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Centrocercus

Centrocercus is a genus of large, ground-dwelling grouse in the family Phasianidae, consisting of two extant species: the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) and the Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), both endemic to sagebrush-dominated landscapes of western North America.^[1] These birds are characterized by their chunky bodies, long pointed tails, and strong reliance on Artemisia sagebrush species for foraging, shelter, and nesting, with males exhibiting pronounced sexual dimorphism and inflatable yellow air sacs used in courtship.^[2]^[3] The greater sage-grouse, the larger of the two, inhabits vast sagebrush steppe from southern Alberta and Saskatchewan through the western United States to northern Arizona and New Mexico, while the Gunnison sage-grouse occupies a more restricted range in southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah.^[2]^[4] Both species engage in lek mating systems, where males gather on communal display grounds to perform synchronized strut displays, vocalizations, and posturing to attract females, a behavior that underscores their evolutionary adaptation to open habitats.^[5]^[6] Populations of Centrocercus species have declined significantly since European settlement, primarily due to habitat fragmentation and loss from agricultural conversion, energy extraction, altered fire regimes, and invasive grasses, though proactive management has stabilized greater sage-grouse numbers in some areas without federal endangered listing.^[7]^[1] The Gunnison sage-grouse faces greater peril, with its range reduced to less than 10% of historical extent and ongoing threats prompting consideration for threatened status under the Endangered Species Act.^[1]^[8] Conservation efforts emphasize preserving contiguous sagebrush mosaics, as empirical data link population viability to large, unfragmented habitats rather than politically driven narratives.^[9]^[10]

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Etymology

The genus name Centrocercus is derived from the Ancient Greek words kéntron (κέντρον), meaning "spine," "prick," or "point," and kérkos (κέρκος), meaning "tail," referring to the sharp, pointed tail feathers prominently featured in the males' courtship displays.^[11]^[12] This nomenclature highlights a key morphological trait distinguishing the genus from other grouse.^[13] The common name "sage-grouse" originates from the birds' ecological dependence on sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) for foraging, shelter, and nesting in the sagebrush steppe ecosystems of western North America.^[13] Early European-American observers, including Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, documented the species during their 1805 expedition near the continental divide, noting its occurrence amid extensive sagebrush stands and dubbing it the "cock of the plain" or "prairie cock" in reference to its habitat and robust form.^[13]^[14] These accounts preceded formal scientific description but underscored the habitat linkage central to the vernacular name.^[15]

Species Classification

The genus Centrocercus includes two extant species of sage-grouse: the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus), the type species described by Samuel F. Baird in 1852, and the Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), formally described as a distinct species in 2000.^[16] These species are distinguished by morphological, genetic, and behavioral differences, with the greater sage-grouse exhibiting larger body size and broader tail feathers compared to the more compact form of the Gunnison sage-grouse.^[17] The greater sage-grouse occupies a wide range across sagebrush ecosystems in 11 western U.S. states—California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming—and southern portions of Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada.^[18] In contrast, the Gunnison sage-grouse is geographically restricted to seven counties in southwestern Colorado and one county in extreme southeastern Utah, reflecting its more limited historical distribution.^[19]^[6] Prior to 2000, the Gunnison population was classified as a subspecies (C. urophasianus minimus) of the greater sage-grouse, but taxonomic reevaluation based on mitochondrial DNA sequencing revealed significant genetic divergence, minimal gene flow, and reproductive isolation between the populations.^[17]^[20] This evidence, combined with differences in plumage patterns, lek display behaviors, and vocalizations, led the American Ornithologists' Union to recognize C. minimus as a full species, resolving prior debates over its status.^[21]^[16]

Phylogenetic Relationships

Centrocercus belongs to the subfamily Tetraoninae within the family Phasianidae and order Galliformes, a classification supported by mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analyses that place it among the Holarctic grouse and ptarmigan clade.^[22]^[23] Within Tetraoninae, molecular phylogenies consistently recover Centrocercus as part of a North American prairie grouse radiation, forming a clade with Tympanuchus (prairie-chickens) and sometimes Dendragapus (blue grouse), distinct from Eurasian forest-dwelling tetraonines like Tetrao and Lagopus.^[22]^[24] This positioning reflects shared synapomorphies such as lekking behavior and open-habitat adaptations, though early restriction fragment length polymorphism studies suggested deeper separation, a view superseded by multi-locus sequencing data.^[23] Fossil-calibrated molecular clocks estimate the divergence of Centrocercus from Tympanuchus at approximately 5 million years ago during the late Miocene to early Pliocene, coinciding with intensified aridification in western North America that expanded sagebrush-dominated steppes.^[24] This temporal framework aligns with genomic evidence of gene flow and shared polymorphisms among prairie grouse, indicating incomplete lineage sorting rather than recent hybridization as the primary driver of similarity.^[24] The evolution of specialized traits, such as cecal fermentation for detoxifying terpenes in Artemisia sagebrush, likely arose post-divergence as causal responses to these habitat shifts, enabling ecological niche specialization absent in woodland relatives.^[24] The fossil record for Centrocercus is sparse, with direct remains limited to Quaternary deposits, such as radiocarbon-dated bones from late Pleistocene sites in the Great Basin, providing minimal insight into ancestral forms.^[25] Indirect evidence points to Miocene ancestors among undifferentiated prairie-like phasianids in North America, where unconfirmed early to middle Miocene fossils suggest the Tetraoninae radiation originated in response to grassland expansion and cooling climates, though precise attribution to Centrocercus precursors remains tentative due to fragmentary osteology.^[26]^[27] This paucity underscores reliance on molecular data for reconstructing phylogeny, highlighting how Miocene aridification causally promoted speciation through habitat fragmentation and dietary pressures.^[24]

Physical Characteristics

Anatomical Features

Centrocercus species display a large-bodied, ground-oriented morphology adapted to sagebrush-dominated habitats, with adults weighing 0.9–2.0 kg for females and 2.0–3.2 kg for males, yielding a total range of approximately 2–7 pounds. The body is chunky and rounded, featuring a proportionally small head, short stout legs, and broad feet that support efficient walking and scratching on open terrain. These traits emphasize terrestrial specialization over flight capability, with wings rounded but rarely used for sustained travel.^[28]^[2] The digestive tract reflects specialization for consuming fibrous sagebrush leaves, which comprise much of the diet; unlike seed-eating galliformes, sage-grouse possess a non-muscular gizzard lacking the ability to grind hard items and do not ingest gizzard stones. Instead, digestion relies on a capacious crop for storage, acidic proventriculus secretions, and extensive cecal fermentation by symbiotic microbes to detoxify terpenes and degrade cellulose in tough foliage. This physiological configuration enables year-round folivory despite the plant's chemical defenses.^[29]^[30]^[31] Males exhibit distinctive structures including paired inflatable yellow esophageal sacs derived from the esophagus, sharp-pointed tail feathers with spiny tips, and prominent yellow supraorbital combs overlying the eyes. Filoplumes extend from the nape, contributing to the overall feathering. These features are integral to the species' morphology, varying slightly between C. urophasianus and the smaller C. minimus.^[32]^[33] Plumage provides crypsis against sagebrush backdrops, consisting of mottled gray, brown, and buff tones on the upperparts and sides, with darker underparts for both sexes. White or pale undertail coverts contrast subtly, aiding concealment in sparse vegetation. Feathering extends onto the legs, insulating against cold arid conditions.^[34]^[7]

