GDP growth rate, typically set ambitiously to signal confidence despite underlying structural issues such as debt accumulation and weak domestic demand. For instance, in the 2025 sessions held in March, Premier Li Qiang announced a GDP growth target of around 5 percent, consistent with the prior year but exceeding independent forecasts of 4.6 percent, alongside consumer price inflation goals aimed at stabilization. Fiscal policy announcements highlight deficit expansion and bond issuance to fund infrastructure and consumption boosts; the 2025 budget deficit was raised to 4 percent of GDP from 3 percent in 2024, with RMB 500 billion in special government bonds allocated to recapitalize state-owned banks and RMB 300 billion for consumer goods trade-in programs.^[89]^[11]^[90] Sectoral policies announced often prioritize technological self-reliance, manufacturing expansion, and property market stabilization over broad liberalization. In 2024, the sessions endorsed issuance of RMB 1 trillion in ultra-long special treasury bonds to support local government financing and real estate recovery, while reiterating "proactive" fiscal measures tempered by overall austerity to manage public debt risks exceeding 100 percent of GDP. Monetary policy hints, though not directly set by the NPC, align with announcements favoring moderate easing to counter deflationary pressures, as evidenced by repeated emphases on bolstering business confidence and domestic demand in both 2024 and 2025 reports. These directives underscore a continuity in state interventionism, with limited concessions to market reforms amid geopolitical tensions.^[91]^[92]^[88] Budget approvals during the sessions detail expenditures across categories, with economic outlays dominating; for 2025, augmented fiscal support included measures to enhance "economic security" through critical technology investments and supply chain resilience, reflecting priorities over consumer-led growth. Critics from independent analyses note that such announcements often prioritize headline targets over addressing root causes like overcapacity in manufacturing and demographic decline, leading to implementation gaps where actual growth falls short of projections.^[8]^[93]

Foreign Affairs and Security Priorities

The Two Sessions feature announcements reinforcing China's emphasis on national security as integral to development, with the National People's Congress approving annual increases in defense spending to support military modernization amid perceived external threats. In 2024, the defense budget rose by 7.2 percent to 1.67 trillion yuan (approximately $230.6 billion), prioritizing capabilities in areas such as hypersonic weapons, naval expansion, and cyber defense to deter challenges to sovereignty.^[94] A similar 7.2 percent increase was set for 2025, justified by defense officials as necessary given a "complex security environment" involving territorial disputes and great-power competition.^[95] ^[96] These allocations align with broader priorities under Xi Jinping's "comprehensive national security" framework, which integrates military, economic, and technological safeguards against risks like supply chain disruptions and espionage. Foreign affairs priorities, articulated in the Government Work Report and Foreign Minister Wang Yi's press conferences, stress defending core interests while advancing Chinese-led global frameworks. Central to this is the commitment to Taiwan's reunification, pursued through peaceful means with "utmost sincerity" but without renouncing force, coupled with vows to hold "Taiwan independence" advocates accountable and counter external interference.^[97] In the South China Sea, sessions highlight dialogue with ASEAN for stability while safeguarding China's claims against perceived infringements.^[97] Relations with major powers receive focus, including deepening the "no-limits" strategic partnership with Russia for coordination on security issues, advocating mutual respect and win-win cooperation with the United States to manage competition, and promoting an independent EU partnership free of bloc confrontation.^[97]^[98] Sessions also promote initiatives like the Global Security Initiative (GSI), launched in 2022 and reiterated in subsequent meetings, which calls for common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security through sovereignty respect and multilateral dialogue centered on the United Nations, as an alternative to perceived Western alliance-based approaches.^[99] ^[100] The Belt and Road Initiative remains a cornerstone for expanding influence via infrastructure and economic ties, with 2024-2025 discussions emphasizing high-standard cooperation to counter containment efforts.^[97] These priorities reflect continuity in assertive diplomacy, prioritizing national rejuvenation over accommodation of rival powers' concerns.^[66]

