Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Chellah

The Chellah is a fortified necropolis and archaeological complex in Rabat, Morocco, encompassing ruins from an ancient Roman city known as Sala Colonia, overlaid with medieval Islamic structures, and enclosed by 14th-century Marinid walls.^[1]^[2] It spans multiple historical layers, beginning with possible Phoenician origins in the 7th–6th centuries BCE, evolving into a prosperous Mauretanian trading center by the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, and flourishing as a Roman municipium from 40 CE until the early 5th century CE, before its transformation into a royal Marinid burial site between the 13th and 15th centuries.^[1] Established on a strategic hilltop overlooking the Bou Regreg River, the site's Roman phase featured key civic structures such as a forum, basilica, triumphal arch, baths, and temples dedicated to Roman deities, reflecting its role as a military and administrative outpost in the province of Mauretania Tingitana.^[1] After the Roman decline, the area lay largely abandoned until the Marinid dynasty repurposed it as a sacred necropolis, constructing ornate mausoleums with pointed arches, intricate zellige tilework, a mosque, and a towering minaret, which served as the final resting place for sultans and dignitaries.^[1] The enclosing walls, gates like the monumental Bab Chellah, and surrounding gardens with citrus groves and reflecting pools further enhance its layered architectural heritage, blending Punic, Roman, and Hispano-Moresque influences.^[1]^[2]^[3] Designated a historical monument in 1920 and inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage" in 2012, the Chellah exemplifies Rabat's synthesis of ancient, Islamic, and modern elements, underscoring Morocco's role as a crossroads of Mediterranean civilizations.^[1]^[2] Ongoing excavations, including discoveries of an ancient port district in 2023, continue to reveal artifacts such as mosaics, inscriptions, and urban layouts, highlighting its archaeological value comparable in scale to sites like Pompeii.^[1] Today, it functions as a public park and cultural venue, attracting visitors for its serene ambiance, stork-nested ruins, and annual music festivals that celebrate its enduring legacy.^[1]

Overview and Significance

Location and Geography

Chellah is located on the Atlantic coast in northwestern Morocco, at the mouth of the Bou Regreg River, on the left bank of its estuary, approximately 2 kilometers southeast of Rabat's city center.^[4]^[5] Recent excavations since 2023 have revealed an ancient urban footprint spanning about 3.15 square kilometers (315 hectares) and forming part of the broader UNESCO World Heritage property of Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City, integrating seamlessly into the surrounding metropolitan landscape.^[6]^[2] The core protected archaeological zone covers approximately 7 hectares.^[4] Topographically, Chellah occupies a rocky hilltop promontory that rises slightly above the fertile Bou Regreg river plain, offering panoramic views of the river estuary and the Atlantic Ocean; this elevated position, combined with its access to plentiful water sources, enhanced its suitability as an ancient port settlement.^[7]^[8]^[9] The underlying geology features locally quarried calcareous rocks, which have been used historically in construction and contribute to the site's durability amid coastal environmental conditions.^[10] In the modern era, Chellah is readily accessible via Rabat's public transportation network, including trams and taxis, and lies within easy reach of other historic sites such as the Kasbah of the Udayas, about 4 kilometers to the northwest along the riverfront.^[11]^[5]