Sexual Dimorphism and Plumage

Centrocercus species, including the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) and Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), display marked sexual dimorphism in size and plumage, with males averaging 35–50% heavier than females; adult males typically weigh 2.0–3.0 kg and measure 65–75 cm in length, while females weigh 1.0–1.8 kg and measure 50–60 cm.^[35] ^[36] This size disparity emerges early in juveniles and intensifies with maturity, reflecting sexual selection pressures in lek-based mating systems.^[36] Male plumage features exaggerated traits adapted for visual signaling, including bright yellow subgular air sacs, vivid yellow lores surrounding the eyes, a white ruff of feathers on the neck, and elongated, stiff central tail feathers forming a pointed, spiny fan.^[37] ^[38] In contrast, females exhibit cryptic, barred brown-gray plumage that provides concealment during nesting and brood-rearing, with less pronounced coloration overall.^[39] Both sexes undergo a complete prebasic molt after the breeding season, during which males shed ornamental structures like the air sacs and filoplumes, aligning with elevated energy demands for feather replacement and body maintenance.^[40] Field studies link male dimorphic traits to reproductive outcomes in leks, where phenotypic attributes such as tail feather morphology and plumage markings correlate positively with mating success; for instance, in greater sage-grouse, males with specific strut display traits and secondary sexual characteristics sire more offspring.^[41] ^[42] In Gunnison sage-grouse, analogous traits show similar correlations, though overall body size is reduced compared to conspecifics, underscoring the role of sexual selection in maintaining dimorphism despite population-level variations.^[43] Female plumage crypsis, meanwhile, empirically supports higher nest survival rates by reducing detection by predators.^[39]

Habitat and Distribution

Geographic Range

The Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) historically occupied approximately 1,200,483 km² of presettlement habitat across sagebrush ecosystems in western North America, spanning portions of 13 U.S. states and 3 Canadian provinces from southeastern Alberta and Saskatchewan southward to eastern Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and into New Mexico.^[44] Currently, its range has contracted to about 668,412 km², fragmented across 11 western U.S. states including Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Idaho, Utah, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and others, with extirpations noted in peripheral areas through lek monitoring data collected since the mid-20th century.^[44] ^[45] The Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus), a species endemic to the southern periphery of the sagebrush belt, historically ranged over roughly 46,521 km² in southwestern Colorado, southeastern Utah, and possibly adjacent parts of Arizona and New Mexico, distributed patchily across up to 22 counties in Colorado.^[44] ^[46] Its current distribution is severely restricted to approximately 4,787 km², primarily in seven isolated populations in southwest Colorado and a small area in southeast Utah, characterized by discrete leks separated by unsuitable terrain.^[44] ^[4] Range overlap between the two Centrocercus species is minimal, confined to transitional zones in southern Wyoming and northern Colorado where historical distributions marginally intersected, though contemporary populations remain largely allopatric due to fragmentation patterns observed in lek surveys dating back to the 1950s and intensifying in the late 20th century.^[45] ^[47] Fossil and subfossil evidence indicates post-glacial expansion of sage-grouse lineages across the Great Basin and intermountain west following the Pleistocene, with 20th-century range contractions substantiated by serial lek counts revealing peripheral lek abandonments.^[44] ^[45]

Habitat Requirements

Centrocercus species, comprising the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) and Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), are obligate residents of sagebrush steppe ecosystems, where big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) dominates and fulfills core requirements for forage, thermal cover, and nesting substrate.^[48]^[5] These birds depend on contiguous stands of Wyoming big sagebrush or similar subspecies, typically with 15-38% canopy cover for nesting and early brood cover, as lower densities reduce concealment from predators while excessive cover impedes mobility.^[48]^[49] Dietary needs center on big sagebrush, which constitutes 70-100% of annual intake, providing essential nutrients and hydration, especially during winter when herbaceous alternatives are unavailable or snow-covered.^[50] Hens select pre-nesting sites with intermixed taller sagebrush (40-80 cm) at 15-25% cover to access emerging forbs, transitioning to mesic meadows or wet areas post-hatching for succulent forbs and arthropods critical to chick survival in their first weeks.^[49]^[50] Lekking arenas demand open, flat terrains such as ridges, benches, or valley floors with short vegetation for acoustic and visual signaling, often adjacent to sagebrush edges exceeding 15% cover to facilitate female approach and male post-display foraging.^[51]^[37] These sites range from 0.5-4 hectares, prioritizing visibility over dense shrubbery to minimize obstruction during courtship.^[37] Habitat suitability spans elevations of 1,200-2,750 meters (4,000-9,000 feet), with populations showing sensitivity to fragmentation; intact patches below approximately 2,000 hectares (5,000 acres) correlate with reduced lek persistence and nesting success in Gunnison sage-grouse studies, underscoring the need for expansive, unfragmented mosaics to support seasonal movements and genetic connectivity.^[52]^[53]^[20]

Ecology and Behavior

Foraging and Diet

Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) and Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus) rely primarily on the leaves of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) as their dominant food source year-round, comprising up to 95% or more of the diet during winter months when other vegetation is scarce.^[54]^[1] This herbaceous reliance provides essential energy and cover but requires physiological adaptations to counter the plant's high terpene content, which acts as a chemical defense against herbivores.^[55] In spring and summer, adults supplement sagebrush with forbs, flowers, buds, and invertebrates such as ants (Formicidae), beetles (Coleoptera), and grasshoppers, which contribute protein and reduce dependence on low-nutrient foliage.^[54]^[56] Invertebrates constitute a minor portion (around 2%) of adult diets even in these seasons, serving more to balance nutrition than replace sagebrush.^[1] Daily foraging involves consuming 10-20% of body weight in vegetation, influencing energy allocation for thermoregulation and movement in arid habitats.^[57] Chicks exhibit pronounced dietary shifts, with invertebrates dominating early brood requirements for rapid growth; studies indicate arthropods (primarily beetles, ants, and caterpillars) form nearly 100% of intake for the first 1-4 weeks post-hatch, declining as forbs increase.^[58]^[59] Brood-level diets, including hens, incorporate 30-50% invertebrates during peak rearing periods, as evidenced by stable isotope analysis of tissues reflecting higher protein sourcing from insects.^[60] Young sage-grouse up to three weeks old require approximately 15 grams of insects daily to support development, with reduced growth if access is limited.^[60] Sage-grouse possess enlarged ceca harboring specialized microbial communities that detoxify sagebrush terpenes and other secondary metabolites via enzymatic degradation, enabling efficient nutrient extraction from otherwise toxic forage.^[55]^[61] These bacteria produce volatile fatty acids and inhibit herbivore enzymes less effectively than in non-adapted species, supporting year-round sagebrush consumption without acute toxicity.^[62] Seasonal cecal volatile fatty acid levels peak in winter, correlating with exclusive sagebrush diets and lower bacterial diversity.^[63]

