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Cankili II

Cankili II (Tamil: சங்கிலி குமாரன்; died 1619), also known as Sankili II or Segarasasekaran VIII, was the last ruler of the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka, who usurped the throne in 1617 by orchestrating the massacre of the royal heir and regent Arasa-kesari.^[1]^[2] His brief reign, lasting until 1619, was defined by open defiance against Portuguese colonial expansion, culminating in the Battle of Vannarapannai where his forces were decisively defeated by Portuguese commander Filipe de Oliveira, leading to Cankili's capture, deportation to Goa, and execution.^[3]^[2] This conflict ended the independent existence of the Jaffna Kingdom, which had maintained Tamil political autonomy in the peninsula for centuries amid regional powers including the Sinhalese kingdoms and South Indian dynasties.^[3]^[1] Though initially confirmed as a Portuguese vassal governor, Cankili II rebelled with support from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom, reflecting broader Tamil resistance to European incursions but ultimately failing due to superior Portuguese military organization and alliances.^[4]^[2] In later Tamil historiography, he is often commemorated as a symbol of defiance, evidenced by monuments like the equestrian statue in Jaffna, despite his controversial usurpation.^[5]

Origins and Rise to Power

Dynastic Context and Family Background

The Aryacakravarti dynasty, also known as the Singai Arya Chakravarti dynasty, governed the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka from the mid-13th century until its annexation by the Portuguese in 1619.^[6] The dynasty's establishment is attributed to a kinsman of a chief dignitary from the Pandya Kingdom in South India, who assumed authority in the region during the reign of Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandya around 1277, following military expeditions to consolidate control over Tamil-speaking territories.^[6] Over centuries, the rulers maintained a semi-independent status, blending South Indian imperial traditions with local Tamil Shaivite culture, while navigating alliances and conflicts with Sinhalese kingdoms to the south and emerging European powers.^[7] Cankili II, originally named Cankili Kumaran or Ilavarasan Cankili Kumaran, was born into a collateral branch of this dynasty as the elder of twin sons.^[6]^[8] His father, Ilavarasan Gago Pandaram, was a prince and son of the former king Periya Pillai Cekaracacekaran, who ruled from 1570 to 1582.^[6] His mother was an unnamed princess (Ilavarasi), daughter of King Puviraja Pandaram Pararacacekaran, who held the throne intermittently from 1561–1565 and 1582–1591.^[6] This parentage positioned Cankili II as a great-grandson of Cankili I (r. 1519–1565), a ruler noted for early resistance to Portuguese incursions and for constructing the notable Cankili Thoppu fortress.^[6] Within the broader dynastic framework, Cankili II's lineage connected him to the turbulent succession struggles of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, marked by Portuguese interference, internal regencies, and rival princely claims following the deposition of earlier kings like Ethirimana Cinkam II in 1613.^[8] Though not the direct heir, his royal blood through both parents afforded him legitimacy in a system where throne access often relied on kinship ties, military prowess, and elimination of competitors rather than strict primogeniture.^[6]

Usurpation of the Throne (1617)

In 1617, upon the death of King Ethirimanna Cinkam, who had ruled the Jaffna Kingdom as a Portuguese client since 1591, a succession crisis emerged involving multiple claimants to the throne. Ethirimanna had nominated his brother, Arasakesari (also known as Arasa-kesari), as regent for his three-year-old son, the designated heir. Cankili II, Ethirimanna's nephew and a rival within the royal family, rejected this arrangement and launched a violent coup.^[2]^[1]^[9] Cankili II orchestrated a palace massacre at the royal residence in Nallur, personally ordering or overseeing the killings of Arasakesari, the infant prince, and other princes who posed threats to his claim, thereby consolidating power through fratricide and elimination of the legitimate line. This act of usurpation, described in contemporary accounts as a ruthless seizure amid a tripartite power struggle, installed Cankili as king despite lacking endorsement from the Portuguese authorities in Colombo, who favored continuity under the regency.^[6]^[10]^[2] The coup reflected deeper tensions within the Arya Chakravarti dynasty, weakened by prior Portuguese interventions and internal divisions, but Cankili's hold was initially secured by local military support rather than foreign validation. Portuguese chroniclers later portrayed the event as emblematic of Jaffna's instability, though their accounts may emphasize disorder to justify subsequent interventions.^[1]^[11]

