Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Caleb Strong


Caleb Strong (January 9, 1745 – November 7, 1819) was an American lawyer, statesman, and political leader from , who played a prominent role in the early republic as a delegate to the , a member of the state senate, and a participant in the 1787 Federal Convention in . He served as one of Massachusetts's inaugural Senators from 1789 to 1796, contributing to the establishment of federal institutions during the nation's formative years. Strong's political career extended into state leadership as the sixth and tenth , holding office from 1800 to 1807 and again from 1812 to 1816, periods marked by his advocacy for principles amid rising partisan tensions. During his second term, coinciding with the , he vocally opposed the conflict as unconstitutional, refused to mobilize the state militia for federal service, and engaged in discreet communications with representatives to explore peaceful resolutions, reflecting his commitment to state sovereignty and fiscal restraint. A Harvard graduate who practiced law after admission to the bar in 1772, Strong's tenure exemplified principled conservatism in governance, prioritizing empirical assessment of national policies over expansive federal authority.

Early Life and Legal Career

Birth, Education, and Professional Beginnings

Caleb Strong was born on January 9, 1745, in , to Lieutenant Caleb Strong, a local merchant and officer, and Phebe Lyman Strong. He was the couple's only son among several children, descending from early Puritan settlers including Elder John Strong, who arrived in in 1630. Strong received his early education from private tutors before entering , from which he graduated in 1764. In his early twenties, he contracted , which severely impaired his eyesight and left him unable to read printed texts independently for the rest of his life. Strong studied law under the tutelage of prominent Northampton attorney Joseph Hawley, compensating for his vision loss by having family members read legal texts aloud to him. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1772 and established a successful private practice in , where he built a reputation for eloquence and legal acumen despite his physical limitations.

Revolutionary Period Involvement

State Legislative Service and Support for Independence

Caleb Strong was elected as a delegate from to the in 1774, the extralegal body that coordinated colonial resistance to British authority following the . In this role, Strong participated in deliberations that authorized the formation of minuteman companies, the seizure of military stores, and the establishment of a committee of safety to oversee provincial defenses, actions that directly challenged royal governance and laid groundwork for armed rebellion. His involvement reflected early commitment to colonial autonomy amid escalating tensions after the . Throughout the , Strong served on Northampton's Committee of Safety—also known as the Committee of Correspondence and Safety—from 1774 until the conflict's resolution, a local body responsible for enforcing non-importation agreements, gathering intelligence on Loyalist activities, and mobilizing resources for the Continental Army. In 1775, he additionally sat on the town's broader Committee of Safety and Correspondence, handling sensitive communications, including confidential dispatches from , where he provided counsel on military and civil preparedness. These positions underscored his active support for , as the committees propagated patriot resolutions, suppressed Tory sentiments, and facilitated the transition from petitioning the Crown to outright separation, earning him recognition as a "promising Son of " for his prudent yet firm advocacy. In May 1776, amid the Continental Congress's push toward formal independence, deputized Strong to the Provincial , functioning as an interim legislature that endorsed the Declaration of Independence upon its adoption and began framing a state constitution. Later that year, he was elected to the in the newly organized , serving from 1776 to 1778 while concurrently acting as Hampshire County attorney, a post he held for over two decades. In the legislature, Strong contributed to wartime measures, including supply requisitions and legal frameworks for state governance under the new republican order, demonstrating sustained alignment with the revolutionary cause despite declining military service due to health limitations. His legislative efforts prioritized practical civil support for the effort, emphasizing fiscal stability and judicial continuity amid disruption.

Role in Nation-Building

Philadelphia Constitutional Convention

Caleb Strong served as a delegate from Massachusetts to the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention, which convened from May 25 to September 17, 1787, to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Elected alongside Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham, and Rufus King, Strong arrived in Philadelphia on May 28, shortly after the convention's opening, and participated actively in early deliberations. Favoring a robust national government, he aligned with Federalist principles, advocating for structural reforms to enhance federal authority. During the sessions, Strong contributed to debates on legislative powers, notably proposing and securing adoption of a motion on June 8, 1787, granting the exclusive authority to originate bills, a provision retained in Article I, Section 7 of the final . No recorded speeches by Strong appear in the convention's notes compiled by , indicating a preference for work and strategic interventions over floor . He remained present as late as August 15 but departed before August 27 due to a illness, preventing his attendance at the convention's conclusion. Consequently, Strong did not affix his signature to the completed on September 17, 1787, alongside the 39 delegates who did; only Gorham and King signed for . His limited tenure—spanning roughly from late May to mid-August—nonetheless reflected ' pro-ratification stance, informed by Strong's prior service in state constitutional drafting.