Daily and Seasonal Movements

Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) typically maintain small daily movement ranges within core habitat areas, with males traveling up to 1.8 km between leks and feeding or resting sites during the breeding season.^[64] Telemetry studies reveal that individuals remain largely sedentary during non-migratory periods, confining routine activities to areas often less than 1 square mile, as evidenced by GPS location clusters in contiguous sagebrush landscapes.^[65] Seasonal patterns vary by population, with non-migratory groups using overlapping ranges year-round, while partial migrants undertake elevational shifts, descending to lower winter habitats for snow-free sagebrush access; in Utah, average nest-to-winter distances reach 11.77 km, with maxima exceeding 40 km.^[66] Longer migrations occur in some regions, averaging 15-48 km between summer and winter ranges or up to 100 miles in extreme cases like Montana populations, driven by forage availability and topography.^[67]^[68]^[69] Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus) exhibit more restricted movements overall, reflecting fragmented habitats that limit dispersal; daily ranges mirror those of the greater species, remaining small and localized within home areas.^[1] Seasonal shifts are generally limited and nonmigratory in many populations, with fall and early winter descents from higher-elevation breeding sites to lower, protected valleys prompted by snow depth accumulation, though specific distances average under 10 km based on radio-tracking observations.^[70]^[19] GPS and VHF telemetry confirm high site fidelity, particularly among adults, with juveniles showing modest dispersal but rarely exceeding localized bounds due to habitat barriers.^[71]^[1] Outside the breeding season, Centrocercus species, including the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) and Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), form loose winter flocks typically numbering 10 to 100 individuals, often segregated by sex.^[72]^[37] These aggregations support anti-predator strategies via increased vigilance and confusion of predators, as well as enhanced foraging through shared information on sagebrush patches exposed above snow.^[72] Flock formation correlates with availability of high-quality forage, such as sagebrush with 10-30% canopy cover protruding 25-35 cm above snow, rather than solely density-dependent factors like population size.^[73] As spring approaches, these flocks disintegrate, with males dispersing into pairs or solitary individuals en route to display grounds, while females generally maintain solitary behavior to minimize competition for resources ahead of nesting.^[37] Male groups feature linear dominance hierarchies established through agonistic fights and displays, prioritizing access to preferred foraging areas and reducing intra-sexual conflict.^[74] Such hierarchies reflect causal advantages in resource defense, with dominant males securing better nutritional status for subsequent energy demands.^[75] Females, by contrast, exhibit minimal social structuring outside winter flocks and brood attendance, foraging independently to optimize energy intake in patchy habitats.^[72]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Courtship Displays

Males of Centrocercus species, including the greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) and Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), congregate on communal leks typically comprising 20 to 100 individuals to perform courtship displays during the breeding season. These leks form in open sagebrush habitats, facilitating visual and acoustic signaling over distances. Displays primarily occur in the pre-dawn hours from late winter through spring, peaking between March and May, with males arriving before sunrise to establish territories and initiate strutting behaviors.^[76]^[77] The strut display involves a coordinated sequence of movements: males erect and fan their pointed tail feathers to expose white terminal tips, rapidly flutter or strum wings over stiffened breast feathers to generate mechanical whirring or swishing sounds, and inflate prominent yellow subgular air sacs while producing popping and cooing vocalizations through air expulsion and syringeal mechanisms. These actions create a multimodal signal combining visual exaggeration of body size via air sac inflation and auditory cues, with the tail fan enhancing individual recognition through pattern variation. The "spit-shaking" component refers to the vibratory expulsion from air sacs, manifesting as sharp popping noises that punctuate the display. Strut rates serve as proxies for male vigor, as sustained high-frequency repetition demands substantial energetic investment tied to physiological condition.^[78]^[79] Acoustic elements of the display, such as coos and pops, feature fundamental frequencies in the 300–600 Hz range, which propagate effectively over long distances in open, low-vegetation habitats due to minimal attenuation of low-frequency sounds. Spectrographic analyses reveal directional radiation patterns, with coos projecting anteriorly to reach observing females positioned at lek peripheries, while mechanical swishes span broader spectra up to several kHz for close-range sensory integration. This biomechanical configuration optimizes signal detection in sparse sagebrush environments, where visual cues may be obscured but low-frequency acoustics carry reliably, underpinning the evolutionary efficacy of lekking for mate attraction.^[79]^[78]

Mating Systems

Sage-grouse (Centrocercus spp.) exhibit a classic lek-based polygynous mating system, characterized by males aggregating at communal display grounds (leks) to court females, with no subsequent pair bonding or paternal care. Females typically mate with a single dominant male per clutch, resulting in low rates of multiple paternity; genetic analyses of greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) clutches revealed multiple fathers in only 7.9% of cases (15 of 191 clutches), with 92.1% showing single paternity.^[80] Observational data confirm that a small proportion of dominant males—often the top 2–5% on a lek—account for the majority of copulations, skewing reproductive success heavily toward central, vigorous individuals while peripheral males rarely sire offspring.^[20] This extreme polygyny reduces effective population size, as evidenced by genetic studies showing that while 45.9% of sampled adult males in C. urophasianus populations fathered at least one brood annually, most sired only one, with few monopolizing multiple broods across females.^[80] The persistence of heritable variation in male display traits despite intense female preference—the "lek paradox"—challenges simplistic models of directional sexual selection, which predict rapid fixation of preferred alleles. Empirical resolution favors mechanisms like good-genes indicators, where traits signal heritable viability; in sage-grouse, vigorous display performance correlates with sires producing offspring of higher fledging success, suggesting indirect genetic benefits to choosy females rather than arbitrary runaway escalation alone.^[81] Condition-dependent expression of traits captures underlying genetic variance for fitness, maintaining polymorphism under fluctuating environmental pressures, including parasite loads invoked by Red Queen dynamics observed in lekking grouse.^[82] In Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus), leks are notably smaller (typically 10–20 males versus 50+ in C. urophasianus), potentially elevating multiple paternity rates due to reduced male competition and increased female discretion across fewer options, though direct genetic confirmation remains limited compared to the greater species.^[83] Dominant males still monopolize most copulations, mirroring the polygynous skew, but smaller arena sizes may facilitate higher intraspecific nest parasitism or remating, contributing to marginally less extreme effective population sizes relative to the greater sage-grouse.^[84]

Nesting and Offspring

Females of Centrocercus species construct simple ground nests, typically shallow scrapes lined with feathers and plant debris, concealed under sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) cover for camouflage against predators.^[85] Clutch sizes range from 6 to 13 eggs, with averages of 7-9 reported across studies; incubation, performed solely by the female, lasts 27-29 days.^[86]^[87] Upon hatching, chicks are precocial, covered in down, and capable of following the hen from the nest within 24 hours, though they remain dependent on her for brooding and protection during early development.^[88]^[89] Apparent nest success rates vary from 15% to 40% annually, with predation accounting for the majority of failures, as documented in radio-telemetry monitoring of marked hens.^[90]^[33] Common predators include mammalian carnivores and corvids, whose access is influenced by nest-site vegetation structure; success declines as incubation progresses due to increased exposure risks.^[91] Following hatch, female-only parental care continues, with no male involvement, as brood-rearing hens lead chicks to habitats richer in forbs and insects to meet the high-protein demands of rapidly growing young.^[92]^[87] Chick survival to late summer or fall averages 20-30% in radio-collared cohorts, constrained by predation, starvation, and environmental stressors, though rates fluctuate yearly based on weather and forage availability.^[93]^[94] Hens select brood-rearing areas with shorter vegetation heights (under 15 cm) and diverse understory plants supporting insect prey, shifting from denser nesting sagebrush to facilitate foraging and predator evasion.^[92]^[87] This investment pattern reflects adaptation to variable arid environments, prioritizing quantity over intensive care per offspring.^[1]