Governance and Initial Relations with Portuguese

Appointment as Governor and Tribute Obligations

Following the death of the Portuguese-installed king Ethirimanna Cinkam in 1617, Cankili II, a nephew of the late ruler, usurped the throne by assassinating the designated regent Arasa-kesari and the infant heir, thereby eliminating immediate rivals to his claim. Facing significant internal resistance, including from powerful local factions such as the Karaiyar maritime leaders who controlled coastal trade and naval capabilities, Cankili II sought external validation to stabilize his precarious position. He approached the Portuguese colonial authorities in Ceylon, who had long sought to extend their influence over Jaffna through puppet rulers and economic leverage.^[12]^[13] In response, the Portuguese recognized Cankili II as governor of Jaffna rather than granting full sovereign kingship, effectively subordinating the kingdom to their suzerainty while allowing him nominal local authority. This appointment was conditional on Cankili II paying annual tribute to the Portuguese crown, typically in the form of goods, elephants, and monetary payments derived from Jaffna's pearl fisheries and agricultural output, which served to fund Portuguese fortifications and expeditions in the Indian Ocean. Additionally, he pledged to sever ties with the Karaiyar generals, whom the Portuguese regarded as unreliable intermediaries who could facilitate alliances with rival Indian powers or Muslim traders disrupting their monopoly on regional sea routes.^[4]^[13] This tributary arrangement initially provided Cankili II with breathing room to consolidate power, as Portuguese naval support deterred immediate uprisings. However, the obligations strained Jaffna's resources and eroded Cankili II's autonomy, fostering resentment among the aristocracy and populace who viewed the payments as humiliating capitulation to foreign infidels. The tribute demands, enforced through Portuguese garrisons at key ports like Jaffna and Mannar, underscored the causal link between colonial economic extraction and local instability, setting the stage for Cankili II's subsequent defiance.^[12]^[2]

Internal Administration and Alliances

Cankili II maintained internal control through despotic measures, including the elimination of rivals such as the regent Arasakesari Pandaram, which solidified his authority amid factional strife in the Jaffna Kingdom.^[14] His administration relied on coercive loyalty from local elites and military enforcers, reflecting a pattern of cruelty noted in contemporary accounts to suppress dissent and prevent challenges to his usurpation.^[14] Key to his governance was strategic alliances that provided the forces necessary for regime stability. Cankili II secured military support from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom under Raghunatha Nayaka, including troops dispatched under generals like Khem Nayak, which enabled him to reclaim the throne around 1616 and defend against Portuguese interventions.^[14] These alliances extended to local Karaiyar captains and generals, such as Mikkappillai from Mannar, whose naval capabilities bolstered Jaffna's defenses and supplemented land forces in maintaining order and projecting power.^[4] Such partnerships allowed Cankili II to navigate tributary obligations to the Portuguese while cultivating autonomy, though they foreshadowed his later defiance.^[14]

Rebellion against Portuguese Overlordship

Outbreak of Resistance (1618–1619)

In 1618, Cankili II moved to suppress a revolt by the expanding Christian minority in Jaffna, spearheaded by mudaliyars Dom Pedro and Dom Luiz, who favored alignment with Portuguese authorities.^[15] This internal uprising, instigated in August by the mudaliyars with assistance from Portuguese casados (settled traders and officials), briefly ousted Cankili II from power but was quickly reversed, allowing his restoration.^[16] ^[17] The episode highlighted deepening fissures between Cankili II's regime and Portuguese-backed Christian elements, as the king viewed the converts and their patrons as threats to his sovereignty.^[18] Emboldened after regaining control, Cankili II escalated his defiance by intensifying persecution of Christians, including the destruction of churches and refusal to remit annual tribute to the Portuguese, actions that directly challenged colonial overlordship.^[18] These measures, rooted in Cankili II's aim to consolidate Tamil Hindu authority amid prior accommodations with the Portuguese following his 1617 usurpation, provoked retaliatory preparations by Goa.^[18] By late 1618, Portuguese Governor Constantino de Sá e Noronha dispatched reinforcements under Filipe de Oliveira to enforce compliance, signaling the transition from sporadic unrest to structured military confrontation.^[18] Cankili II's overt rejection of tribute obligations—estimated at elephants and cinnamon—further underscored the causal link between fiscal non-compliance and the outbreak.^[18] Throughout 1618–early 1619, Cankili II fortified Jaffna defenses and initiated overtures for external aid, including from Thanjavur Nayak forces, to counter anticipated invasion, thereby formalizing resistance against Portuguese expansionism in northern Ceylon.^[18] These maneuvers, while prolonging autonomy temporarily, exposed strategic vulnerabilities, as Portuguese naval superiority isolated the kingdom.^[19] The period's events, driven by Cankili II's prioritization of indigenous rule over colonial concessions, set the stage for escalated conflict without evidence of broader regional alliances materializing in time.^[18]