Massachusetts Ratification and Federalist Advocacy

Caleb Strong was elected as a delegate to the ratifying convention from Hampshire County, representing , where he practiced law. The convention assembled on January 9, 1788, in with 364 delegates tasked with debating the proposed U.S. Constitution drafted in the previous year. faced deep divisions, with s favoring a stronger national government clustered in eastern commercial areas, while , dominant in rural western regions, feared centralized power would erode state sovereignty and individual liberties. Strong emerged as a leading voice in the , providing crucial arguments in defense of the despite initial skepticism from some rural delegates. He joined figures like , , Fisher Ames, and Theophilus Parsons in countering Anti-Federalist critiques, particularly on provisions for congressional elections and the judiciary, emphasizing that the document's structure would prevent state refusals to participate in national governance. His advocacy focused on the necessity of a robust to address weaknesses under the , such as interstate commerce disputes and foreign threats, drawing from his prior experience as a delegate where he witnessed federal impotence. Amid prolonged debates, Federalists, including Strong, supported a strategic compromise recommending amendments to address Bill of Rights concerns, which swayed enough wavering delegates to secure ratification. On February 6, 1788, the convention approved the by a narrow margin of 187 to 168, making the sixth state to ratify and enabling the formation of the new government. Strong's efforts helped bridge regional divides, as his roots lent credibility in persuading agrarian skeptics toward . Beyond the convention, Strong's advocacy extended to public campaigning and legal circles, reinforcing support for the in Hampshire County and contributing to the party's dominance in early politics. His commitment to federal principles aligned with broader elite interests in stability and , though critics later noted Federalist overreach in suppressing dissent. This phase solidified Strong's reputation as a key architect of ' entry into the , paving his path to U.S. service.

U.S. Senate Service

First Term (1789–1796)

Caleb Strong was elected by the to the on November 26, 1788, as one of the state's inaugural representatives under the newly ratified , and he took his seat when the Senate convened on March 4, 1789. As a committed , Strong aligned with efforts to strengthen the federal government during the First Congress, participating in the establishment of legislative precedents and supporting measures to implement the Constitution's framework. Strong played a prominent role in shaping the federal judiciary through the , collaborating with senators such as and William Paterson to draft provisions that organized the court system, including the creation of and courts, the office of , and the Court's structure. The act, signed into law by President on September 24, 1789, addressed gaps in the by defining federal judicial authority and ensuring a balanced of courts, reflecting Strong's advocacy for a robust national judiciary independent of state influences. Throughout his term, Strong backed Alexander Hamilton's financial initiatives, including the funding of the national debt, the establishment of the First Bank of the in 1791, and assumption of state debts, viewing them as essential for fiscal stability and federal creditworthiness. He served on multiple committees, contributing to early Senate operations such as rules formulation and deliberations, where his attendance and input ranked him among active members in the nascent Foreign Relations efforts. Reelected in 1793, Strong continued to defend priorities, including the controversial in 1795, which aimed to resolve lingering British trade and boundary disputes despite opposition from agrarian interests. Strong resigned from the on June 1, 1796, citing deteriorating health that necessitated his return to private life in , after seven years of service marked by consistent advocacy for centralized authority and economic measures. His departure created a vacancy filled by , reflecting the era's reliance on state legislatures for senatorial appointments.