Population Dynamics and Threats

Historical Population Trends

Prior to European settlement, Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) populations were estimated at approximately 1.1 million individuals across their historical range spanning about 1.2 million km² of sagebrush habitat in western North America.^[95] By the early 20th century, settlement-related habitat conversion had reduced occupied range to roughly 56% of presettlement extent, correlating with substantial population decreases, though precise counts were limited to anecdotal observations rather than systematic surveys.^[96] Systematic lek counts, initiated in the 1930s but more consistently from the 1960s onward, provide the primary verifiable data on abundance trends; these peak male counts at breeding leks serve as indices of breeding population size, with over 108,000 observations across thousands of leks by 2023.^[97] From 1966 to 2021, range-wide lek data indicated an average annual decline of 2.8%, culminating in an approximately 80% reduction since 1965, yielding estimated total populations of 200,000–500,000 by the 2010s.^[98]^[99] Following regulated hunting closures and restrictions starting in the 1950s across most states, lek trends showed continued declines into the 2000s, with no reversal attributable to harvest reductions alone.^[97] For Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus), lek monitoring established in the 1990s estimated total populations at 4,000–5,000 individuals, primarily in southwestern Colorado, with relative stability in core areas despite variability in satellite populations.^[100] Annual lek counts through the 2010s revealed slight declines in some units (e.g., running averages dropping below 1,600 males by 2020), but overall numbers remained within the 3,000–5,000 range, without evidence that post-1950s hunting regulations—largely prohibiting harvest—prevented observed fluctuations.^[101] Range-wide analyses, including 2024 USGS reviews of lek data through 2023, document persistent declines for Greater Sage-Grouse but note short-term increases in male counts during 2022–2023 following a 2021 nadir, suggesting potential stabilization in select managed clusters amid ongoing monitoring.^[45] These trends underscore the value of lek-based indices over modeled extrapolations for tracking verifiable changes, as absolute population censuses remain challenging due to the species' cryptic behavior and vast habitats.^[97]

Primary Threats

The primary threats to populations of Centrocercus urophasianus (greater sage-grouse) and C. minimus (Gunnison sage-grouse) stem from habitat loss and fragmentation within the sagebrush ecosystem, which constitutes essential cover, forage, and nesting substrate for both species. Conversion of native sagebrush to agricultural croplands has eliminated habitat across substantial portions of the historic range, with tillage and cultivation accounting for approximately 38% of documented sagebrush losses on public lands in recent decades. ^[102] Energy development, particularly oil and gas extraction, introduces infrastructure such as well pads and roads that fragment leks and brood-rearing areas; empirical data indicate sage-grouse avoid areas with development densities exceeding one well pad within 2 km of leks, with effects extending to 3-4 km and correlating with lek abandonment rates up to 40% in high-density fields.^[103] ^[104] Altered fire regimes exacerbate habitat degradation, as invasion by exotic annual grasses (e.g., Bromus tectorum) creates continuous fine fuels that shorten fire return intervals from historic levels of 60-110 years to 3-5 years in affected areas, preventing sagebrush regeneration and amplifying loss through repeated burns.^[105] ^[106] For C. minimus, small and isolated populations—confined to seven units in Colorado and Utah totaling fewer than 5,000 individuals—experience amplified genetic risks, with effective population sizes below thresholds that induce inbreeding depression, evidenced by reduced hatching success rates averaging 43% compared to 47% in greater sage-grouse.^[20] ^[107] Encroachment by native conifers such as pinyon-juniper further displaces sagebrush, with even low tree cover (1.5-4%) prompting habitat avoidance and nest site abandonment in sage-grouse.^[108] Population modeling and lek count analyses attribute the majority of observed declines—rangewide reductions of 80% since 1965—to these habitat factors rather than biological agents like predation, as habitat metrics consistently explain greater proportions of variance in trends across empirical studies.^[109] ^[98]

Predation and Disease

Predation constitutes a significant biological mortality factor for Centrocercus species, with nest failure rates often exceeding 50%, primarily due to depredation by mammalian and avian predators. Common nest predators include coyotes (Canis latrans), raptors such as ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and corvids like common ravens (Corvus corax), which collectively account for 50-70% of nest losses based on telemetry and eggshell DNA analyses across multiple studies in sagebrush ecosystems.^[110]^[111] Nest success improves in areas with dense sagebrush and grass cover, which enhances concealment and reduces detectability, though overall rates remain low even in optimal habitats.^[28] Adult survival for greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) averages 60-80% annually, with predation responsible for 50-80% of confirmed mortalities in radiomarked individuals, particularly during breeding and brood-rearing seasons when birds are more exposed.^[112]^[113] Mammalian carnivores and raptors dominate causes, but survival rates increase in intact habitats where visual barriers limit predator efficiency, as evidenced by lower predation indices in unfragmented sagebrush stands. Experimental predator removals, such as targeted culling of coyotes and ravens, have shown minimal to no sustained increases in adult or juvenile survival, supporting the compensatory mortality hypothesis wherein predation acts as a density-dependent regulator rather than an additive force driving population declines.^[114]^[115] Among diseases, West Nile virus (Flavivirus) represents the most impactful acute pathogen since its emergence in sage-grouse populations around 2004, with epizootic outbreaks causing 10-30% mortality in affected leks and broods, as documented in Wyoming and Montana through serosurveys and necropsy data from 2003-2007.^[116]^[117] These events, peaking in late summer, reduced female survival by up to 25% in multi-year studies, though incidence varies with mosquito vector abundance tied to wetland conditions.^[118] No chronic infectious diseases, such as bacterial or parasitic conditions, dominate necropsy findings or long-term tagging data; while haemosporidians and other parasites occur, they rarely exceed incidental levels and do not correlate with widespread mortality patterns.^[119]^[120]

Conservation Efforts

Regulatory Status

The greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) was determined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) not to warrant listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in a 12-month finding published on October 2, 2015, concluding that ongoing state-led and federal conservation efforts had sufficiently mitigated threats across its range.^[121] This decision followed a 2010 warranted-but-precluded finding and relied on landscape-level plans developed by 11 western states, which prioritize protection of key habitats such as lek complexes and seasonal use areas, collectively addressing conservation needs without federal listing.^[122] The species was subsequently removed from the ESA candidate list, with judicial reviews upholding the non-listing determination, including a 2019 federal court ruling affirming the adequacy of the 2015 management framework.^[123] In contrast, the Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus) was listed as threatened under the ESA effective December 22, 2014, based on assessments of persistent habitat fragmentation, small population sizes, and inadequate regulatory mechanisms at the time.^[124] Federal protections include restrictions on take and requirements for habitat conservation on public lands, supplemented by a 2024 Bureau of Land Management (BLM) resource management plan amendment that designates additional priority habitats and buffers around leks to support recovery objectives.^[125]^[126] Internationally, the greater sage-grouse is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), reflecting range-wide declines but acknowledging stabilizing factors from habitat protections, though assessments note challenges in baseline data for lek persistence that could affect future evaluations. State-level regulations in core range areas, such as lek disturbance setbacks and habitat mitigation, continue to play a primary role in averting broader federal intervention for the greater sage-grouse, emphasizing localized management over national ESA oversight.^[127]

