1640
1640 marked a year of escalating conflicts and regime changes across Europe, most notably the culmination of the Second Bishops' War between England and Scotland, the Portuguese uprising against Spanish rule, and the onset of revolts in Catalonia.[1][2][3] In the British Isles, Scottish Covenanter forces under Alexander Leslie invaded northern England, decisively defeating an English army at the Battle of Newburn Ford on August 28, which compelled King Charles I to negotiate the Treaty of Ripon and dissolve his eleven-year [Personal Rule](/page/Personal Rule) by summoning Parliament.[4][5] The resulting Long Parliament, convened on November 3, initiated profound constitutional challenges to royal authority, including the impeachment of key advisors and the dismantling of policies like ship money.[6] Meanwhile, on December 1 in Portugal, a conspiracy of nobles and clergy overthrew the Spanish viceroy, proclaiming John of Braganza as King John IV and sparking the 28-year Restoration War for independence from the Iberian Union.[7][8] Elsewhere, the Revolt of Catalonia erupted in May against Philip IV of Spain, evolving into a broader separatist movement allied temporarily with France; notable engagements included the Battle of Collado de Balaguer on December 10, where royalist forces under Pedro Fajardo de Zúñiga y Requeséns defeated the Catalan defenders. The year also saw the death of Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens on May 30, whose Baroque masterpieces influenced European painting, and the birth of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I on June 9.[9][10] These events underscored a broader crisis of absolutist governance, setting precedents for revolutionary changes in the decade ahead.[11]Events
January–March
On January 14, Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, died at Durham House in the Strand, London, at age 61, after suffering from kidney stones for several weeks.[12] As Lord Keeper of the Great Seal since 1625, Coventry had overseen judicial enforcement of Charles I's policies, including the 1626-1628 prosecution of puritan figures like Alexander Leighton for seditious libel and the validation of prerogative courts amid fiscal pressures from failed parliaments.[12] His death occurred amid escalating tensions between crown and commons, just prior to the summoning of the Short Parliament, depriving the king of a key legal advisor experienced in navigating royal absolutism against common law constraints.[13] On January 22, Erasmus Quellinus I, a Flemish sculptor and wood carver active in Antwerp, died at about age 60. Quellinus specialized in ornamental carvings for ecclesiastical and civic structures, contributing to the Baroque stylistic shift in the Spanish Netherlands amid economic strains from the Eighty Years' War, which disrupted artisanal patronage networks. His passing reflected broader vulnerabilities in specialized trades, where guild dependencies and intermittent conflict reduced commissions for non-essential decorative work.April–June
The Short Parliament convened on April 13, 1640, at Westminster, summoned by King Charles I after an eleven-year interval since the previous assembly in 1629, during his period of personal rule without parliamentary consent.[14] The primary impetus was to raise revenues through taxation to finance military efforts in the Second Bishops' War against Scottish Covenanters, who had invaded northern England following prior defeats.[15] Elections had occurred between early March and April 6, drawing a Commons skeptical of royal policies, including arbitrary levies like Ship Money and perceived ecclesiastical innovations favoring Arminianism over Calvinist orthodoxy. Debates quickly shifted from supply to reform, with Puritan-leaning members, led by figures like John Pym, demanding redress of grievances such as the abolition of Ship Money, episcopal abuses, and the king's alliances with Catholic powers, reflecting broader tensions over sovereignty, religion, and finance rooted in Charles's fiscal expedients and failed Scottish campaigns.[16] Charles, advised by Strafford and Laud, sought immediate subsidies without concessions, but the Commons conditioned aid on constitutional changes, stalling proceedings amid acrimonious exchanges.[17] Unable to secure funds—estimated needs exceeding £800,000 for army arrears and ongoing hostilities—Charles prorogued the session on May 5 and dissolved Parliament three weeks later, the shortest since the Model Parliament of 1295.[14] This dissolution exacerbated England's financial straits, with Scottish forces occupying Northumberland and demanding £850 weekly indemnity, forcing reliance on dubious loans and exposing the unsustainability of absolutist governance without parliamentary cooperation.[18] The episode underscored causal pressures from war expenditures and resistance to perceived tyranny, precipitating the recall of Parliament in November as the Long Parliament.[19]On May 30, Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens succumbed to complications from chronic gout and heart failure in Antwerp, at age 62, leaving an estate inventoried with over 1,000 drawings, paintings, and diplomatic artifacts amid the Spanish Netherlands' relative prosperity under Habsburg rule.[20] His death marked the close of a prolific era in Counter-Reformation art, though not tied to contemporaneous English political upheavals.[21]