Second Term (1800–1807)

Strong was elected by the to serve a six-year term in the United States commencing March 4, 1800, representing the . On May 30, 1800, following his victory over in the gubernatorial election of April 7, 1800, he was inaugurated as the sixth , thereby holding both the federal and state executive-branch-equivalent positions concurrently—a practice permissible under contemporary constitutional norms lacking explicit prohibitions against such dual service. This arrangement persisted through his annual re-elections as , with Strong prioritizing state duties while fulfilling obligations until his from the upper chamber on March 3, 1807, at the conclusion of the Ninth Congress. In the Senate, where Federalists constituted a minority amid the Democratic-Republican dominance following the 1800 presidential election, Strong advocated positions aligned with his party's emphasis on strong national institutions, , and commercial interests. He chaired the Committee on Engrossed Bills during the Eighth Congress (1803–1805), overseeing the review and certification of legislative documents to ensure procedural accuracy. As a moderate , Strong opposed administration efforts to repeal the , which had expanded federal courts and appointed judges, viewing such moves as partisan assaults on judicial stability rather than mere efficiency reforms. Notably, Strong supported ratification of the treaty in October 1803, diverging from strict-constructionist critiques of its constitutionality while recognizing its strategic value in securing western expansion and neutralizing influence in . This stance reflected pragmatic priorities for territorial growth over ideological purity, though it drew internal party criticism amid broader opposition to Jefferson's initiatives, including the Embargo Act debates emerging toward the end of his term. His record underscored a commitment to federal authority tempered by commercial concerns, contributing to resistance against perceived executive overreach.

Governorship of Massachusetts

First Term (1800–1804): Domestic Reforms and Policies

During his first term, Strong's administration prioritized judicial and penal reforms to modernize ' legal framework. The authorized the purchase of land and initial planning for a centralized state prison in Charlestown in 1804, laying the groundwork for a system focused on incarceration and potential over fragmented local jails; the facility opened the following year under continued oversight from his governorship. This reform addressed overcrowding and inconsistent punishment practices prevalent since the colonial era. Reorganization of the court system enhanced administrative efficiency, with the General Court adjusting the composition of the Supreme Judicial Court—increasing the number of associate justices to seven in 1800 to manage rising caseloads from economic and . Concurrently, limits on were enacted, narrowing the scope of death-eligible offenses amid Enlightenment-influenced debates on proportionality and deterrence, though executions for serious crimes like persisted. These measures reflected Strong's commitment to orderly governance and restrained state intervention, avoiding radical expansions in spending or authority while countering critiques of in legal institutions. No major fiscal overhauls or initiatives marked the period, as Strong emphasized balanced budgets amid post-Revolutionary recovery.

Second Term (1812–1816): State Governance Amid National Conflict

Strong was elected on April 6, 1812, defeating incumbent in a contest reflecting widespread discontent with the recently declared War of 1812. The victory marked a shift from dominance, as voters and legislators, predominantly , prioritized state interests amid federal policies perceived as harmful to commerce and sovereignty. Strong's administration emphasized internal stability and self-reliant defense, securing his annual re-elections through 1815 despite national wartime pressures. Central to state governance was Strong's assertion of authority over the Massachusetts , rejecting federal calls for its deployment without explicit state legislative approval or command retention. In August 1812, he authorized limited militia detachments to northern frontiers against incursions, but declined broader federal requisitions, including orders to reinforce eastern defenses, citing constitutional limits on compelling forces into distant service. This stance preserved militia cohesion for local protection, as Strong reformed its structure to enhance readiness, including organizational improvements and coastal fortifications like the rededication of Fort Independence (formerly Castle William). Amid naval blockades disrupting trade—reducing exports by over 80% from pre-war levels—Strong's policies focused on mitigating economic distress through -level measures, such as advocating legislative funding for harbor defenses and privateers while avoiding direct federal entanglement. In his October 16, 1812, address to the , he urged vigilance against invasion threats without endorsing the , prioritizing domestic order and resource allocation for vulnerable coastal regions. By 1814, as raids intensified on towns like Castine and Machias, Strong coordinated responses, including mobilizations funded by the , underscoring a governance model of constitutional restraint and regional . These actions sustained public support in a divided , where majorities in the backed his resistance to perceived overreach from . Strong declined to retire federal debts or loans for war financing, instead directing state resources toward and relief for war-affected commerce, reflecting a of fiscal amid national conflict. His term concluded in 1816 without seeking re-election, leaving a legacy of governance that shielded from federal impositions while navigating existential threats from British forces.

