Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Xerxes II

Xerxes II (died 424 BC) was a king of the who succeeded his father as the legitimate heir but reigned for only forty-five days before his assassination. As the eldest son of and his principal wife Damaspia, Xerxes II ascended the throne in 424 BC following his father's death, marking a brief interlude of stability in the dynasty before internal strife erupted. His rule, documented primarily through fragments of the Greek historian preserved in later authors like , ended abruptly when he was murdered while intoxicated by his half-brother , an illegitimate son of born to a concubine. This assassination triggered a short civil conflict, with briefly claiming the throne before being overthrown and executed by yet another claimant, , who consolidated power and ruled until 404 BC. Xerxes II's ephemeral reign underscores the precarious nature of Achaemenid succession, reliant on royal favor and the elimination of rivals rather than codified , with no recorded military campaigns or administrative reforms attributed to his tenure.

Background and Family

Parentage and Early Life

Xerxes II was the only legitimate son of , who ruled the from 465 to 424 BCE, and his queen Damaspia. Damaspia held the position of principal wife, distinguishing her offspring from the seventeen other sons Artaxerxes I fathered with concubines, such as and ; this made Xerxes II the designated crown prince and lawful heir under Achaemenid succession norms. No records specify Xerxes II's birth date, though his adulthood at succession in 424 BCE places it likely in the mid-fifth century BCE. Ancient sources, including the Persica of —a at the Achaemenid —offer no details on his early life or upbringing beyond parentage and heir status, leaving any royal training in customs, warfare, or administration unverified by personal anecdotes.

Position in the Royal Lineage

Xerxes II was the son of King (r. 465–424 BCE) and his principal wife, Queen Damaspia, who died shortly before or around the time of Artaxerxes I's own death. As the eldest son born to the queen, Xerxes II held a privileged position in the Achaemenid royal family, where inheritance customs typically favored offspring of the primary consort over those from secondary wives or concubines. Artaxerxes I fathered numerous children, estimated at over a dozen sons, many through concubines of Babylonian or other non-royal origins, which undermined their claims to legitimacy under dynastic norms. Notable among these were , born to the concubine Alogyne, and Ochus (later ), son of Cosmartidene, both of whom lacked the maternal prestige that bolstered 's standing. The competitive environment of Achaemenid succession, characterized by intrigue among half-siblings and alliances with court officials, eunuchs, or provincial satraps, positioned Xerxes II as the nominal frontrunner but exposed him to inherent vulnerabilities from rivals seeking to exploit ambiguities in royal designation. This fraternal rivalry reflected broader patterns in the dynasty, where maternal lineage and paternal favor often determined viability amid the absence of a rigidly codified primogeniture.

Ascension to the Throne

Death of Artaxerxes I

Artaxerxes I, who had ascended the throne in 465 BC following the assassination of his father , died after a reign of approximately 41 years. His death occurred in , the administrative capital in Persia proper, likely from natural causes such as or illness, with no contemporary accounts indicating foul play. The precise timing of his death is corroborated by multiple sources, including , who places it in the winter of 425/424 BC, immediately preceding a partial on 21 March 424 BC. Babylonian astronomical records and chronicles further align with this chronology, featuring the king's final dated documents in his 41st regnal year, extending into the winter of 424/423 BC, after which references shift to his successor. These tablets, which include observations of celestial events, provide empirical verification independent of Greek historians, underscoring the reliability of the eclipse-linked timeline despite potential biases in ' focus on Greek-Persian interactions. Upon Artaxerxes I's death, the transition of power proceeded without reported disruption to , his designated heir and eldest son by Queen Damaspia, facilitated by loyalty from court officials and military commanders who upheld the legitimate Achaemenid line of succession. This continuity reflects the king's prior arrangements to ensure stability, as evidenced by the absence of immediate challenges in Babylonian records noting the accession year.

Claim to Legitimacy

Xerxes II asserted his legitimacy as successor to primarily through his status as the king's only son by the royal consort Damaspia, whose position as principal wife elevated his claim above those of half-brothers born to concubines. In Achaemenid , sons of the queen held precedence in inheritance over those of secondary wives or concubines, reflecting preferences for endogamous royal unions that reinforced dynastic purity. Artaxerxes I had fathered numerous illegitimate offspring, including and Ochus (later ), but these lacked the maternal legitimacy that positioned Xerxes as the designated heir. This claim aligned with a primogeniture-like observed in the , where the eldest son from the queen's line typically succeeded without immediate contest, as evidenced by the absence of recorded challenges upon Artaxerxes' in 424 BCE. Ancient accounts, such as those preserved from , emphasize ' lawful , suggesting initial affirmation by elites or units like the Immortals, though no explicit rituals or oaths are detailed. The smooth transition indicates broad acceptance of these norms, prioritizing maternal royal status to maintain stability amid the empire's polygamous .