Historical Layers and UNESCO Status

Chellah stands as a remarkable palimpsest of civilizations, featuring superimposed archaeological layers from Phoenician, Roman, and Islamic periods that illustrate the site's layered historical development.^[2] Initially established as a Phoenician-influenced Berber settlement around the 7th–6th centuries BCE, it served as a trading post with early structures like dry stone temples and a street network.^[4] Under Roman rule from the 1st century CE, it evolved into a municipium known as Sala Colonia, incorporating monumental architecture such as a capitol, basilica, baths, and an octagonal nymphaeum fed by an aqueduct, reflecting imperial urban planning.^[4] In the medieval Islamic era, particularly during the Marinid dynasty (13th–14th centuries), Chellah was repurposed as a royal necropolis, marked by a fortified enclosure enclosing a mosque, madrasa, hammam, and dynastic tombs, transforming the ancient ruins into a sacred pilgrimage site.^[4] This evolution underscores the site's adaptive reuse across eras, from a commercial and administrative center in antiquity to a commemorative Islamic complex emphasizing spiritual and political legacy.^[12] Recognized for its outstanding universal value, Chellah was inscribed in 2012 as part of the UNESCO World Heritage site "Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage," encompassing 348.59 hectares including Chellah's 7-hectare archaeological zone.^[2] It meets Criterion (ii) for bearing exceptional testimony to cultural exchanges in architecture and town planning across Arabo-Muslim, ancient, and European influences, and Criterion (iv) as an exemplary model of a modern capital integrating historical layers.^[2] In Moroccan history, Chellah symbolizes continuity from antiquity to medieval Islam, evidencing persistent occupation and cultural synthesis through dynastic transitions.^[12]

Historical Development

Phoenician and Pre-Roman Origins

The site of Chellah, anciently known as Sala, represents one of the westernmost outposts of Phoenician maritime expansion along the Atlantic coast of North Africa. Archaeological investigations have uncovered evidence of Phoenician presence dating to the 7th century BCE, including fragments of characteristic Phoenician pottery such as red-slip wares, alongside indications of early structural features like walls that were later incorporated into subsequent occupations.^[13]^[14] This material attests to Sala's role as a modest trading emporium, strategically positioned at the estuary of the Bou Regreg River near modern Rabat, facilitating exchange in a region rich in natural resources.^[15] As part of the broader Phoenician commercial networks, Sala connected the Levantine homeland with emerging Punic hubs like Carthage, Iberian settlements such as Gadir (Cádiz), and routes extending toward West African sources of raw materials. These networks primarily involved the exchange of metals—including silver and lead from Moroccan hinterlands—and marine products like salted fish and possibly murex dye, which were staples of Phoenician economic activity in the western Mediterranean and Atlantic fringes.^[15]^[16] The site's coastal location enhanced its utility for maritime navigation and local barter with indigenous groups, though no extensive burial sites or monumental Phoenician structures have been definitively identified, suggesting a primarily functional, non-permanent settlement.^[13] From the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE until around 40 CE, Sala evolved into a prosperous trading center under the Mauretanian kingdom, influenced by local Berber rulers allied with Punic and emerging Roman interests. Archaeological evidence includes Mauretanian temples and structures overlooking the forum area, reflecting continued commercial activity in the Mediterranean world, particularly under kings such as Juba II (r. 25 BCE–23 CE) and Ptolemy (r. 23–40 CE).^[1]^[17] Prior to the Phoenician phase, evidence for indigenous occupation at Sala remains limited, with the site's earliest verifiable activity tied to these external traders rather than local Berber communities. Broader regional archaeology in the Maghreb indicates pre-Iron Age indigenous presence, including Bronze Age settlements, but direct associations with Chellah await further excavation.^[1] This foundational Phoenician and Mauretanian layers laid the groundwork for Sala's later development under Roman influences.