Stance on the War of 1812 and Federalist Resistance

Refusal to Commit Militia and Economic Protections

During his second term as , Caleb Strong refused requests to federalize the militia for offensive operations in the , citing constitutional limitations on presidential authority over state forces. On August 5, 1812, shortly after the U.S. , Strong declined to commit state to the national , arguing that the state vested exclusive in the and that requisitions for out-of-state service required explicit congressional approval under I, Section 8 of the U.S. . He withstood pressure from Secretary of War John Armstrong to place militia under U.S. Army command for proposed invasions of , maintaining that such actions exceeded powers without invasion threats to itself. Strong also rejected orders to deploy troops to defend the District of (then part of ) against British incursions, prioritizing state sovereignty over directives amid political opposition to the war. To safeguard Massachusetts' commerce-dependent economy from British blockades and federal trade restrictions, Strong pursued independent diplomatic channels with British officials. In 1814, he dispatched emissaries to negotiate with Lieutenant Governor Sir John Coape Sherbrooke of Nova Scotia, seeking assurances for the protection of New England shipping and exploring possibilities for a regional armistice or separate peace to alleviate economic distress in seaports like Boston and Salem. These overtures reflected Federalist concerns over the war's devastation to maritime trade, which had already prompted the state legislature to convene special sessions amid widespread antiwar sentiment and reports of commercial ruin. The Massachusetts General Court, under Strong's influence, authorized state-funded equipping of defensive vessels and militia detachments for coastal protection, circumventing federal embargoes that exacerbated local hardships without providing adequate safeguards. Strong's stance, while criticized by war supporters as obstructive, was defended by Federalists as a defense of enumerated powers and economic self-preservation against a conflict they viewed as avoidable and mismanaged.

Participation in the Hartford Convention

Governor Caleb Strong played a pivotal role in Massachusetts' engagement with the Hartford Convention, a gathering of Federalists convened to address regional grievances amid the , including ineffective federal defense against British invasions, economic devastation from trade restrictions, and perceived favoritism toward southern interests in national policy. In October 1814, facing British occupation of parts of eastern and naval blockades crippling commerce, Strong summoned a of the , which on October 18 adopted resolutions appointing 12 delegates to confer with other New England states on remedial measures. Strong, as governor, formally commissioned these delegates, including prominent Federalists such as George Cabot and Harrison Gray Otis, enabling Massachusetts' substantial representation at the convention held from December 15, 1814, to January 5, 1815, in . The convention's proceedings, conducted in secrecy, culminated in a report advocating seven constitutional amendments to curb executive war powers—such as requiring a two-thirds vote in for declarations of or embargoes lasting over 60 days—and to limit successive presidencies from the same state, reflecting concerns over Democratic-Republican dominance under . Strong endorsed this report upon its submission to the legislature in early 1815, praising its focus on restoring constitutional balance without endorsing disunion, which aligned with his moderate stance that helped temper more radical secessionist sentiments among some delegates. His support underscored ' prioritization of state sovereignty, as evidenced by prior refusals to federalize the without gubernatorial consent, a position the convention implicitly reinforced by protesting unauthorized militia deployments. Contemporaneously, Strong engaged in discreet , writing in November 1814 to Lieutenant-Governor Sir John Sherbrooke in with overtures hinting at potential arrangements or alliances to protect interests, actions that complemented the convention's aim to mitigate war's disproportionate impact on the region. These efforts, though unfruitful amid the timely ratification of the on February 17, 1815, and Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans, highlighted Strong's pragmatic resistance to federal policies he viewed as causally exacerbating 's vulnerabilities without adequate redress. The convention's outcomes, bolstered by Strong's endorsement, contributed to the Federalist Party's national decline, as critics portrayed it as treasonous amid news of peace, yet it reflected legitimate empirical grievances rooted in the war's uneven burdens. ![Sir John Sherbrooke, recipient of Strong's confidential overtures][float-right]