Reign

Duration and Activities

Xerxes II ascended to the throne upon the death of in 424 BC and ruled for approximately 45 days before his . This brief period, spanning from late summer or early autumn 424 BC until early winter, yielded no documented military campaigns, royal decrees, or administrative edicts issued under his name. The empire's governance during this interval appears to have maintained continuity with Artaxerxes I's established policies, particularly in satrapies such as —where control had been reaffirmed under his father—and Asia Minor, without evidence of disruptions or new directives from Xerxes II himself. The shortness of his precluded proactive initiatives, such as provincial reorganizations or fiscal reforms, which characterized longer Achaemenid tenures. No inscriptions, monumental constructions, or darics (sigloi) specifically attributable to Xerxes II have been identified, in contrast to the numismatic and epigraphic legacies of predecessors like Darius I or . Any efforts to secure loyalty among the or counter potential rivals, including half-brothers, lack corroboration in surviving records and remain speculative.

Administrative Continuity

The Achaemenid Empire's administrative apparatus, structured around satrapies where local governors (satraps) managed taxation, legal affairs, and military obligations with relative autonomy under central oversight, persisted without alteration during Xerxes II's tenure. This decentralized yet hierarchical system, refined over generations, allowed for operational inertia amid royal transitions. Primary historical accounts, notably ' Persica, document no interruptions in bureaucratic functions, provincial compliance, or fiscal collection over the king's approximately 45-day rule in 424 BCE. Such silence in contemporary narratives, which emphasize court events rather than peripheral , points to seamless to viziers and satraps, preserving the equilibrium established under . In contrast to the factional strife that emerged under , 's interval evinced institutional resilience, with no attested revolts or external pressures challenging administrative efficacy. This underscores the empire's capacity for short-term stability through entrenched protocols and loyal intermediaries.

Death and Succession Crisis

Assassination by

was assassinated by his half-brother , an illegitimate son of and the concubine Alogyne, approximately 45 days after ascending the throne in 424 BC. The murder occurred while was incapacitated by drink in his bedchamber, allowing and his accomplices to strike without resistance. The plot was orchestrated by , who enlisted the aid of the influential Pharnacyas and reportedly Menostanes, both of whom held sway over and facilitated access during his vulnerable state. Motivated by dynastic ambition despite his status as the offspring of a concubine—which barred him from legitimate succession—Sogdianus acted swiftly to exploit the instability immediately following Artaxerxes I's death, aiming to supplant as the designated heir. This fraternal betrayal temporarily disrupted the Achaemenid line of succession, highlighting the precarious nature of royal authority reliant on personal loyalty amid familial rivalries.

Immediate Aftermath and Rise of Darius II

Following the assassination of Xerxes II, his half-brother (also known as Secydianus), son of by the Babylonian concubine Alogyne, proclaimed himself king and ruled for about six months and fifteen days in 424–423 BC. According to the Greek historian , Sogdianus had conspired in Xerxes II's murder with the aid of the Pharnacyas, the Bagorazus, and others, promising them rewards for their loyalty. ' account, preserved in fragments, remains the primary narrative source but is noted for its embellishments and potential biases as a under later kings. Sogdianus' usurpation faced swift opposition from Ochus, another half-brother of Xerxes II and son of by the concubine Cosmartidene, who was then of and had access to regional forces. Ochus, adopting the upon his victory, mobilized an army with support from the (palace guard commander) Arbarios and the Bagorazos, who defected from Sogdianus' camp after promises of high office. captured Sogdianus, had him deposed, and executed him—reportedly by suffocation in ashes to avoid spilling royal blood—along with his chief supporters, thereby securing the throne by late 423 BC. Babylonian astronomical tablets and the Murašû archive corroborate the transitional instability around this period without contradicting the sequence of short reigns. Darius II's rise, backed by military and administrative alliances rather than direct , ended the immediate turmoil following Artaxerxes I's death, allowing continuity in imperial governance. The episode exposed the Achaemenid system's reliance on intrigue and factional loyalty over formal inheritance, yet the empire's vast structure—spanning from the Aegean to the Indus—remained intact without provincial revolts or fragmentation, as maintained satrapal hierarchies and foreign policies akin to his father's.