Roman Period

The Roman settlement at Chellah, known as Sala Colonia, was established around 40 CE within the province of Mauretania Tingitana, transforming earlier trading outposts into a structured Roman colony. This establishment marked the integration of the site into the imperial administrative network, with initial developments focusing on military and commercial infrastructure to secure the Atlantic frontier. By the mid-2nd century CE, around 144 CE, Sala Colonia had achieved municipium status, granting local governance rights and partial Roman citizenship to eligible residents, which facilitated economic growth and urban expansion.^[18]^[19] Urban development flourished during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, exemplified by the construction of a central forum serving as the civic heart, flanked by a basilica for administrative and judicial proceedings, and the decumanus maximus—a broad, paved east-west artery that organized the city's layout and supported daily commerce with porticoed shops and monumental arches. These features, constructed using local sandstone and imported marbles, reflected standard Roman urban planning while incorporating regional motifs, such as pseudo-lotus capitals blending Punic-Hellenistic influences. The site's approximately 37-hectare urban area also included baths and temples, including a Capitolium dedicated to the imperial cult, underscoring Sala Colonia's role in provincial administration and cultural dissemination.^[2]^[18] Positioned at the mouth of the Bou Regreg River, Sala Colonia functioned as a vital port for exporting grain from the fertile hinterlands of Mauretania Tingitana to Rome, bolstering the empire's annona system and integrating North African agriculture into Mediterranean trade networks. Amphora workshops on-site produced vessels like Dressel 2-4 types for transporting grain, olive oil, and other staples, with nine kilns evidencing large-scale industrial activity tied to export demands. This economic function not only enriched local elites but also reinforced the colony's administrative prominence through ties to imperial supply chains.^[20]^[18] Sala Colonia's prosperity waned amid the 3rd-century crises, including economic disruptions, military withdrawals, and barbarian incursions, with the province of Mauretania Tingitana largely abandoned by the late 3rd century CE despite lingering Roman oversight at key sites like Chellah. Vandal invasions in 429 CE further destabilized the region, accelerating depopulation and infrastructure decay. By the 5th century CE, progressive silting of the Bou Regreg River rendered the port unviable, contributing to the site's ultimate abandonment as maritime access diminished and trade routes shifted.^[4]

Early Islamic Period

Following the Umayyad conquest of the Maghreb in the late 7th and early 8th centuries CE, the region encompassing Sala (modern Chellah) transitioned to Muslim rule, marking the site's initial Islamization. The Idrisid dynasty, established in 788 CE by Idris I, exerted control over northern Morocco, including this area, as part of the first independent Islamic state in the region. During the 8th to 10th centuries, Sala functioned as a ribat—a fortified monastery combining religious, military, and communal roles—and continued as an agricultural center, leveraging its fertile location near the Bou Regreg River for grain production and trade.^[21]^[4] Archaeological excavations have uncovered evidence of settlement continuity from the 9th to 11th centuries, with houses constructed directly atop Roman ruins, indicating adaptive reuse of the ancient infrastructure for daily life under early Islamic governance. Limited remains suggest the presence of small mosques during this era, reflecting the integration of Islamic worship into the site's fabric, while architectural motifs show emerging Almoravid influences by the 11th century, such as simplified geometric patterns in pottery and building materials. These findings highlight the gradual transformation of the Roman colony into an Islamic outpost amid Berber and Arab influences.^[22]^[21] In early Moroccan Islamic society, Chellah served as a strategic frontier post, particularly under Almoravid oversight in the 11th century, to counter Christian incursions from Iberia during the Reconquista. This role underscored its position along the Bou Regreg estuary, facilitating defense and logistics for military campaigns against advancing European forces, while fostering a blend of religious piety and martial preparedness typical of ribats.^[21]^[4]

Marinid Period

During the reign of the Marinid sultans Abu al-Hasan (r. 1331–1351) and his son Abu Inan (r. 1348–1358), Chellah reached its zenith as a royal necropolis, with significant expansions initiated to solidify the dynasty's funerary legacy. Abu al-Hasan oversaw the enclosure of the site in 1339, transforming the earlier foundations into a fortified complex that encompassed over seven hectares.^[23] Following his father's death in 1351, Abu Inan completed the mausoleum foundations at Chellah, marking a pivotal commitment to the site as the primary burial ground for Marinid rulers.^[24] A key aspect of this development was the symbolic relocation of Abu al-Hasan's remains from his initial burial in Marrakech to Chellah in 1351, an act that underscored the dynasty's emphasis on piety and continuity. This transfer, accompanied by public mourning and ceremonial processions, reinforced Marinid legitimacy by linking the sultans to a sacred landscape associated with baraka (blessing) and resistance against Christian incursions from Spain.^[23]^[24] The relocation served as a pious gesture, elevating Chellah as a dynastic symbol of spiritual authority and resilience amid political turmoil.^[25] Architectural patronage under these sultans integrated educational and religious elements, blending madrasa and mosque functionalities to support ongoing rituals and scholarly activities at the necropolis. Abu al-Hasan funded ornate chapels and enclosures that incorporated Quranic epigraphy, while Abu Inan established waqfs to sustain a madrasa adjacent to the mosque, ensuring the site's role in Marinid religious and intellectual life.^[26]^[25] This patronage highlighted the dynasty's strategic use of architecture to propagate piety and legitimacy, drawing on earlier Islamic traditions at the site.^[23]