Political Philosophy and Assessments

Core Federalist Principles

Caleb Strong adhered to core tenets emphasizing a vigorous national government empowered to regulate commerce, adjudicate disputes, and safeguard the union against internal disorder and external threats. At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, he championed in the to align legislative power with population size, while endorsing the for equal state suffrage in the , thereby forging a balanced framework that preserved small states' influence without paralyzing . These positions underscored his conviction that a confederation of sovereign states required consolidation under a supreme national authority to remedy the weaknesses exposed by events like , which he had opposed as a defending interests. As a U.S. Senator from 1789 to 1796, Strong advanced priorities by co-shaping the , which instituted a hierarchical federal court system to enforce uniform laws and check state encroachments, reflecting his faith in an independent judiciary as a bulwark against factionalism and arbitrary rule. He supported the First Bank of the , viewing it as instrumental to fiscal order, credit stability, and economic cohesion across state lines, in line with principles of centralized financial machinery. Strong also backed the of 1794, prioritizing commercial reciprocity with Britain over partisan rancor, to avert war and bolster national prosperity. Strong's , however, incorporated a moderated respect for state prerogatives, particularly in organization and local governance, where he resisted federal overreach that might undermine republican self-defense. During the , he refused to place s under federal command for offensive operations, citing constitutional limits on national authority and the primacy of state-directed coastal protections against invasion. This stance, while clashing with wartime centralization, aligned with his broader view of as a pragmatic equilibrium, rejecting both unchecked nationalism and disunionist extremes; he deemed the a , not a revocable compact, and counseled against amid grievances. His moderation extended to cultural ideals, promoting education, religious morality, and temperance as foundations for essential to sustaining .

Achievements, Criticisms, and Viewpoints from Opponents

During his first term as (1800–1804), Strong prioritized non-partisan administration by retaining capable officials regardless of party affiliation, a stance that earned praise from some Jeffersonians for promoting stability over ideological purges. He also championed public education, advocating for expanded funding and accessibility, which aligned with emphases on moral and intellectual improvement as bulwarks against democratic excesses. These efforts contributed to ' reputation for orderly governance amid national partisan strife. In his second term (1812–1816), Strong reformed the state militia to enhance defensive readiness while firmly resisting federal demands to deploy it beyond state borders, thereby preserving local resources and commerce during the . This policy shielded New England's shipping interests from embargo disruptions, allowing continued trade that sustained the regional economy despite national conflict. His approval of the 's report, which critiqued wartime policies and proposed constitutional amendments to curb executive overreach, underscored his commitment to state sovereignty and limited federal power. Critics, primarily Democratic-Republicans, accused Strong of disloyalty for opposing the , portraying his stance as defiance that undermined national unity. Madison's administration viewed such resistance as unpatriotic, interpreting it as prioritizing regional commerce over collective defense against . The Hartford Convention drew sharper rebukes, with figures like denouncing it as "unconstitutional and treasonable," alleging it flirted with and weakened the at a vulnerable moment. Opponents framed Strong's as aristocratic and Anglophilic, arguing it favored monarchical over republican and the popular will for war, thus endangering the Union's democratic experiment. partisans labeled Federalists like Strong as "weak and degenerate" for convening the Hartford Convention amid military setbacks, claiming it sowed division to protect elite commercial interests rather than advancing national honor. Despite these attacks, Strong's re-election in 1815 with over 50,000 votes demonstrated enduring regional support, suggesting opponents overstated the perceived threat of disunion.

Personal Life and Enduring Legacy

Family, Charity, and Later Years

In 1777, Caleb Strong married Sarah Hooker, the daughter of Reverend John Hooker of , and a descendant of , the founder of . The couple resided in and had nine children, including Theodore (born 1779), Clarissa (born 1783, later Dwight), and Lewis (born 1785); only four survived their father. Sarah Strong died in 1817 after approximately forty years of marriage. Strong retired from public office upon the expiration of his final gubernatorial term on May 30, 1816, returning to private life in , where he had long practiced law and maintained his residence. He spent his remaining years there, amid a community that regarded him as a figure of integrity and dignity, though specific records of philanthropic activities, such as donations or organized , are limited in contemporary accounts. Strong died in Northampton on November 7, 1819, at the age of 74, and was buried in the town's Bridge Street Cemetery.