Mobilization of Forces and External Support

Following his usurpation of the throne in 1617 and subsequent rebellion against Portuguese authority in 1618, Cankili II mobilized local forces by leveraging the Jaffna kingdom's martial traditions and rallying Tamil warriors disillusioned with Portuguese tribute demands and missionary activities. He fortified key positions such as the royal palace at Nallur and coastal strongholds, drawing on infantry composed primarily of levies from agricultural castes and seafaring communities, though exact numbers remain undocumented in contemporary accounts. Dissident elements, including Hindu loyalists resistant to Christian conversions, bolstered his ranks, enabling initial guerrilla actions that disrupted Portuguese supply lines.^[20] A critical alliance formed with Migapulle Arachchi, a prominent Karaiyar chief controlling coastal territories around Mannar and Valvettithurai, who commanded seafaring warriors skilled in naval raids and amphibious warfare. Migapulle's forces, estimated in the thousands and equipped with boats for hit-and-run tactics, joined Cankili II's campaign, providing essential maritime support against Portuguese naval dominance in the Gulf of Mannar. This partnership, rooted in shared opposition to Portuguese control over pearl fisheries and trade routes, allowed coordinated attacks on Portuguese outposts in 1619, prolonging the resistance despite Mannar's nominal Portuguese suzerainty.^[4] For broader external backing, Cankili II appealed to Raghunatha Nayaka of Thanjavur, whose Telugu-origin dynasty maintained cultural and strategic interests in Tamil polities across the Palk Strait. In response, Raghunatha dispatched an expedition under general Khem Nayak, comprising approximately 5,000 lascarins (indigenous infantry mercenaries), who crossed via a chain of boats from the Coromandel Coast to Talaimannar around 1619. These troops, supplemented by cavalry and possibly elephants, engaged Portuguese forces directly, achieving temporary gains before being repelled; the aid reflected Thanjavur's ambition to counter Portuguese expansionism in the region, though Portuguese chronicles downplay its scale. Familial ties to the Kandyan kingdom under Senarat—through marriages of Cankili's nieces—may have offered diplomatic encouragement, but no verified troop deployments from Kandy materialized during the active phase of mobilization.^[14]^[20]

Military Conflict and Defeat

Key Engagements and Strategies

Cankili II's primary strategies against Portuguese forces emphasized external alliances and the augmentation of local defenses with mercenaries. To counter Portuguese overlordship, he invited military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks, who provided troops to secure his usurpation in 1617, and permitted Malabar corsairs to utilize Jaffna ports, thereby enhancing naval resistance capabilities through Karaiyar seafaring networks.^[21]^[22] These measures aimed to offset the Portuguese technological and organizational advantages by leveraging regional Tamil military resources and disrupting supply lines. Key engagements unfolded in 1619 amid escalating rebellion. An initial Portuguese naval expedition in June was repulsed by Karaiyar forces under Cankili's command, demonstrating effective coastal defense tactics. However, on the land front, Filipe de Oliveira led a force of approximately 230 Portuguese soldiers supported by 3,000 lascarins (local auxiliaries) against Cankili's army at the Battle of Vannarapannai, where superior Portuguese firepower and discipline prevailed, inflicting a decisive defeat. Cankili's reliance on mercenary commander Varunakulattan for field operations failed to prevent the rout, after which Cankili attempted flight to South India but was intercepted and captured.^[16]^[9]

Siege of Jaffna and Fall (1619)

