168

168 is the natural number following 167 and preceding 169.^[1] It is an even composite number composed of the prime factors $2^3 \times 3 \times [7](/page/3), with a total of 16 positive divisors including 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 21, 24, 28, 42, 56, 84, and itself; the sum of these divisors is 480, exceeding twice the number and thus classifying 168 as abundant.^[2]^[1]^[3] Notable for equaling the hours in a week ($7 \times 24), it also holds cultural significance in Chinese numerology as a symbol of good fortune, its Cantonese pronunciation approximating "yīlù fā," interpreted as "may you prosper all the way" or "fortune throughout the journey."^[4]^[5]

Events

Roman Empire

In 168, the Roman Empire, co-ruled by emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, faced escalating threats from Germanic tribes including the Marcomanni and Quadi, who had crossed the Danube River starting in 166, prompting a major imperial response. In spring of that year, the emperors departed Rome to inspect the Danube frontier and establish military headquarters, including the fortress of Legio V Macedonica at Potaissa (modern Turda, Romania) around AD 168, initiating active Roman counteroffensives that would define the Marcomannic Wars (c. 166–180).^[6] In October 2025, archaeologists unearthed a unique bronze box depicting a Roman temple in the canabae of this legion's fortress, providing new insights into Roman military life during this period.^[7] These invasions involved coordinated raids deep into Roman territories, such as Pannonia and Noricum, straining legions already depleted by prior eastern campaigns.^[8] The Antonine Plague, a smallpox-like epidemic introduced via returning Parthian War troops in 165, peaked during 166–168, exacerbating the military crisis by causing high mortality among soldiers and civilians alike. By winter 168, the plague afflicted the imperial party at Aquileia near the Italian frontier, delaying the planned advance into enemy territory and forcing Marcus Aurelius to winter there while coordinating reinforcements.^[9]^[10] Physician Galen, accompanying the court, documented symptoms including fever, rash, and diarrhea, estimating daily deaths in affected areas at thousands, though exact empire-wide figures remain uncertain due to limited records.^[11] These dual pressures—barbarian incursions and pandemic—marked a shift from the relative stability of the early Antonine dynasty, compelling Marcus Aurelius to adopt a more hands-on command role, as evidenced by his philosophical reflections on duty amid hardship composed during this period. Roman forces, bolstered by auxiliaries and new levies, began fortifying the limes along the Danube, but logistical challenges from plague-induced manpower shortages hindered decisive victories in 168.^[12]

Asia

In the Eastern Han dynasty of China, Emperor Huan died in January 168, ending his 22-year reign marked by increasing eunuch dominance and fiscal strain from military campaigns.^[13] His death prompted the accession of his 12-year-old cousin Liu Hong as Emperor Ling later that year, under the regency of Dou Wu and Chen Fan, who sought to dismantle the eunuch network that had accumulated vast influence through corruption and palace intrigue.^[14] The regents' conspiracy to arrest and execute leading eunuchs, including Cao Jie and Wang Fu, was betrayed by insiders, resulting in the suicide or execution of Dou Wu and Chen Fan, and the subsequent purge of their allies, thereby entrenching eunuch control over imperial decisions.^[15]^[16] This power shift exacerbated court factionalism, contributing to the dynasty's long-term instability amid ongoing border conflicts with nomadic groups like the Qiang and Xiongnu.^[15] No major recorded upheavals occurred in South or Central Asia that year; the Kushan Empire under Kanishka I maintained its expansive rule over northern India and Afghanistan without noted disruptions, while Parthian Persia under Vologases IV focused on internal consolidation following recent Roman incursions.^[17]

Other Regions

In the Parthian Empire, which spanned modern-day Iran, Iraq, and surrounding areas, Vologases IV continued his reign (c. 147–191), issuing coinage from Seleucia on the Tigris in year 480 of the Seleucid era, equivalent to 168 AD, reflecting administrative stability after the Romano-Parthian War of 161–166.^[18] This period marked a phase of recovery for Parthia, with no major internal revolts or external invasions documented for that specific year, though the empire maintained its decentralized feudal structure under Arsacid rule.^[19] Further afield in Africa, the Meroitic Kingdom of Kush, centered at Meroë along the middle Nile, persisted in its classical phase (c. 300 BC–350 AD), characterized by iron production, trade with Mediterranean powers, and pyramid construction, but surviving inscriptions and archaeological evidence yield no discrete events tied precisely to 168 AD.^[20] Similarly, the emerging Kingdom of Aksum in the Horn of Africa was developing trade networks with the Roman world and Arabia during the 2nd century AD, yet epigraphic and material records from this era do not highlight specific occurrences in 168.^[21] In the Americas, contemporaneous cultures such as the early Maya city-states in Mesoamerica and mound-building societies in North America (e.g., Hopewell tradition) exhibited ongoing ritual and agricultural developments, but the absence of written records or calendrical alignments verifiable to 168 AD limits attribution of precise events, with archaeological chronologies relying on radiocarbon dating that brackets broader phases rather than individual years. Overall, global historical documentation for 168 outside the Roman and East Asian spheres remains fragmentary, underscoring the Eurocentric bias in surviving ancient texts toward imperial centers with literate bureaucracies.

Births

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Deaths

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168