Death and Historical Evaluation

Strong died on November 7, 1819, in , at the age of 74. Following his retirement from the governorship in 1816, he resided quietly in his hometown until his passing, two years after the death of his wife, Sarah Hooker Strong. He was interred in Northampton's Bridge Street Cemetery. No specific is recorded in primary accounts, consistent with natural decline in advanced age for the era. At his interment on November 11, 1819, contemporaries eulogized Strong as a figure who had devoted his life to public service, emphasizing his integrity and contributions to Massachusetts and the nation. His political career, spanning roles in the Constitutional Convention, U.S. Senate, and multiple governorships, positioned him as a steadfast Federalist advocate for balanced federalism, state sovereignty, and economic prudence—principles evident in his refusal to subordinate Massachusetts militia to federal command during the War of 1812. This stance, while decried by Jeffersonian Republicans as disloyalty amid national conflict, reflected a constitutional interpretation prioritizing enumerated powers and state militias' primacy for domestic defense, as affirmed in Federalist debates and later judicial precedents. Historians evaluate Strong's legacy as that of a moderate leader whose effectiveness derived from temperance, , and aversion to , rather than rhetorical flair. Biographer Richard D. Brown notes that Strong's "moderation, , and an understanding of human frailties" defined his governance, enabling him to navigate Federalist dogmatism without alienating allies. Senator later commended his temperate style, which built trust across divides, including moderating radical elements at the to avert secessionist rhetoric. Critics from the opposing faction, including figures like James , faulted his war opposition for exacerbating regional divisions, yet empirical outcomes—such as Massachusetts' relative economic insulation via non-intercourse policies—substantiate the strategic realism of his resistance to an lacking broad support. Overall, Strong endures as an exemplar of early republican virtue: frugal, modest, and committed to institutional restraint against centralized overreach.