In early 1619, Portuguese Governor Constantino de Sá de Noronha dispatched Captain-Major Filipe de Oliveira with a force of 230 Portuguese soldiers and 3,000 lascarins—local auxiliaries recruited from allied regions—to subjugate the Jaffna Kingdom and depose Cankili II for his defiance of tribute obligations and alliances with anti-Portuguese elements.^[16] Cankili II, fortified in the capital at Nallur, mobilized defenses bolstered by an alliance with Karaiyar general Migapulle (Mikkappillai) from Mannar and limited reinforcements from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom, including troops under Khem Nayak who had earlier repulsed a Portuguese naval probe.^[23] ^[6] Oliveira's expedition advanced northward, engaging in skirmishes that escalated into a siege of Nallur, where Cankili's forces relied on fortified positions, guerrilla tactics from coastal Karaiyar fighters, and the kingdom's elephant-mounted infantry.^[23] The Portuguese employed artillery superiority and coordinated assaults, exploiting internal divisions among Jaffna's mudaliyars (local lords) who defected or withheld full support from Cankili due to his usurpation and harsh rule.^[16] Prolonged fighting ensued over several months, with Oliveira's letter dated June 8, 1619, detailing the breaching of defenses through sustained bombardment and infantry advances, culminating in the storming of key strongholds.^[24] By mid-1619, the siege broke Cankili's resistance; he was captured along with royal family members and principal advisors after Nallur fell, marking the effective end of Jaffna's sovereignty.^[6] The Portuguese annexed the kingdom as a crown colony, razing parts of the palace complex and initiating fort construction to secure control, while deporting Cankili to Goa for trial and execution by hanging later that year.^[17] This outcome reflected Portuguese strategic advantages in combined arms and logistics over Jaffna's fragmented levies, though local chronicles emphasize Cankili's tenacious defense as prolonging the conflict beyond initial expectations.^[25]

Execution and Immediate Aftermath

Capture, Trial, and Death

Following the Portuguese conquest of Jaffna in June 1619, Cankili II was captured by forces led by Captain-Major Filipe de Oliveira after the fall of the kingdom's defenses at Nallur.^[6] ^[8] He was initially imprisoned locally before being transported as a prisoner to Goa, the seat of Portuguese India, along with surviving members of the royal family.^[22] In Goa, Cankili II faced trial before a high court on charges of treason for rebelling against Portuguese authority and seeking alliances with regional powers like the Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur.^[6] The proceedings, conducted under the viceregal administration, reflected Portuguese colonial justice, which prioritized suppressing indigenous resistance; contemporary accounts from Portuguese chroniclers, such as Fernão de Queyroz, detail the formal accusation and sentencing process, though these sources originate from the victors and emphasize the legitimacy of the overlordship claims.^[6] Cankili II was executed by beheading in 1621 in a public spectacle organized in the courtyard of the Goa custom house.^[6] According to Queyroz's eyewitness-informed account in The Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon, a scaffold with an axe and block was erected, draped in mourning cloth; the viceroy and council presided as the sentence was read, after which Cankili was led to execution, displaying no signs of repentance in the Portuguese view.^[6] This marked the end of the Aryacakravarti dynasty's rule over Jaffna.^[26]

Consequences for Jaffna Kingdom

The defeat and execution of Cankili II in 1619 resulted in the complete annexation of the Jaffna Kingdom by the Portuguese Empire, transforming it from a semi-autonomous Tamil polity into a directly administered colonial province under the Estado da Índia.^[27]^[28] Governance shifted to Portuguese captains-major stationed at the fortified Jaffna Fort, with local administration reliant on co-opted elites and military oversight, eliminating the Arya Chakravarti dynasty's authority and preventing any immediate restoration of indigenous rule. Cankili II and the surviving members of the royal family were transported to Goa, where they were publicly hanged, decisively eradicating potential claimants and symbolizing the end of Jaffna's monarchical tradition.^[27] This purge extended to broader suppression of Tamil aristocracy, fostering a power vacuum filled by Portuguese appointees and loyalist mudaliyars, while economic obligations intensified through enforced tribute in elephants, pearls, and cinnamon to support colonial trade monopolies.^[28] Religiously, the conquest triggered systematic persecution of Hinduism, the kingdom's dominant faith; under Filipe de Oliveira's command, Portuguese forces demolished over 500 Hindu temples, including the prominent Nallur Kandaswamy Temple, and razed the Saraswathy Mahal library in Nallur, using materials to construct Catholic churches and fortifications.^[29]^[1] Forced baptisms and incentives for conversion led to a significant Catholic presence among coastal communities, though inland Hindus often resisted covertly or fled to the Vanni or mainland India, altering demographic and cultural patterns amid reports of massacres targeting non-converts.^[30] Despite annexation, Portuguese control faced persistent local resistance, manifesting in three major rebellions between 1619 and 1658, two led by the Karaiyar leader Migapulle Arachchi (also known as Varunakulattan or Khem Nayak), who mobilized naval and guerrilla forces with intermittent aid from the Kingdom of Kandy and South Indian poligars.^[31] These uprisings, though ultimately suppressed, underscored incomplete pacification and the kingdom's lingering martial traditions, delaying full colonial consolidation until the Dutch seized Jaffna in 1658.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Achievements and Criticisms