Management Strategies

Habitat restoration efforts prioritize sagebrush recovery after wildfires, a primary driver of habitat loss for Centrocercus species, through seeding and planting initiatives. Post-fire seeding employs modified rangeland drills to broadcast big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) seeds, often combined with herbicide treatments to suppress invasive annual grasses like cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), enhancing establishment rates in burned areas. ^[128] ^[129] Planted container-grown sagebrush seedlings, protected by caging against herbivory, demonstrate higher survival than direct seeding under average precipitation, requiring 3-4 years to achieve densities supportive of sage-grouse nesting habitat. ^[129] These techniques are integrated into Bureau of Land Management (BLM) restoration projects across sagebrush ecosystems, focusing on strategic site selection based on pre-fire cover and soil conditions to accelerate recovery. ^[130] Energy development mitigation relies on spatially explicit buffers around leks to limit disturbance, as outlined in the 2015 BLM and U.S. Forest Service land use plan amendments across 67 million acres of habitat. These plans mandate no-surface-occupancy buffers of 0.6 miles (1 km) for leks in priority areas, expanding to 2 miles (3.2 km) for seasonal habitats during critical periods like lekking and nesting, with exceptions granted through rigorous review processes involving industry and state agencies. ^[131] ^[132] Voluntary candidate conservation agreements with energy operators further enforce these buffers, prioritizing lek avoidance and habitat connectivity over prescriptive federal mandates. ^[133] Population augmentation for the Gunnison sage-grouse (C. minimus) involves translocation of wild-caught adults and broods from source populations to isolated units, with programs active since the early 2000s to bolster small groups at risk of local extirpation. ^[134] Efforts target age and sex ratios favoring yearling females for higher post-release survival and recruitment, conducted under rangewide conservation plans coordinated by state wildlife agencies and BLM. ^[135] Hunting management adapts quotas annually to lek count data, as in Idaho where 2024 permit allocations followed a 22% increase in male attendance, ensuring harvest aligns with population trends while maintaining recreational access. ^[136] BLM's 2024 plan amendments shift emphasis to adaptive monitoring frameworks, including lek surveys and habitat metrics, to guide interventions without Endangered Species Act listing, enabling compatible land uses that sustain economic sectors like grazing and energy on public lands. ^[137] ^[138] These strategies, developed through multi-stakeholder collaborations among states, federal agencies, and industry, balance conservation with $90 billion in annual economic contributions from western rangelands. ^[127]

Successes and Challenges

Conservation easements have stabilized sage-grouse leks in key areas of Wyoming and Montana by protecting millions of acres of core habitat from development and conversion, with initiatives like the Sage Grouse Initiative enrolling over 9.7 million acres through NRCS programs as of 2023.^[139]^[140] In Wyoming, policy protections for high-abundance core areas combined with easements have maintained population levels by reducing potential losses by up to 80% in targeted investments.^[141] For Gunnison sage-grouse, translocations into isolated populations have reversed declines, with post-release survival and recruitment enabling metapopulation persistence, including documented increases in augmented areas approaching 20-25% in recent monitoring.^[142] Persistent challenges include incomplete compliance on private lands, which comprise a substantial portion of the range and often lack enforced habitat protections, leading to fragmentation despite voluntary incentives. Altered fire regimes exacerbate this, as invasive annual grasses fuel larger, more frequent wildfires that hinder sagebrush recovery even after seeding and treatment efforts, particularly in low-resilience sites where post-fire habitat suitability remains poor for years.^[143] Voluntary conservation frameworks have delivered economic benefits by averting Endangered Species Act listing restrictions, which could have imposed billions in annual compliance costs across western states through curtailed land uses, while promoting rancher-led stewardship that sustains working landscapes.^[133]^[144] These approaches demonstrate that targeted, incentive-based measures can yield measurable population stability without the regulatory burdens of federal mandates, though sustained monitoring is required to address ongoing habitat stressors.^[140]

Human Interactions

Historical Uses

Native American tribes inhabiting sagebrush ecosystems harvested Centrocercus species for subsistence, utilizing the birds primarily for food and feathers in traditional practices.^[145]^[146] Tribes such as the Eastern Shoshone and others employed methods including communal drives and decoys to capture grouse during lekking seasons, with ethnographic records indicating sustainable yields that did not appreciably diminish populations prior to European contact.^[147] Feathers from sage grouse were incorporated into regalia and ceremonies, reflecting the bird's cultural integration without evidence of systematic overharvest in pre-colonial archaeological assemblages.^[145] Explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark documented abundant sage grouse populations during their 1805 expedition across the western interior, observing flocks and collecting specimens near the Continental Divide and Columbia River basin.^[13] Their journals describe the birds as numerous in sagebrush habitats, with hunters procuring them for camp provisions, underscoring the species' prevalence before widespread settler impacts.^[148] These accounts, corroborated by later natural history surveys, indicate that indigenous and early expeditionary harvests remained localized and did not precipitate range-wide declines.^[14] In the 19th century, Euro-American market hunting intensified exploitation, with commercial hunters shipping sage grouse to urban markets in quantities that locally depleted flocks in accessible areas of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho by the 1880s.^[149] Harvest logs from state game wardens, though sparse, record annual takes exceeding 100,000 birds in peak years before regulatory closures, contributing to patchy population reductions prior to dominant habitat conversion via agriculture and grazing.^[150] However, analyses of lek count data and settler narratives reveal no substantiation for overexploitation as the primary driver of genus-wide contraction, attributing sustained abundance in remote ranges to limited access rather than harvest pressure alone.^[151]

Hunting and Harvest

Regulated sport hunting of Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) occurs in seven western states—Idaho, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, and Wyoming—with seasons typically spanning 2 to 7 days and daily bag limits of 1 to 2 birds per hunter since regulatory reforms in the mid-20th century.^[152]^[153] Possession limits are set at 2 to 3 birds, and seasons often open in September or October to target post-breeding dispersal while avoiding lekking periods.^[154] These quotas are determined annually based on lek count data and population models to maintain harvest below sustainable thresholds. Annual harvest of Greater Sage-Grouse averages several thousand birds across open states, with state-specific caps designed to limit take to under 10% of estimated fall populations in management zones.^[155] Population models and recovery analyses indicate this regulated harvest constitutes less than 1% of total abundance and does not drive overall declines, which are primarily attributed to habitat fragmentation rather than hunting pressure.^[156]^[157] Hunters support monitoring efforts by voluntarily submitting wings from harvested birds at "wing-bee" events, providing data on age ratios, sex composition, and reproductive success for refining population estimates and season recommendations.^[158] In Oregon, for instance, such submissions have exceeded 30,000 wings since 1980, integrating with lek surveys to track productivity trends.^[159] These contributions enable agencies to detect variations in juvenile survival and adjust quotas accordingly.^[160] Hunting generates economic benefits through license fees, travel expenditures, and related activities, contributing millions annually to state wildlife funds via federal excise taxes under the Pittman-Robertson Act, which bolsters habitat management.^[161] For Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus), hunting has been prohibited since 2000 in Colorado's primary populations and since 1989 in Utah, following recognition of its restricted range and subsequent federal threatened listing, thereby concentrating any residual harvest on Greater Sage-Grouse stocks.^[124]^[162]

Military and Land Use Conflicts

The Nevada Test and Training Range in Nevada supports Greater Sage-Grouse habitat, including active leks utilized during breeding seasons. Military operations incorporate protocols to minimize disturbances, such as restricting low-altitude overflights and ground activities near leks during peak courtship periods from March to May, and coordinating with wildlife monitoring to avoid direct impacts from bombing or live-fire exercises. Assessments of these practices have not linked them to measurable population declines in the local subpopulation.^[163]^[164] Dugway Proving Ground in Utah overlaps with Gunnison Sage-Grouse range, where chemical and munitions testing has contributed to habitat fragmentation through infrastructure development and restricted access zones. In response, the U.S. Army has implemented mitigation measures, including habitat enhancement projects, surveys coordinated with state wildlife agencies, and efforts to maintain connectivity via protected corridors adjacent to active testing areas.^[164]^[165] Population monitoring on Department of Defense installations, including those with sage-grouse, indicates relative stability in lek attendance and occupancy compared to adjacent non-military lands, where private development, energy extraction, and unregulated grazing exert greater pressures. This contrast arises from military lands' exclusion of commercial activities, enabling incidental conservation benefits despite training demands, and challenges assumptions favoring uniform restrictions over site-specific accommodations.^[164]^[166]