Historical Sources and Assessment

Ancient Accounts

The principal ancient source for Xerxes II is Ctesias of Cnidus' Persica, a history of Assyria, Media, and Persia composed in the late fifth century BCE, preserved in excerpts by Photius. Ctesias describes Xerxes II as the only legitimate son of and his queen Damaspia, who died on the same day as her husband; he portrays Xerxes as the eldest legitimate heir among Artaxerxes' children, including three legitimate brothers and several illegitimate ones, such as (Secydianus), born to a Babylonian concubine named Alogyne. According to Ctesias, Xerxes reigned for two months before being assassinated through poison administered by a concubine at ' instigation, following a failed plot involving court officials like the Bagorazos and Pharnacyas; then ruled briefly until overthrown by another brother, Ochus (later ). Ctesias, a who served at the Achaemenid court under from circa 404 to 398 BCE, drew on personal observations and oral traditions but is noted for incorporating sensational elements and potential biases favoring later rulers like , whose family connections to the succession he details. Diodorus Siculus, in his (Book 12.71), offers a succinct corroboration derived from or similar sources, stating that after Artaxerxes I's death, reigned one month, followed by for seven months, before Darius (II) ascended; this aligns with the brief interregnum but provides no further narrative. Thucydides, in (4.50), references Artaxerxes I's death in the context of 424 BCE events—timed shortly after a on 3 424 BCE—but omits mention of Xerxes II or the immediate succession, focusing instead on the transition to the "son of Artaxerxes" without specifying intermediates. Babylonian astronomical diaries, cuneiform records of celestial observations and historical notes from Babylonian scribes, corroborate the timeline of Artaxerxes I's death without naming Xerxes II explicitly; they date it to the 40th year, month XI (circa 20 December 424 BCE), followed by a short unspecified interval before the next king's activities, consistent with a reign of approximately 45 days for Xerxes in early 423 BCE as inferred from Greek accounts. These diaries, maintained independently of Persian court politics, provide empirical anchoring for the succession but reflect a peripheral Babylonian viewpoint that prioritizes local impacts over royal nomenclature.

Reliability and Scholarly Debates

The primary narrative source for Xerxes II's brief reign and assassination is , a who served at the Achaemenid court under and authored the Persica, a 23-book history of , , and Persia that survives only in fragments and summaries. ' account details palace intrigues, including Sogdianus' poisoning of Xerxes II after 45 days, but scholars widely regard it as unreliable due to sensationalism, chronological inconsistencies, and a tendency toward ethnographic exaggeration typical of historiographical traditions portraying Persian "decadence" through motifs of eunuchs, women, and conspiracies. As a non-Persian observer with potential incentives to flatter his royal patrons or appeal to audiences hostile to Achaemenid power, likely prioritized dramatic anecdotes over empirical accuracy in internal dynastic matters, though his access to court rumors provided unique details absent elsewhere. Empirical corroboration for dates comes from Babylonian tablets, such as those from , which record Artaxerxes I's death in December 424 BCE without recognizing or as kings, instead showing a seamless transition to by September 423 BCE; these astronomical and administrative records offer high reliability for chronology but silence on motives or events, underscoring ' narrative isolation. Hellenistic sources like and , who drew from Ctesias, amplify these issues by further distilling fragments, introducing additional interpretive layers without independent verification. Scholarly debates center on succession legitimacy, questioning whether Achaemenid custom enforced strict favoring eldest legitimate sons like Xerxes II (born to Damasparia) or permitted opportunistic claims supported by military or familial alliances, as evidenced by the half-, half-Babylonian II's (son of concubine Andia) consolidation of power despite comparable "illegitimacy." Precedents like I's elevation of over older half-brothers due to noble lineage suggest flexible merit-based or maternal-influenced criteria rather than rigid law, challenging ' implication of unassailable entitlement. The absence of contemporary inscriptions or for this turbulent period—unlike earlier kings—forces reliance on texts, prompting modern historians to urge caution against accepting ' specifics on assassination mechanics or conspirator identities without corroboration, viewing them as potentially fabricated to fit tropes of . This evidentiary gap highlights systemic challenges in reconstructing Achaemenid internal history, where sources' cultural biases often eclipse perspectives preserved in non-narrative media like seals or .