Cankili II's primary achievement lay in organizing the last sustained military opposition to Portuguese domination of the Jaffna Kingdom, forging alliances with Karaiyar naval leaders such as Migapulle Arachchi and soliciting reinforcements from the Thanjavur Nayaks in South India, which enabled defensive operations including the fortification of key sites like Cankili Thoppu and prolonged engagements through 1618–1619.^[4] These efforts briefly repelled initial Portuguese incursions and preserved nominal Tamil sovereignty until the siege of Nallur in mid-1619.^[6] In Sri Lankan Tamil historiography, Cankili II is often portrayed as a symbol of indigenous resistance to European colonialism, embodying the kingdom's final bid for autonomy; his statue near the ruins of the royal palace in Nallur commemorates this role, erected in the 20th century amid rising Tamil cultural revivalism.^[6] However, this assessment privileges nationalist narratives over contemporaneous accounts, which emphasize his opportunistic initial acceptance of Portuguese governorship in 1617, including tribute payments and vows against unauthorized alliances—conditions he violated to ignite the rebellion.^[23] Critics, drawing from dynastic records, highlight Cankili II's violent usurpation of the throne in 1616 through the assassination of Regent Arasakesari Pandaram and a massacre of rival princes and claimants, actions that eliminated legitimate successors and exacerbated internal factionalism among Jaffna's elites, including Karaiyar chieftains.^[6] This palace intrigue, rather than unifying the kingdom, sowed disquiet and undermined long-term stability, facilitating Portuguese exploitation of divisions during their 1619 campaign. Furthermore, his reported baptism as Dom Filipe and execution for treason in Goa in 1621—after imprisonment and transport from Jaffna—has been interpreted by some as a coerced capitulation, contrasting with the defiant image in later Tamil lore.^[6] Overall, while his resistance delayed conquest, it arguably accelerated the kingdom's irreversible collapse by provoking a decisive Portuguese response without viable external support.^[27]

Role in Tamil Historiography and Modern Nationalism

In Tamil historiography, Cankili II is primarily remembered as the last sovereign ruler of the Jaffna Kingdom, whose resistance against Portuguese forces from 1617 to 1619 symbolized the culmination of Tamil political independence in northern Sri Lanka.^[6] Accounts emphasize his mobilization of local forces and alliances, such as with Thanjavur, to defy colonial expansion, framing his defeat and execution in 1619 as the tragic end of a dynasty that had governed the region since the 13th century.^[2] This narrative, drawn from royal chronicles and later Tamil literary traditions, portrays him as a defender of Tamil sovereignty against foreign invaders, though it often downplays his earlier usurpation of the throne through the massacre of rival princes in 1617.^[32] Within modern Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism, Cankili II's legacy has been elevated as an emblem of ethnic resilience and historical entitlement to the northern peninsula, invoked to substantiate claims of a distinct Tamil homeland predating Sinhalese dominance.^[33] Proponents of Tamil Eelam ideology reference the Jaffna Kingdom's 400-year rule under kings like Cankili II to argue for indigenous Tamil governance, paralleling his anti-Portuguese stand with 20th-century struggles against central Sri Lankan authority.^[34] This interpretation gained prominence during the ethnic conflict (1983–2009), where his story reinforced narratives of repeated loss of autonomy to external powers, fostering a sense of collective victimhood and justification for separatism.^[35] A tangible marker of this nationalist reverence is the Sangiliyan Statue in Jaffna, erected in 1974 to honor Cankili II as a martyr of Tamil resistance; the gold-hued monument, depicting him in defiant pose, became a focal point for cultural pride and was damaged during the civil war before restoration.^[36]^[37] Such symbols underscore how Cankili II's historiography has been adapted to modern identity politics, though critics from Sinhalese perspectives contest the kingdom's "Tamil homeland" claims as overstated migrations from South India rather than organic evolution.^[38] Despite these debates, his role endures in Tamil cultural memory as a cautionary icon of sovereignty's fragility.^[39]

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