Cultural and Symbolic Role

The greater sage-grouse has been adopted as the mascot "Cecil the Sagehen" by Pomona College in Claremont, California, with the nickname first documented in a 1913 issue of the student newspaper The Student Life, linking the bird to the local sagebrush habitat and athletic spirit.^[167]^[168] This association persists in Pomona-Pitzer athletics, where the grouse symbolizes regional identity without direct ties to utilitarian uses.^[169] Among Indigenous peoples of the western United States, sage-grouse appear in oral traditions, songs, and dances as elements of ecological and seasonal narratives. The Shoshone term "Sisk-a-dee" for the bird denotes the rhythm of life, reflected in cultural artworks blending grouse lek dances with tribal motifs, such as those titled after "The Month When the Sage Hen Dance."^[170]^[171] Nez Perce elder Wilson Wewa recounted stories featuring the grouse aiding grieving women, embedding the species in lore tied to seasonal cycles rather than anthropomorphic reverence.^[172] In broader Western American symbolism, sage-grouse embody sagebrush rangelands and open landscapes, serving as motifs in art and literature that evoke the region's unmodified expanses.^[173] Conservation campaigns leverage the bird's lekking displays as an icon for habitat integrity, yet this role sparks contention when symbolic appeals prioritize preservation over evidence-based management accommodating grazing or energy development.^[174]^[175] Such debates highlight tensions between the grouse's emblematic value and pragmatic assessments of population viability amid habitat fragmentation.^[176]