July–September
Henry Casimir I (born 18 January 1615), Count of Nassau-Dietz and stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe, succumbed to wounds received during a military engagement against Spanish forces near Hulst on 12 July.[22] The 25-year-old nobleman, a key commander in the United Provinces' ongoing Eighty Years' War against Habsburg Spain—a conflict intertwined with the broader Thirty Years' War—died the following day in Leeuwarden, exemplifying the direct human cost of prolonged European hostilities.[23] His untimely death amid active campaigning underscored the vulnerabilities faced by military leaders in the era's attritional warfare, where battlefield injuries often proved fatal without advanced medical intervention. No other prominent noble or clerical figures with verified ties to war-related privations, such as famine or epidemic outbreaks exacerbated by the Thirty Years' War, are recorded as perishing in this quarter.October–December
On October 26, the Truce of Ripon was agreed upon between English royal forces and the Scottish Covenanters, effectively halting hostilities in the Second Bishops' War after Scottish advances into northern England earlier in the year.[24] This temporary armistice required King Charles I to cover the maintenance costs of the Scottish army stationed in England, totaling £850 per day, while negotiations for a formal treaty continued.[25] The truce underscored the financial strain on the English crown and paved the way for parliamentary concessions to address the king's revenue shortages. The Long Parliament convened on November 3 in Westminster, summoned by Charles I primarily to approve taxes for upholding the truce and disbanding the Scottish army.[25] Unlike previous short-lived assemblies, this parliament was not prorogued and immediately challenged royal prerogatives, including the arrest of royal officials like Archbishop William Laud and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford.[25] The session marked a pivotal shift toward parliamentary dominance, with members leveraging the king's fiscal desperation to enact reforms such as the Triennial Act, limiting royal dissolution powers. In Portugal, a conspiracy culminated on December 1—known as the day of the Restoration of Independence—with the overthrow of Spanish Habsburg rule, restoring national independence after 60 years of union under the Philippine dynasty.[26] Conspirators stormed the Lisbon palace, assassinating Secretary of State Miguel de Vasconcelos and imprisoning Duchess Margaret of Savoy, the vicereine; the Duke of Braganza was then proclaimed King John IV amid widespread popular support.[27] This revolution initiated the Portuguese Restoration War, as Spanish forces were expelled from key garrisons, though full independence required subsequent military campaigns until 1668.[28] The events reflected accumulated grievances over taxation, neglect, and favoritism toward Spanish interests during the union.Date unknown
Gérard Audran (1640–1703), French engraver and member of the Audran family of artists, produced reproductive engravings after masters such as Raphael and Rubens, establishing a reputation for technical precision in line work and shading.[29] Working primarily in Paris after training under his father Claude Audran and uncle, he contributed to the dissemination of Baroque imagery through prints that served educational and decorative purposes across Europe.[30] His output included historical and mythological subjects, influencing subsequent generations of printmakers by prioritizing clarity and fidelity to original compositions.[31] Jean Bérain the Elder (1640–1711), French designer, engraver, and painter, held the position of dessinateur de la Chambre et du Cabinet du Roi under Louis XIV, creating intricate ornamental motifs known as the Berainesque style. Born in Saint-Mihiel, he specialized in decorative arts for Versailles, including grotesques, arabesques, and theatrical scenery that blended classical elements with fantastical invention, shaping French goût national in furniture, textiles, and architecture. His engraved publications, such as Ornements inventés par I. Bérain, provided templates for artisans, ensuring widespread adoption of his lightweight, rhythmic patterns during the late Baroque period.Births
January–March
On January 14, Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, died at Durham House in the Strand, London, at age 61, after suffering from kidney stones for several weeks.[12] As Lord Keeper of the Great Seal since 1625, Coventry had overseen judicial enforcement of Charles I's policies, including the 1626-1628 prosecution of puritan figures like Alexander Leighton for seditious libel and the validation of prerogative courts amid fiscal pressures from failed parliaments.[12] His death occurred amid escalating tensions between crown and commons, just prior to the summoning of the Short Parliament, depriving the king of a key legal advisor experienced in navigating royal absolutism against common law constraints.[13] On January 22, Erasmus Quellinus I, a Flemish sculptor and wood carver active in Antwerp, died at about age 60. Quellinus specialized in ornamental carvings for ecclesiastical and civic structures, contributing to the Baroque stylistic shift in the Spanish Netherlands amid economic strains from the Eighty Years' War, which disrupted artisanal patronage networks. His passing reflected broader vulnerabilities in specialized trades, where guild dependencies and intermittent conflict reduced commissions for non-essential decorative work.April–June