Implementation and Effectiveness

Policies announced during the Two Sessions, primarily through the Government Work Report and NPC resolutions, are executed via a top-down hierarchy led by the State Council, which translates legislative approvals into administrative action plans distributed to ministries and local governments. Local party committees, under Chinese Communist Party (CCP) oversight, enforce compliance at provincial, municipal, and county levels, leveraging cadre responsibility systems that tie officials' promotions to policy outcomes. The NPC Standing Committee conducts supervisory reviews, including annual hearings on work reports from the State Council and Supreme People's Court, to assess implementation progress.^[101] This structure enables rapid mobilization for large-scale initiatives, such as infrastructure and poverty alleviation campaigns. For example, the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020), endorsed in Two Sessions proceedings, achieved or exceeded 86% of its 250 quantitative targets, including lifting 98.99 million rural poor out of poverty by 2020, as verified by official audits. Economic policies, like fiscal stimulus and monetary easing announced in 2025 sessions targeting 5% GDP growth, have historically supported short-term expansions, with China's GDP averaging 6.5% annual growth from 2016–2019 despite global headwinds.^[102]^[4] Effectiveness, however, varies by domain and faces critiques for prioritizing quantitative metrics over qualitative sustainability. Industrial policies fostering "new productive forces" in semiconductors and renewables, reiterated in 2025, have driven leadership in solar panel production (over 80% global capacity by 2024) but contributed to overcapacity and local government debt exceeding 100 trillion yuan. Oversight mechanisms, while formalized, lack independent enforcement, as CCP dominance limits accountability; reports from think tanks note persistent gaps in innovation-driven growth, with total factor productivity stagnating at 0.5–1% annually since 2010 amid state-directed resource allocation.^[8]^[103]^[90] In foreign and security realms, Two Sessions priorities like military modernization have yielded tangible advances, with defense spending rising 7.2% in 2025 to support carrier fleets and hypersonic weapons, enhancing deterrence capabilities. Yet, implementation challenges arise from execution rigidities, as evidenced by uneven COVID-19 policy rollouts pre-2023, where centralized directives clashed with local realities, leading to economic disruptions estimated at 2–3% GDP loss in 2022. Empirical assessments from non-partisan analyses indicate that while coercive implementation ensures high adherence rates, long-term efficacy hinges on adapting to demographic declines and trade frictions, areas where sessions announcements have yet to demonstrate reversal.^[6]^[93]

Recent Developments

Sessions from 2020 to 2023

The 2020 sessions were significantly delayed due to the COVID-19 outbreak, with the CPPCC convening from May 21 to 27 and the NPC from May 22 to 28, marking the first postponement in decades.^[104] For the first time since 1990, no explicit GDP growth target was announced, as authorities cited uncertainties from the pandemic and global economic disruptions.^[105] Discussions emphasized pandemic containment measures, achieving the goal of eradicating extreme poverty by year's end, and completing the construction of a moderately prosperous society, with Premier Li Keqiang highlighting fiscal support for affected sectors without specifying numerical targets for major indicators.^[106] In 2021, the CPPCC met from March 4 to 10, while the NPC session ran from March 5 to 11, a compressed schedule reflecting ongoing health precautions.^[107] The government set a GDP growth target of over 6 percent, prioritizing recovery through expanded fiscal deficits to 3.2 percent of GDP and monetary easing to support employment and consumption.^[108] Key outcomes included approval of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025), focusing on technological self-reliance, dual circulation economic strategy, and carbon peak by 2030, amid deliberations on normalizing stimulus without abrupt policy cliffs.^[109] The 2022 sessions occurred from March 4 to 10 for the CPPCC and March 5 to 11 for the NPC, underscoring continuity in policy amid persistent COVID-19 challenges and geopolitical tensions.^[110] A GDP target of around 5.5 percent was established, accompanied by a fiscal deficit ratio of 2.8 percent of GDP and issuance of special treasury bonds totaling 1 trillion yuan for infrastructure and security enhancements.^[111] Emphasis was placed on stabilizing the economy through targeted support for small businesses, rural revitalization, and common prosperity initiatives, while maintaining strict pandemic controls that later contributed to growth shortfalls relative to the target.^[112] During the 2023 sessions, held in March with the NPC from March 5 to 13, delegates formalized Xi Jinping's third term as state president and approved Li Qiang as premier, aligning with prior CCP leadership transitions.^[113] The GDP growth objective was set at around 5 percent, with a fiscal deficit of 3 percent of GDP and 1 trillion yuan in ultra-long special treasury bonds to bolster infrastructure and local governments facing debt pressures.^[114] Announcements included institutional reforms consolidating regulatory bodies for finance and technology, vows for "forceful" overhauls in these sectors to enhance national security and innovation, and priorities for high-quality development amid slowing post-pandemic recovery and external trade frictions.^[115]