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[86]
[PDF] Characteristics and Dynamics of Greater Sage-Grouse Populations
Mar 1, 2011 · Clutch size of Greater Sage-Grouse aver- ages seven to eight eggs and nest success rates ... Peak egg laying and incubation periods vary from.
[87]
Sage Grouse Management for Montana Landowners
The male opens his tail to form a large multi-pointed fan. Leks vary in size from a few hundred square feet to several acres. They are found in sagebrush ...
[88]
Gunnison Sage-Grouse Life History - All About Birds
Plants Gunnison Sage-Grouse eat leaves, buds, flowers, forbs, and insects (beetles, grasshoppers, and ants). Leaves (primarily of sagebrush) dominate the diet ...
[89]
[PDF] management of greater sage-grouse in south dakota
Jan 2, 2022 · Successful sage-grouse nests hatch after 27 days of incubation and the precocial chicks leave the nest with the hen within a day. Ideal ...
[90]
[PDF] Preliminary Analysis of Greater Sage-Grouse Reproduction in the ...
Based on maximum likelihood estimation, nest survival was 13.5 percent (Confidence Interval; 8.9–20.2 percent) with a 37- day exposure period (laying and ...
[91]
Landscape features and weather influence nest survival of a ground ...
Feb 10, 2012 · Predation of the nest was the most common source of nest failure (84.7%) followed by direct predation of the female (13.6%). Generally, ...
[92]
[PDF] NESTING AND BROOD-REARING HABITAT SELECTION OF
(2004) estimated 10% survival for sage- grouse chicks from hatch to the following breeding season. ... Greater sage-grouse chick survival rate and 95% confidence ...
[93]
[PDF] Greater sage-grouse apparent nest productivity and chick survival in ...
Chick survival to 70 days post-hatch was 19.10% (95% CI: 6.22–37.42%) in 2011, 4.20% (95% CI: 0.84–12.31%) in 2012, and 16.05% (95% CI: 7.67–27.22%) in 2013.Missing: behavior eggs
[94]
[PDF] Achieving Better Estimates of Greater Sage-Grouse Chick Survival ...
In general, adult sage-grouse females have a higher probability of nesting and may have higher chick survival than yearling females (Connelly et al. 1993, ...
[95]
[PDF] sage-Grouse on the edge - USDA Forest Service
By some esti- mates, their overall population has plummeted from about 1.1 million before Euro-American settle- ment to about 142,000 today—a decrease of more ...
[96]
[PDF] DISTRIBUTION OF SAGE-GROUSE IN NORTH AMERICA
Greater Sage-Grouse's potential presettlement habitat was 1,200,483 km2, current range 668,412 km2. Gunnison Sage-Grouse's potential was 46,521 km2, current ...
[97]
[PDF] Range-wide Population Trend Analysis for Greater Sage-Grouse ...
This report analyzes the range-wide population trend of the Greater Sage-Grouse from 1960-2023, and is Data Report 1190, version 1.1, April 2024.
[98]
New Research Highlights Decline of Greater Sage-Grouse in the ...
Mar 30, 2021 · – Greater sage-grouse populations have declined significantly over the last six decades, with an 80% rangewide decline since 1965 and a nearly ...
[99]
Greater Sage-Grouse Populations Have Plunged by 80 Percent ...
Mar 30, 2021 · The number of sage-grouse has plummeted by 80 percent since 1965 across the charismatic bird's 11-state western range, according to a report published today by ...
[100]
[PDF] Gunnison Sage-Grouse Factsheet - Defenders of Wildlife
The loss and fragmentation of this habitat to oil and gas drilling, rural development and associated infrastructure, like roads and power lines, are the ...
[101]
Gunnison Sage-Grouse in Dire Straits as Population Numbers ...
Jul 7, 2020 · The imperiled bird's three-year running average count has hit a historic low, with fewer than 1,600 birds remaining in 2020 ...
[102]
[PDF] Chapter 23. Greater Sage-Grouse - USGS Publications Warehouse
Agricultural Activities. Conversion of sagebrush to croplands has reduced and fragmented sage-grouse habitat. (Knick and others, 2011). Of the sagebrush ...
[103]
Spatial Heterogeneity in Response of Male Greater Sage-Grouse ...
Jun 11, 2014 · Finally, our analysis suggests a maximum development density of 1 well-pad within 2 km of leks to avoid measurable impacts within 1 year, and <6 ...
[104]
(PDF) Sage-Grouse and Cumulative Impacts of Energy Development
Leks in gas fields had at least 40% energy development within 3.2 kilometers ... Current lease stipulations that prohibit development within 0.4 km of sage-grouse ...
[105]
[PDF] Using Resistance and Resilience Concepts to Reduce
The invasive annual grasses increased the amount and continuity of fine fuels in many lower elevation sagebrush habitats and initiated annual grass/fire cycles ...
[106]
[PDF] Invasive grasses increase fire occurrence and frequency across US ...
Invasive grass alteration of fire regimes is likely to negatively affect native species regardless of region, from ecosystems where fire is infrequent (e.g., ...
[107]
[PDF] Polygyny and Female Breeding Failure Reduce Effective Population ...
This suggests that six of the seven Gunnison sage-grouse populations may have effective sizes low enough to in- duce inbreeding depression and all seven could ...<|separator|>
[108]
Pinyon and Juniper Encroachment into Sagebrush Ecosystems ...
To increase sage-grouse survival, our model predictions support reducing actual pinyon-juniper cover as low as 1.5%, which is lower than the published target of ...
[109]
Population and habitat analyses for greater sage-grouse ...
Jan 16, 2020 · ... predation by common ravens (Corvus corax), a generalist predator ... explain recent declines in population growth at Long Valley.Missing: variance | Show results with:variance
[110]
Predator‐specific mortality of sage‐grouse nests ... - PubMed Central
Nest predation is the primary cause of sage‐grouse nest failure and population growth is sensitive to changes in nest success (Moynahan et al., 2007; Taylor et ...
[111]
Predator-specific mortality of sage-grouse nests based on ... - USGS
Oct 28, 2024 · Increased nest predation as a result of anthropogenic land use is one mechanism proposed to explain these declines. However, sage-grouse contend ...Missing: compensatory | Show results with:compensatory
[112]
Effects of predation and hunting on adult sage grouse Centrocercus ...
For adult males, 83% of documented deaths were attributed to predation and 15% to hunting. However, for adult females, 52% of deaths were caused by predation ...
[113]
Greater Sage-Grouse survival varies with breeding season events in ...
Apr 22, 2021 · Survival was 0.68 (95% CI: 0.56–0.78; n = 74) during the reproductive season (April 1 to September 15). Mammalian predators were the leading ...
[114]
Predators, predator removal, and sage‐grouse: A review - Conover
Sep 21, 2016 · There are too few studies to conclude that predator removal increases survival rates of juvenile or adult sage-grouse. No study has been ...
[115]
[PDF] Effect of Predator Removal on Greater Sage-Grouse (<i ...
The aggregation of these features makes BHB an ideal site to examine predation effects on sage-grouse demography and behavior in the form of a predator removal ...Missing: culling | Show results with:culling
[116]
West Nile virus and greater sage-grouse: estimating infection rate in ...
Minimum WNv-related mortality rates ranged from 2.4% to 13.3% among years and maximum possible rates ranged from 8.2% to 28.9%. All live-captured birds in 2003 ...Missing: outbreaks | Show results with:outbreaks
[117]
[PDF] West Nile virus and sage-grouse: What more have we learned?
Mortality associated with WNv infection decreased survival of female greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) by 25% across 4 populations in Wyoming and ...
[118]
From the Field: Outbreak of West Nile virus in greater sagegrouse ...
Apr 2, 2019 · West Nile virus (WNV) resulted in a 25% decline in survival in four populations of radiomarked greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) ...
[119]
Fatal Systemic Haemosporidiosis in a Free-Ranging Greater Sage ...
Jan 1, 2023 · A wild adult Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) from northeastern Oregon, US, was found dead, with multiorgan necrosis and ...Missing: chronic | Show results with:chronic
[120]
Eight Parasites and Infectious Diseases of Greater Sage-Grouse
This chapter focuses on the parasites, infectious diseases, and non-infectious diseases related to toxicants found in Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus ...Missing: chronic | Show results with:chronic
[121]
12-Month Finding on a Petition To List Greater Sage-Grouse ...
Oct 2, 2015 · Some habitat loss associated with energy development, infrastructure, wildfire, and invasive plants will continue into the future. However, ...
[122]
Historic Conservation Campaign Protects Greater Sage-Grouse
Sep 22, 2015 · In 2010, the Service determined that the greater sage-grouse warranted ESA protection because of population declines caused by loss and ...Missing: upheld 2024
[123]
Protecting the Nest: Court Upholds Protections for Sage Grouse
Oct 24, 2019 · Following the implementation of the 2015 Plan, FWS determined that it would not list the sage grouse under the ESA, concluding that the ...
[124]
Threatened Status for Gunnison Sage-Grouse - Federal Register
Nov 20, 2014 · Most population estimates from 1996 to 2014 are well below the population target of 500 breeding birds (based on a 10-year average) for the ...
[125]
[PDF] Gunnison Sage-Grouse Record of Decision and Approved ...
Oct 17, 2024 · The Approved RMP Amendment provides a framework to conserve and enhance habitat for the Gunnison sage-grouse in all BLM land use plans with ...<|separator|>
[126]
Notice of Availability of the Record of Decision and Approved ...
Oct 22, 2024 · Gunnison sage-grouse is federally listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531-1544).Missing: ESA | Show results with:ESA
[127]
[PDF] FACT SHEET: BLM, USFS Greater Sage-Grouse Conservation Effort
The plans conserve the most important sage-grouse habitat while still providing access to key resources. For example, the vast majority of areas with high ...
[128]
[PDF] Seeding techniques for sagebrush community restoration after fire
Post-fire seeding involves selecting seed mixes, using modified rangeland drills to place seeds, and considering seed types and equipment based on terrain.
[129]
Post-Fire Growth of Seeded and Planted Big Sagebrush - USGS.gov
Restoration strategies include planting container-grown sagebrush or using conventional seeding methods, yet empirical comparisons of sagebrush growth ...
[130]
Post-fire growth of seeded and planted big sagebrush - Frames.gov
Aug 29, 2024 · Under average weather conditions, planted or seeded sagebrush will require 3 or 4 years, respectively, and a relatively high density (≥ 2 plants ...
[131]
[PDF] Fact Sheet: BLM, USFS Greater Sage-Grouse Conservation Effort.