The Short Parliament convened on April 13, 1640, at Westminster, summoned by King Charles I after an eleven-year interval since the previous assembly in 1629, during his period of personal rule without parliamentary consent.[14] The primary impetus was to raise revenues through taxation to finance military efforts in the Second Bishops' War against Scottish Covenanters, who had invaded northern England following prior defeats.[15] Elections had occurred between early March and April 6, drawing a Commons skeptical of royal policies, including arbitrary levies like Ship Money and perceived ecclesiastical innovations favoring Arminianism over Calvinist orthodoxy. Debates quickly shifted from supply to reform, with Puritan-leaning members, led by figures like John Pym, demanding redress of grievances such as the abolition of Ship Money, episcopal abuses, and the king's alliances with Catholic powers, reflecting broader tensions over sovereignty, religion, and finance rooted in Charles's fiscal expedients and failed Scottish campaigns.[16] Charles, advised by Strafford and Laud, sought immediate subsidies without concessions, but the Commons conditioned aid on constitutional changes, stalling proceedings amid acrimonious exchanges.[17] Unable to secure funds—estimated needs exceeding £800,000 for army arrears and ongoing hostilities—Charles prorogued the session on May 5 and dissolved Parliament three weeks later, the shortest since the Model Parliament of 1295.[14] This dissolution exacerbated England's financial straits, with Scottish forces occupying Northumberland and demanding £850 weekly indemnity, forcing reliance on dubious loans and exposing the unsustainability of absolutist governance without parliamentary cooperation.[18] The episode underscored causal pressures from war expenditures and resistance to perceived tyranny, precipitating the recall of Parliament in November as the Long Parliament.[19]On May 30, Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens succumbed to complications from chronic gout and heart failure in Antwerp, at age 62, leaving an estate inventoried with over 1,000 drawings, paintings, and diplomatic artifacts amid the Spanish Netherlands' relative prosperity under Habsburg rule.[20] His death marked the close of a prolific era in Counter-Reformation art, though not tied to contemporaneous English political upheavals.[21]
July–September
Henry Casimir I (born 18 January 1615), Count of Nassau-Dietz and stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe, succumbed to wounds received during a military engagement against Spanish forces near Hulst on 12 July.[22] The 25-year-old nobleman, a key commander in the United Provinces' ongoing Eighty Years' War against Habsburg Spain—a conflict intertwined with the broader Thirty Years' War—died the following day in Leeuwarden, exemplifying the direct human cost of prolonged European hostilities.[23] His untimely death amid active campaigning underscored the vulnerabilities faced by military leaders in the era's attritional warfare, where battlefield injuries often proved fatal without advanced medical intervention. No other prominent noble or clerical figures with verified ties to war-related privations, such as famine or epidemic outbreaks exacerbated by the Thirty Years' War, are recorded as perishing in this quarter.October–December
On October 26, the Truce of Ripon was agreed upon between English royal forces and the Scottish Covenanters, effectively halting hostilities in the Second Bishops' War after Scottish advances into northern England earlier in the year.[24] This temporary armistice required King Charles I to cover the maintenance costs of the Scottish army stationed in England, totaling £850 per day, while negotiations for a formal treaty continued.[25] The truce underscored the financial strain on the English crown and paved the way for parliamentary concessions to address the king's revenue shortages. The Long Parliament convened on November 3 in Westminster, summoned by Charles I primarily to approve taxes for upholding the truce and disbanding the Scottish army.[25] Unlike previous short-lived assemblies, this parliament was not prorogued and immediately challenged royal prerogatives, including the arrest of royal officials like Archbishop William Laud and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford.[25] The session marked a pivotal shift toward parliamentary dominance, with members leveraging the king's fiscal desperation to enact reforms such as the Triennial Act, limiting royal dissolution powers. In Portugal, a conspiracy culminated on December 1 with the overthrow of Spanish Habsburg rule, restoring national independence after 60 years of union under the Philippine dynasty.[26] Conspirators stormed the Lisbon palace, assassinating Secretary of State Miguel de Vasconcelos and imprisoning Duchess Margaret of Savoy, the vicereine; the Duke of Braganza was then proclaimed King John IV amid widespread popular support.[27] This revolution initiated the Portuguese Restoration War, as Spanish forces were expelled from key garrisons, though full independence required subsequent military campaigns until 1668.[28] The events reflected accumulated grievances over taxation, neglect, and favoritism toward Spanish interests during the union.Date unknown