2024 and 2025 Sessions

The 2024 Two Sessions, comprising the second session of the 14th National People's Congress (NPC) and the 13th session of the 14th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convened from March 4 to 11 in Beijing.^[116] In the Government Work Report (GWR) delivered by Premier Li Qiang on March 5, China set its GDP growth target at around 5 percent, matching the previous year's ambition despite a higher base effect from 2023's performance.^[117] The report outlined targets for creating over 12 million urban jobs, maintaining an urban unemployment rate around 5.5 percent, and limiting the fiscal deficit to 3 percent of GDP, with local government special-purpose bonds issuance at 3.9 trillion yuan.^[116] Policy emphases included stabilizing the real estate sector through destocking unsold homes, promoting consumption via trade-in programs for consumer goods, and advancing technological self-reliance in areas like AI and semiconductors amid external pressures.^[118] No major fiscal stimulus package was unveiled, signaling continuity in macroeconomic policy rather than aggressive intervention.^[119] The NPC approved the 2024 budget, amendments to the Tariff Law to support "law-based taxation," and personnel appointments reinforcing Communist Party control, including extensions for key officials.^[120] The 2025 Two Sessions occurred from March 4 to 11, with the NPC session formally opening on March 5.^[20] Premier Li Qiang's GWR reiterated the GDP growth target of around 5 percent, aligning with long-term goals like doubling the economy by 2035, while introducing a record-high fiscal deficit of 4 percent of GDP to fund expanded stimulus.^[4] ^[6] Additional targets encompassed over 12 million new urban jobs, CPI growth around 2 percent, and increased issuance of ultra-long special treasury bonds totaling 1 trillion yuan for infrastructure and equipment upgrades.^[3] Priorities shifted toward boosting domestic consumption as the "top task," enhancing private sector support through reduced burdens and fair competition, and accelerating AI-driven industrial upgrades and high-tech manufacturing to counter trade frictions.^[121] ^[122] The sessions underscored resilience against external challenges, including U.S. tariffs, with commitments to expand manufacturing capacity and critical technologies.^[93] The NPC endorsed the 2025 central and local budgets, a report on 2024 budget execution, and resolutions on employment promotion and technological advancement, while approving revisions to laws on national security and civil procedure.^[123] Compared to 2024, fiscal loosening intensified without altering core growth ambitions, reflecting cautious optimism amid subdued domestic demand where consumption contributed under 30 percent to GDP in late 2024.^[90]