References

  1. [1]
    Xerxes II and Sogdianus - Livius.org
    Sep 24, 2020 · On the forty-fifth day of his reign, Xerxes was killed when he was drunk. Sogdianus became king. On hearing the news, another half-brother ...
  2. [2]
    Achaemenid Kings List & Commentary - World History Encyclopedia
    Mar 5, 2020 · Xerxes II (r. 424 BCE) was the son and legitimate heir of Artaxerxes I by his principal wife Damaspia. He ruled for only a little over a month ...Missing: succession | Show results with:succession
  3. [3]
    [PDF] the complete fragments of ctesias of cnidus - ATTALUS
    seems that Ctesias is the main source for Diodorus in 16.3-4 but that he probably supplemented his details of the region with another source, although the ...
  4. [4]
    ARTAXERXES I - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    Artaxerxes' queen was Damaspia (Ctesias F 15), who bore his legal heir and successor, Xerxes. The king had 17 other sons by his concubines.
  5. [5]
    DAMASPIA - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    name of a Persian queen, wife of Artaxerxes I and mother of his legal heir, Xerxes II (424/3 bce). She was named only once by Ctesias.
  6. [6]
    Artaxerxes I Makrocheir - Livius.org
    Aug 10, 2020 · Wife: Damaspia. Son: Xerxes II. Second wife: Alogyne, a Babylonian lady. Son: Sogdianus. Third wife: Andia, another Babylonian lady. Bagopaeus ...Missing: children | Show results with:children
  7. [7]
    Artaxerxes I - World History Encyclopedia
    Mar 3, 2020 · He was married to the queen Damaspia with whom he had one son, his heir Xerxes II (r. 424 BCE), but had many other children through his ...
  8. [8]
    ACHAEMENID DYNASTY - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    Usually the heir was the first-born son, and only by way of exception (cf. Plutarch, Artaxerxes 2.4) the son born first after accession. P. Calmeyer (“Zur ...
  9. [9]
    Artaxerxes I: An Archaeological Biography
    Oct 24, 2024 · Death of Artaxerxes. Artaxerxes reigned for forty years and then died, apparently of natural causes. He was buried in a monumental tomb that ...
  10. [10]
    (PDF) Dating the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes - ResearchGate
    Thus the death of Xerxes has to be dated 24 August 475 BCE. Likewise, the death of Artaxerxes I is fixed precisely by Thucydides (The Peloponnesian War IV:50-52) ...
  11. [11]
    The Date of Death of Artaxerxes I - jstor
    dated in Year 41 of Artaxerxes I down to the winter of 424/23 would seem to indicate that he passed away only about a year later. To recon.
  12. [12]
    https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1081&context=auss
  13. [13]
    Xerxes II, Sogdianus and Darius II - iran & the iranians
    THREE KINGS. Xerxes II, Sogdianus and Darius II. After the 42 or 41 year reign of Artaxerxes I, there were three Great Kings in just over six months.
  14. [14]
    HAREM i. IN ANCIENT IRAN - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    There is no evidence for the practice among the early Iranians of taking large numbers of wives or concubines and keeping them in secluded quarters.
  15. [15]
    Ancient Achaemenid Persian Empire Coinage - Vegas Coin Dealer
    Apr 15, 2022 · ... time he was killed. The assassination of Xerxes II triggered a brief civil war within the Achaemenid Empire. Sogdianus proclaimed himself as ...
  16. [16]
    ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    The satrapies formed a system which made it possible to rule over the whole Achaemenid territory, to raise and forward taxes, to recruit military forces, and ...
  17. [17]
    Jacobs 2023, Administration in the Achaemenid Empire: Old and ...
    The Achaemenid Empire's administration maintained stable, hierarchical units from Cyrus to Alexander. Continuity in administrative responsibilities suggests ...
  18. [18]
    Ctesias of Cnidus - Livius.org
    Apr 28, 2020 · Ctesias of Cnidus: Greek physician who stayed at the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes II Mnemon from 404 to 398/397.<|control11|><|separator|>
  19. [19]
    Darius the Persian: An Archaeological Biography
    Jun 27, 2025 · Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I, although he was not the crown prince. When Artaxerxes I died, he had only one legitimate son, who took the throne name ...
  20. [20]
    DARIUS iv. Darius II - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    15.47-51), Darius II ascended the throne after the short reigns of two of his half-brothers, Xerxes II (425-24) and Sogdianus (or Sekyndianus; 424). In the ...
  21. [21]
    Ctesias, Overview of the works - Livius.org
    Jun 1, 2020 · Ctesias was a Greek physician who stayed at the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes II Mnemon from 404 to 398/397. He wrote several books about Persia and ...
  22. [22]
    Photius' Excerpt of Ctesias' Persica - Livius.org
    Oct 15, 2020 · Ctesias was a Greek physician who stayed at the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes II Mnemon from 404 to 398/397. He wrote several books about Persia and ...
  23. [23]
    CTESIAS - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    As Ctesias was graciously received by Artaxerxes II Mnemon (405/4-359/8 BCE) because of his medical skill, he probably reached Persia after 405. Diodorus ...
  24. [24]
    (PDF) Ctesias' Persica: Persian Decadence in Greek Historiography
    ... Xerxes I's only legitimate son, Xerxes II. He was assaulted while in a state ... II, is the most powerful, lurid and characteristic woman in the Persica.
  25. [25]
    (PDF) Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I, in ...
    ... and Darius II precisely described by all Greek historians. It had to be admitted that the reign of a legitimate king, Xerxes II (425–424), and a – 273 ...
  26. [26]
    https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781575064147-010/html