Gérard Audran (1640–1703), French engraver and member of the Audran family of artists, produced reproductive engravings after masters such as Raphael and Rubens, establishing a reputation for technical precision in line work and shading.[29] Working primarily in Paris after training under his father Claude Audran and uncle, he contributed to the dissemination of Baroque imagery through prints that served educational and decorative purposes across Europe.[30] His output included historical and mythological subjects, influencing subsequent generations of printmakers by prioritizing clarity and fidelity to original compositions.[31] Jean Bérain the Elder (1640–1711), French designer, engraver, and painter, held the position of dessinateur de la Chambre et du Cabinet du Roi under Louis XIV, creating intricate ornamental motifs known as the Berainesque style. Born in Saint-Mihiel, he specialized in decorative arts for Versailles, including grotesques, arabesques, and theatrical scenery that blended classical elements with fantastical invention, shaping French goût national in furniture, textiles, and architecture. His engraved publications, such as Ornements inventés par I. Bérain, provided templates for artisans, ensuring widespread adoption of his lightweight, rhythmic patterns during the late Baroque period.Deaths
January–March
On January 14, Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, died at Durham House in the Strand, London, at age 61, after suffering from kidney stones for several weeks.[12] As Lord Keeper of the Great Seal since 1625, Coventry had overseen judicial enforcement of Charles I's policies, including the 1626-1628 prosecution of puritan figures like Alexander Leighton for seditious libel and the validation of prerogative courts amid fiscal pressures from failed parliaments.[12] His death occurred amid escalating tensions between crown and commons, just prior to the summoning of the Short Parliament, depriving the king of a key legal advisor experienced in navigating royal absolutism against common law constraints.[13] On January 22, Erasmus Quellinus I, a Flemish sculptor and wood carver active in Antwerp, died at about age 60. Quellinus specialized in ornamental carvings for ecclesiastical and civic structures, contributing to the Baroque stylistic shift in the Spanish Netherlands amid economic strains from the Eighty Years' War, which disrupted artisanal patronage networks. His passing reflected broader vulnerabilities in specialized trades, where guild dependencies and intermittent conflict reduced commissions for non-essential decorative work.April–June
The Short Parliament convened on April 13, 1640, at Westminster, summoned by King Charles I after an eleven-year interval since the previous assembly in 1629, during his period of personal rule without parliamentary consent.[14] The primary impetus was to raise revenues through taxation to finance military efforts in the Second Bishops' War against Scottish Covenanters, who had invaded northern England following prior defeats.[15] Elections had occurred between early March and April 6, drawing a Commons skeptical of royal policies, including arbitrary levies like Ship Money and perceived ecclesiastical innovations favoring Arminianism over Calvinist orthodoxy. Debates quickly shifted from supply to reform, with Puritan-leaning members, led by figures like John Pym, demanding redress of grievances such as the abolition of Ship Money, episcopal abuses, and the king's alliances with Catholic powers, reflecting broader tensions over sovereignty, religion, and finance rooted in Charles's fiscal expedients and failed Scottish campaigns.[16] Charles, advised by Strafford and Laud, sought immediate subsidies without concessions, but the Commons conditioned aid on constitutional changes, stalling proceedings amid acrimonious exchanges.[17] Unable to secure funds—estimated needs exceeding £800,000 for army arrears and ongoing hostilities—Charles prorogued the session on May 5 and dissolved Parliament three weeks later, the shortest since the Model Parliament of 1295.[14] This dissolution exacerbated England's financial straits, with Scottish forces occupying Northumberland and demanding £850 weekly indemnity, forcing reliance on dubious loans and exposing the unsustainability of absolutist governance without parliamentary cooperation.[18] The episode underscored causal pressures from war expenditures and resistance to perceived tyranny, precipitating the recall of Parliament in November as the Long Parliament.[19]On May 30, Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens succumbed to complications from chronic gout and heart failure in Antwerp, at age 62, leaving an estate inventoried with over 1,000 drawings, paintings, and diplomatic artifacts amid the Spanish Netherlands' relative prosperity under Habsburg rule.[20] His death marked the close of a prolific era in Counter-Reformation art, though not tied to contemporaneous English political upheavals.[21]