Post-Marinid Decline and Modern Rediscovery

Following the zenith of the Marinid dynasty in the 14th century, the Chellah necropolis entered a period of decline under the succeeding Wattasid dynasty, which ruled from 1472 to 1554 and focused resources on Fez amid internal strife and external pressures.^[27] The site's neglect intensified as Morocco faced threats from Portuguese incursions along the Atlantic coast in the 16th century, with Rabat serving as a base of resistance but suffering from the broader instability that diverted attention from maintaining distant necropolises like Chellah. By the 18th century, the site had been largely abandoned, allowing natural overgrowth to reclaim the ruins while locals looted stones and materials for construction in nearby Rabat.^[28] Catastrophic damage compounded the deterioration in 1755, when the Lisbon earthquake's shockwaves struck Morocco, toppling minarets, cracking domes, and further destabilizing the fragile Marinid structures at Chellah.^[29] This event, combined with ongoing seismic activity and systematic quarrying of building materials, left the necropolis in a state of romantic ruin by the early 19th century, with much of its Islamic complex reduced to scattered remnants amid encroaching vegetation.^[1] European interest revived the site's profile in the late 19th century through explorations by French scholars, beginning with diplomat and archaeologist Charles-Joseph Tissot, who visited Chellah in 1876 and identified key Roman-era constructions and artifacts amid the Islamic overlays. Tissot's observations were followed by those of Henri Poisson de la Martinière, who in the 1880s conducted surveys and documented the site's layered history, emphasizing its potential for systematic study.^[30] These efforts laid the groundwork for initial excavations in the early 1900s, which uncovered more Roman foundations and highlighted the necropolis's dual heritage.^[31] During the French Protectorate (1912–1956), Chellah received formal recognition and protection, being classified as a historic monument via the Dahir (royal decree) of November 19, 1920, under the auspices of the Service des Antiquités.^[1] This status enabled early conservation measures, including clearance of debris, stabilization of walls, and landscaping of gardens to preserve the site's integrity against further erosion and urban encroachment.^[32] The Protectorate's Antiquities Service oversaw these initiatives, marking the transition from abandonment to safeguarded archaeological heritage.^[33]

Site Features

Roman Remains

The excavated portion of the Roman city at Chellah, known anciently as Sala Colonia, is centered on the monumental district.^[22] This area features a classic Roman urban layout, with the forum serving as the focal point flanked by key public buildings. The trapezoidal forum, constructed during the reign of Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 CE), is paved with large blue limestone slabs preserved up to 20.60 meters from the podium, and includes bases for honorary inscriptions along with foundations of two monumental doors.^[17] To the northwest rises the Capitolium temple, dedicated to the Capitoline triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, built by the local notable C. Hosidius Severus and measuring 46 meters by 26 meters across two terraces.^[17] Its south portico originally featured nine shops, integrating commercial and religious functions. Nearby, the basilica, identified as the Curia Ulpia in honor of Emperor Trajan, functioned as a venue for local senate sessions and judicial proceedings, with its structure uncovered through early 20th-century excavations.^[31] A triumphal arch, positioned south of the Capitolium, originally comprised three bays—central arch 4.30 meters wide, side arches 2.08 meters—with only three blocks now remaining.^[17] Defensive elements include a 3rd-century CE enclosure wall that fortified the settlement amid late Roman provincial instability, enclosing the port city established around 40 CE.^[22] The decumanus maximus, the primary east-west thoroughfare, runs through the site with partially excavated sections revealing shops and urban infrastructure, partially overlaid by later constructions.^[31] Beneath these Roman layers lie pre-Roman substrata from the mid-1st century BCE Mauritanian period, including temple foundations with five rooms, a pronaos measuring 23.10 meters by 5.00 meters, and a niche possibly housing a statue of Ptolemy.^[17] Today, the Roman remains are in a state of partial preservation, with ongoing restoration efforts highlighting visible elements for visitors. Excavations led by Jean Boube from 1961 to 1969 uncovered and stabilized structures like the Capitolium and decumanus, while restored marble columns from Italian imports punctuate the forum and temple areas.^[31] Mosaics remain extant in associated features, such as the gray-and-white geometric patterns in an oil mill within the craftsmanship quarter and black-and-white designs in the public baths' frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium.^[17] These elements provide a tangible glimpse into Sala's role as a prosperous Roman outpost, though much of the site bears the marks of abandonment in the early 5th century CE.^[2] In 2023, excavations revealed additional Roman structures, including a port district, expanding the known extent of the ancient city from about 5 hectares to potentially 300 hectares.^[34]