References

  1. [1]
    STRONG, Caleb - Bioguide Search
    STRONG, Caleb, a Senator from Massachusetts; born in Northampton, Mass., January 9, 1745; studied under private tutors; graduated from Harvard College in 1764.
  2. [2]
    Federalists oppose Madison's War (U.S. National Park Service)
    Mar 22, 2016 · Portrait of Caleb Strong As Governor of Massachusetts Governor Caleb Strong was one of the most principled opponents of the War of 1812. In ...Missing: politician biography
  3. [3]
    Brief life of Federalist politician Caleb Strong, by Richard D. Brown
    Feb 19, 2016 · Brief life of Federalist politician Caleb Strong, by Richard D. Brown. Brief life of an exemplary politician: 1745-1819. by Richard D. Brown.
  4. [4]
    Caleb Strong - Historic Northampton Museum and Education Center
    Caleb Strong graduated from Harvard College in 1764, studied law with the eminent Judge Joseph Hawley, and opened a practice in 1772. Strong was a ...Missing: beginnings | Show results with:beginnings<|separator|>
  5. [5]
    Gov. Caleb Strong - National Governors Association
    Caleb Strong was born in Northampton, Massachusetts on January 9, 1745. His education was attained at Harvard University, where he graduated in 1764.Missing: beginnings | Show results with:beginnings
  6. [6]
    Caleb Strong - Great American Biographies
    Caleb Strong was born on January 9, 1745, in Northampton, Massachusetts. He graduated from Harvard College in 1764 and subsequently studied law.Missing: education beginnings
  7. [7]
    The Founding Fathers: Massachusetts | National Archives
    Mar 5, 2018 · Strong was born to Caleb and Phebe Strong on January 9, 1745 in Northampton, MA. He received his college education at Harvard, from which he ...
  8. [8]
    Key Figures in the Ratification of the Constitution: Caleb Strong
    Strong was born to Caleb and Phebe Strong on January 9, 1745 in Northampton, Massachusetts. He received his college education at Harvard.Missing: beginnings | Show results with:beginnings
  9. [9]
    [PDF] Biography of the Hon. Caleb Strong, Several Years Governor of the ...
    Bradford, Alden, "Biography of the Hon. Caleb Strong, Several Years Governor of the State of. Massachusetts" (1820). Maine History Documents. 309. https ...
  10. [10]
    Meet the Framers of the Constitution | National Archives
    Jul 25, 2025 · In all, 55 delegates attended the Constitutional Convention sessions, but only 39 actually signed the Constitution. ... Caleb Strong* · New ...The Founding Fathers: Virginia · The Founding Fathers: New York · MassachusettsMissing: speeches | Show results with:speeches
  11. [11]
    Sources for the Individual Delegate Attendance Record
    Attended as early as May 19, and thereafter. Strong, Caleb of Massachusetts. Attended on May 28; was present on August 15, but left before August 27. He ...
  12. [12]
    [PDF] Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 - Loc
    (January is). CLXVII Yates and Lansing to Governor of New York. CLXVIII Strong ... Signing the Constitution, 1828. Madison to Van Buren, May 13,. Madison to ...
  13. [13]
    Caleb Strong - civiced.org
    Caleb Strong ... Strong was born in Massachusetts in 1745. He graduated from Harvard with honors. In his early twenties, he contracted smallpox, which damaged his ...
  14. [14]
    Visualize - Caleb Strong | Quill
    During the Revolution he was attorney of Hampshire County, and a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, though he refused to attend the ...Missing: Provincial | Show results with:Provincial
  15. [15]
    Delegates to the Massachusetts Convention (January 9, 1788)
    Jan 22, 2013 · Caleb Strong, Esq. (Y)Northfield Mr. Ebenezer Janes (Y). Norwich Maj. Thomas James Doglass (Y). Orange See Warwick Palmer Mr. Aaron Merrick (N).
  16. [16]
    Massachusetts Ratifies the Constitution | Research Starters - EBSCO
    On February 6, 1788, Massachusetts became the sixth state to ratify the United States Constitution, marking a significant moment in the early history of ...
  17. [17]
    Introduction to the Massachusetts Ratifying Convention
    The Massachusetts Compromise secured the victory for the proponents of the Constitution because roughly ten delegates changed their mind to secure ratification.
  18. [18]
    January 19, 1788 - Concordia University Irvine
    Mar 15, 2021 · Caleb Strong, Rufus King, and Theophilus Parsons were among those who defended the clause. “What if States refused to hold elections?” they ...
  19. [19]
    The Six Stages of Ratification - Teaching American History
    Caleb Strong, Rufus King, Nathaniel Gorham. Fisher Ames, James Bowdoin, Francis Dana, and Theophilus Parsons joined in defending and urging the ratification of ...
  20. [20]
    Introduction - Senate.gov
    Massachusetts's first two senators, Tristram Dalton and Caleb Strong, took office on March 4, 1789. The state's longest-serving senators include George Hoar ...
  21. [21]
    Judiciary Act is Passed | Research Starters - EBSCO
    Caleb Strong (1745-1819), United States senator from Massachusetts, 1789-1796, and later governor of Massachusetts, 1800-1807, 1812-1816; John Jay (1745-1829) ...
  22. [22]
    The Judiciary Act of 1789: Charter for U.S. Marshals and Deputies
    A few of the other members were Caleb Strong of Massachusetts, one of the leading Federalists of the day; William Maclay of Pennsylvania, a crotchety ...