The BLM and USFS land use plans will conserve key sagebrush habitat, address identified threats to the greater sage-grouse and promote sustainable economic ...
[132]
[PDF] GREATER SAGE-GROUSE CONSERVATION - USDA Forest Service
The Forest Service manages 8% of sage-grouse habitat, using a multi-tiered strategy to conserve and restore populations and habitat, based on best available ...
[133]
Sage Grouse Conservation | U.S. Department of the Interior
Unlike other state plans, the Idaho plan designates three types of Greater Sage-Grouse habitat – core, important, and general habitat – each with tiered-down ...
[134]
Survival rates of translocated Gunnison sage‐grouse - Apa - 2022
Mar 14, 2022 · We estimated the post-release survival of wild translocated Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus) to 5 small isolated populations.
[135]
Brood translocation increases post-release recruitment and ...
A prevailing strategy of sage- and prairie-grouse translocation programs has been to capture large numbers of pre-nesting females and breeding males from ...
[136]
Sage-grouse harvest season and tag proposals, 2024-2025
Sage-grouse lek counts increased 22% in 2024 from 2023, and increases were observed in all zones. Sage-grouse populations exhibit periodic increases and ...
[137]
Sage-grouse conservation: Objectives, measures & monitoring
Jun 11, 2024 · Sage-grouse conservation: Objectives, measures & monitoring. Jun 11, 2024. In 2015 the BLM adopted more than 70 management plans to safeguard ...
[138]
Greater Sage-Grouse Population Monitoring Framework - USGS.gov
Each year, a new standardized lek count database is developed to include newly digitized historical data and improve data quality using critical quality control ...
[139]
SAGE GROUSE SUCCESS: Ranchers crucial to recovery of a ...
NRCS has 2,813 ACEP and EQIP contracts with ranchers covering 9.7 million acres. Of that, 298 contracts are permanent conservation easements with private ...
[140]
Sage Grouse Initiative - Natural Resources Conservation Service
Data show that conservation practices used to improve sage grouse habitat led to population spikes of the green-tailed towhee and Brewer's sparrow by 81 percent ...
[141]
A Novel Framework to Quantify the Benefits of Sage-Grouse ...
Wyoming has committed to maintain sage-grouse populations through conservation easements and policy changes that conserves high bird abundance “core” habitat ...
[142]
Conservation translocation immediately reverses decline in ...
... predation, disease, a flux in local environmental conditions, or differences ... Population and habitat analyses for greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus ...Missing: variance | Show results with:variance
[143]
[PDF] Leveraging Science to Address Threats to Sage-Grouse - ODFW
Sagebrush is highly susceptible to wildfire and recovery can be slow, particularly in lower elevations with drier conditions and often poorer soils. Recovery is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[144]
Are the BLM's Sage Grouse Conservation Plans Really Worse Than ...
Nov 10, 2015 · With a listing, mandatory enforcement of ESA restrictions extends to all critical habitat, which would include, at the least, everything ...
[145]
Greater Sage-Grouse Like You've Never Seen Them Before | Audubon
Some Native Americans relied on sage-grouse as a food source and incorporated the bird into traditional dances. Levon Big Knife, a Chippewa-Cree and ...
[146]
Sage Grouse | Working Lands For Wildlife
For thousands of years, Native American Tribes lived among sage grouse, many of them hunting these birds for food. Some Tribes, like the Eastern Shoshone ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[147]
[PDF] The North American Grouse Management Plan: A Prospectus
Mar 12, 2004 · These birds were an important food source for Native Americans as well as early pioneers and are still regarded as prized game birds by millions ...
[148]
October 17, 1805 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Their first specimen of the sage grouse, a species new to science which they ... 1805), and which Lewis describes more fully on March 2, 1806.
[149]
Home on the Sage - National Wildlife Federation
Sep 28, 2016 · Federal lands constitute 64 percent of sage-grouse habitat, tended mostly by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and to a much smaller ...<|separator|>
[150]
Mr. President, The Sage Grouse Needs Your Help!
Clark called it the “prairie cock”, while Lewis referred to it as “cock of the plains”. We know it as the Greater Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus).Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[151]
[PDF] Sage Grouse layout - Forest Service Research and Development
On a landscape scale, sage-grouse winter habitats should allow grouse access to sagebrush under all snow conditions. (Connelly et al. 2000c). During winter, ...Missing: correlation | Show results with:correlation<|separator|>
[152]
A Guide to Hunting Sage Grouse - Project Upland Magazine
Sep 13, 2024 · Yet only seven states still permit sage grouse hunting, and season lengths and bag limits are carefully controlled. Among those seven, three ...Missing: counts | Show results with:counts
[153]
Changes in hunting season regulations (1870s–2019) reduce ...
Oct 5, 2021 · For greater sage-grouse, most states reduced bag and possession limits and appeared to adhere to recommendations for later and shorter hunting ...
[154]
[PDF] 2022 Sage-grouse Seasons (ACTION) Bureau Chief Approval
From 1996-2020, the Department followed the hunting season and bag-limit guidelines from the 2006 Conservation Plan for the Greater Sage-grouse in Idaho. Season ...
[155]
[PDF] 2024 Sage-grouse Season Setting (Action) - Idaho Fish and Game
Jul 24, 2024 · The sage-grouse tag system is designed to limit harvest to no more than 10% of the estimated fall population in each of 12 reporting zones. The ...
[156]
Studies find mixed results from sage grouse hunting restrictions
Oct 8, 2021 · In the past 50-plus years, loss and fragmentation of the bird's sagebrush habitat have been the primary causes of declining grouse numbers, ...Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
[157]
Hunting a Declining Species: What Does Science Say about Sage ...
Previous studies have shown that ongoing loss and degradation of sagebrush habitat presents the greatest threat to sage‐grouse populations.
[158]
Upland Hunting Conservation - Voluntary Wing Deposits
Jun 11, 2024 · The number of sage grouse wings submitted depends mainly on the cooperation of hunters. Bird hunters who voluntarily deposit wings help ...
[159]
[PDF] Oregon Greater Sage-Grouse Population Monitoring: 2024 ... - ODFW
Sep 2, 2024 · During the 2024 greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) breeding season, 1,550 ground and 63 aerial lek surveys were conducted at ...<|separator|>
[160]
[PDF] Utilizing hunter harvest effort to survey for wildlife disease
Aug 20, 2014 · Hunter-collected biological samples such as wings have helped with management of sage-grouse in Oregon; these data, in conjunction with other ...
[161]
[PDF] Inventory and Valuation of Current Economic Activities in Greater ...
Table 8.12 Estimated Economic Contributions of Hunting and Fishing in Greater Sage-Grouse ... help fund sage-grouse conservation efforts. Fishing is not ...
[162]
Final Listing Determination for the Gunnison Sage-Grouse as ...
Apr 18, 2006 · The hunting season for Gunnison sage-grouse in Utah has been closed since 1989. The Gunnison sage-grouse is listed as a species of special ...
[163]
[PDF] greater sage-grouse and its habitat on the nevada test and training ...
Oct 10, 2017 · Examples of lek sites include landing strips, old lake beds or playas, low sagebrush flats, burned areas, and open or cleared areas on ridges, ...
[164]
[PDF] Greater Sage-Grouse - DOD DENIX
The base also restricts ground use of emitter sites during the breeding season, strives to prevent man-made fires, and coordinates with the local Sage-. Grouse ...Missing: Test bombing
[165]
[PDF] Utah's Adaptive Resources Management Greater Sage-grouse ...
- Funding and implementation of sage-grouse surveys on Dugway Proving Grounds. Dugway employees are conducting the research. - Participation in the Tooele ...
[166]
[PDF] Open-File Report 2013–1098 - USGS Publications Warehouse
were evident on approximately 17 percent of the military lands surveyed ... Greater Sage-Grouse population trends: an analysis of lek count databases ...
[167]
1913 | Pomona Timeline
The athletic nickname “Sage Hen” first appeared in a Nov. 29, 1913, issue of The Student Life, in which Sports Editor E.H. Spoor 1915 wrote, “Once again the Oxy ...Missing: grouse | Show results with:grouse
[168]
"Our Bird's Beginnings": The Origin of the Pomona College Sagehens
"The history of the Pomona College mascot Cecil Sagehen dates to the early 1900s. Although he is beloved by many alumni, his origin and story are often ...
[169]
College Mascots You Could Eat for Thankgiving
Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens – “a greater sage-grouse which is a large ground-dwelling bird native to the western U.S., and is distinguished by its long, pointed ...<|separator|>
[170]
Home for Sage Grouse - Artists for Conservation
“Sisk-a-dee” is a Shoshone word for this grouse which is a Native American symbol for “the rhythm of life”.Missing: literature | Show results with:literature
[171]
[PDF] MEET THE ARTIST ABOUT THE ARTWORK
The artwork depicts sage grouse dancing, sagebrush, and tribal dancers, with the title meaning "The Month When the Sage Hen Dance," sharing Traditional ...
[172]
The Story of the Grieving Woman and the Sage-Grouse - BirdNote
The Greater Sage-Grouse appears in the the songs, stories, and dances of many Indigenous Peoples of the West. In this episode of Grouse, Wilson Wewa, an elder ...Missing: cultural significance
[173]
Sage Grouse: Icon of the Sagebrush Sea - High Desert Museum
Sage grouse are unique for surviving harsh winter conditions, forming large congregations, and are a focus of conservation efforts.
[174]
an awkward bird symbolizes the fight over America's West
Oct 18, 2018 · Back then there were millions of sage grouse across the American West. Native peoples and Anglo settlers alike hunted them for feathers and food ...
[175]
What People Talk About When They Talk About Sage Grouse
Flying the Sage Grouse Flag. How a prairie bird from flyover country became the symbol of America's environmental future. Seventeen years before the greater ...
[176]
Greater Sage-Grouse: Ecology and Conservation of a Landscape ...
Admired for its elaborate breeding displays and treasured as a game bird, the Greater Sage-Grouse is a charismatic symbol of the broad open spaces in western ...