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Implementing the Global Security Initiative to Build a World of ...
Mar 28, 2024 · As an active response to the current international dynamics, the GSI aims to offer feasible pathways to resolving disputes and differences, ...
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[PDF] The Global Security Initiative Concept Paper
The essence of this new vision of security is to advocate a concept of common security, respecting and safeguarding the security of every country; a holistic ...
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14th NPC - REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE STANDING ...
Mar 12, 2024 · We increased the efficacy of our oversight and strengthened public communication on the rule of law by means of preliminary research, exchanges ...
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'Two sessions' China - Michael Roberts Blog
Mar 8, 2025 · The Chinese government is just completing its annual 'two sessions' or lianghui, where China's political elite approve the economic policy agenda for the ...
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May 1, 2020 · 2.9K. China's government has confirmed that the country's 'Two Sessions' or 'Liang hui' will take place in Beijing beginning from May 21st.
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China's Two Sessions 2020: What Have We Learnt So Far
May 25, 2020 · The annual announcement of the GDP growth target is one of the most anticipated features of the Two Sessions meetings. Prior to the ...
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Highlights of China's "two sessions" in 2020 - People's Daily Online
May 25, 2020 · Highlights of China's "two sessions" in 2020 · Epidemic control · Targets for economic and social development · Eradicating poverty · Completing the ...
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China's Two Sessions 2021: What's on the Agenda? - China Briefing
Mar 8, 2021 · This year's Two Sessions commenced on March 4 and will conclude on March 11 – this is a much shorter period of 6.5 days as opposed to the ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes
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China 'Two Sessions': Sets 2021 GDP growth target of over 6%
Mar 4, 2021 · Chinese Premier Li Keqiang announced Friday the world's second-largest economy would target growth of over 6% for 2021.
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China | Main take-aways of 2021 “Two Sessions” | BBVA Research
Mar 5, 2021 · Key topics this year include how to normalize the unprecedented fiscal and monetary policies and at the same time avoid “policy cliff” to foster ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes
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Mar 3, 2022 · The government has previously indicated it would set a GDP target of between 5 and 5.5 percent. However, analysts have argued that this may be ...
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China sets GDP target of 'around 5.5%' for 2022 - CNBC
Mar 4, 2022 · China announced Saturday a gross domestic product growth target of about 5.5% for 2022, as an annual parliamentary meeting gets underway.
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Takeaways of China's 2022 Two Sessions - KPMG International
China's 2022 Two Sessions were successfully held in Beijing during the period from 4–11 March 2022. During the meetings, the government emphasised the ...
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China's Two Sessions: Xi Jinping secures third term - Reuters
China's Two Sessions: Xi Jinping secures third term. Nearly 3,000 members of the National People's Congress ( ...
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China's GDP Target Set at Around 5% at 2023 Two Sessions
Mar 29, 2023 · The government announced a GDP growth target of “around 5 percent” for 2023, which is at the lower end of expectations.
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China 'two sessions' 2023: Xi Jinping vows 'forceful' overhaul of ...
Feb 28, 2023 · China's upcoming “forceful” government restructuring plan will include the financial and technology sectors, President Xi Jinping has said.
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Key Takeaways from China's 2024 Two Sessions - APCO Worldwide
Mar 13, 2024 · The government signals confidence in China's economy by setting an ambitious GDP target. China will aim for “around 5%” growth in 2024, the same ...
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Five Key Takeaways From China's Major Legislative Gathering
the same rate as last year, Premier Li Qiang announced. That ...
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China's 2024 Economic Policy Priorities: Lessons from the Two ...
Mar 31, 2024 · What follows is a roundup of key takeaways on what the Two Sessions signaled on GDP growth, consumption, real estate, science and technology, ...
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What Happened at China's Two Sessions in 2024? - Asia Society
Mar 14, 2024 · Chinese leaders signaled continuity in China's foreign policy and national security priorities during the Two Sessions while emphasizing the ...
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Year in Review: The NPC and the Observer in 2024
Dec 31, 2024 · Altogether, the NPC and its Standing Committee enacted 6 new laws, approved major changes to 13, and adopted 3 quasi-legislative decisions. An ...
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China targets 'around 5%' GDP growth in 2025 and lays out stimulus ...
Mar 4, 2025 · China on Wednesday set its GDP growth target for 2025 at "around 5%" and laid out stimulus measures to boost its economy amid escalating trade tensions with ...
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China NPC 2025 key takeaways - VanEck
Mar 19, 2025 · This year's Two Sessions focused on structural fiscal stimulus, AI-driven industrial transformation, and restoring consumer confidence.
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China's top legislature concludes annual session
Mar 12, 2025 · They approved a report on the execution of the central and local budgets for 2024 and the draft central and local budgets for 2025, and approved ...