  23. [23]
    The Origins of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations - jstor
    1789-1796. 1. Rufus King F - N.Y. 7 21. 2. Oliver Ellsworth F - Conn. 7 20. 3. Robert Morris F - Pa. 4 14. 4. Caleb Strong F - Mass. 4 11. 5. Pierce Butler F/D ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  24. [24]
    Theodore Sedgwick to Alexander Hamilton, 19 November 1796
    He was elected to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Caleb Strong and served from June 11, 1796, to March 3, 1799. ... 19 ...
  25. [25]
    MA - Massachusetts - Senate.gov
    Caleb Strong, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention and one of Massachusetts' first senators, became governor. 1800, (May 13). Samuel Dexter of Boston ...Missing: politician biography
  26. [26]
    Thomas Jefferson to Caleb Strong, 14 July 1802 - Founders Online
    A moderate Federalist, Strong was elected governor of Massachusetts in 1800 and remained in the office until 1807, when he was defeated by the Republican James ...
  27. [27]
    [PDF] Caleb Strong, Charles Pinckney, and Luther Martin and the ...
    May 12, 2018 · Biography of Caleb Strong Several Years Governor of The State of. Massachusetts. Boston: West, Richardson, and Lord, 1820. Bradford, M. E. ...
  28. [28]
    Massachusetts State Prison
    The prison opened in 1805. In 1828, the construction of a north wing was underway. The construction of the south wing occurred in 1850.
  29. [29]
    Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court - Papers Of Abraham Lincoln
    In 1800, the General Court increased the number of justices to seven, and in 1804 reduced it to five. Between 1804 and the end of the Civil War, the General ...Missing: Strong | Show results with:Strong
  30. [30]
    Caleb Strong, Massachusetts, ca. 1810 - Maine Memory Network
    Caleb Strong (1745-1819) served as governor to Massachusetts from 1800-1807 and 1812-1816. He was one of the first U.S. Senators from Massachusetts, elected in ...Missing: governance | Show results with:governance<|control11|><|separator|>
  31. [31]
    Massachusetts in the War of 1812
    Oct 26, 2016 · Massachusetts opposed the war, initially refusing to commit troops. The state faced British attacks, blockades, and coastal town attacks, with ...
  32. [32]
    Catalog Record: The speech of His Excellency Governor Strong,...
    The speech of His Excellency Governor Strong, delivered before the Legislature of Massachusetts, October 16, 1812. With the documents, which accompanied the ...Missing: reforms | Show results with:reforms
  33. [33]
    The War of 1812 - Joint Force Headquarters - National Guard
    The federal government also ordered Massachusetts Governor Caleb Strong to send troops to defend Maine. Governor Strong declined, as his politics differed from ...Missing: second term 1812-1816
  34. [34]
    Mr. Madison's War: The Controversial War of 1812
    Jun 8, 2012 · In 1812, Massachusetts was bitterly divided along partisan political lines and a wave of popular protests greeted the declaration of war on 18 June.
  35. [35]
    Article 1, Section 8, Clause 15: Governor Caleb Strong to Justices of ...
    While the governor of the commonwealth remained in the exercise of these powers, the federal constitution was ratified, by which was vested in the congress a ...Missing: term 1812-1816
  36. [36]
    https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/mainehistoryjournal/vol11/iss4/3/
  37. [37]
    Fractures of 1812 | National Endowment for the Humanities
    Massachusetts governor Caleb Strong, Drummey remarks, “opened separate negotiations with representatives of Great Britain during wartime about . . . whether ...Missing: politician biography
  38. [38]
    Why New England Almost Seceded Over The War Of 1812 - WBUR
    Jun 15, 2012 · "When the war began and the Madison administration asked for troops, asked for the Massachusetts militia to be summoned, Strong refused," ...
  39. [39]
    The Origin of the Hartford Convention | Teaching American History
    The delegates to the convention held their meetings in such complete secrecy that no record of any speeches given or motions discussed on the floor survives. At ...
  40. [40]
    A Short Account of the Hartford Convention, Taken from Official ...
    “Now, therefore, by virture of the Resolve aforesaid, and the power and authority thereby vested in me, I, Caleb Strong, Governor of the said Commonwealth of ...<|separator|>
  41. [41]
    Resolutions Adopted by the Hartford Convention
    Pursuant to these calls, twenty-six delegates representing the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, as well as two counties in New Hampshire ...
  42. [42]
    Hartford Convention | Research Starters - EBSCO
    (1765-1848), Massachusetts Federalist who conceived the idea of a New England convention; Caleb Strong (1745-1819), governor of Massachusetts and leader of ...
  43. [43]
    https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Caleb_Strong
  44. [44]
    Caleb Strong Papers, 1657-1818 - Massachusetts Historical Society
    Caleb Strong (1745-1819) of Northampton, Mass. was a lawyer, Federalist statesman, U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1789-1796), governor of Massachusetts (1800- ...