Marinid Necropolis

The Marinid Necropolis at Chellah represents a unified sacred enclosure constructed during the reign of Sultan Abu al-Hasan (1331–1351), transforming the site into a walled funerary complex that encompassed approximately 7 hectares of land.^[23] This pentagonal enclosure, built atop and integrating ancient Roman substructures, served primarily as a royal burial ground and pilgrimage destination for the Marinid dynasty, emphasizing themes of dynastic legitimacy and spiritual retreat.^[4] Its strategic placement overlooking the Bou Regreg River enhanced its symbolic significance, evoking notions of purification and divine favor in Islamic tradition.^[23] Central to the necropolis's design were integrated mausoleums honoring key Marinid rulers, including the chapel for Sultan Abu al-Hasan himself (d. 1351) and structures associated with his son Abu Inan (r. 1348–1358), such as the tomb of Abu Inan's mother.^[21] These mausoleums featured prominent religious elements like a mihrab and minbar within the adjacent mosque, facilitating prayer and commemoration rituals that drew pilgrims from across the region.^[23] The complex's layout promoted a contemplative atmosphere, with the venerated mihrab often likened to sacred sites like Mecca, particularly among the underprivileged seeking baraka (blessing).^[23] In Marinid ideology, the necropolis embodied a profound spiritual role, functioning as a bastion of religious piety amid the dynasty's military campaigns against Christian forces in Iberia, thereby reinforcing Marinid sovereignty and eschatological beliefs.^[21] Architecturally, it blended Andalusian influences—such as intricate zellige tilework and horseshoe arches—with Maghrebi traditions of ornate stone carving and geometric motifs, creating a harmonious synthesis that underscored the dynasty's cultural patronage.^[4] This fusion not only honored the deceased sultans but also positioned Chellah as a enduring symbol of Marinid spiritual and political aspirations.^[23]

Marinid Necropolis Components

Walls and Main Gate

The Marinid enclosure at Chellah features defensive walls constructed in 1339 during the reign of Sultan Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Uthman, utilizing pisé, a traditional rammed earth technique that compacted layers of earth mixed with stabilizing materials like lime or straw to form durable barriers.^[35] These walls form an irregular pentagonal layout enclosing approximately 7 hectares, with a total circumference of roughly 1.2 kilometers, including a prominent northwest face measuring about 300 meters and a shorter southeast face of 80 meters.^[35] Rising to heights of 6 to 9 meters and averaging 1.6 meters in thickness, the walls provided a robust perimeter for the royal necropolis, enhanced by a narrow upper walkway for patrols.^[35] For added protection, 23 towers punctuate the circuit—20 square-plan, one heptagonal at the southeast corner, and two octagonal flanking the main gate—each roughly 5 meters wide with projections of 3.5 to 3.9 meters, featuring hollow interiors across three levels: a ground chamber, an upper chamber, and a crenelated platform equipped with loopholes and merlons for archers.^[35] The principal entry, known as Bab Chellah, exemplifies 14th-century Marinid ornamental architecture as a monumental portal built in 1339 under the same sultan, serving both as a defensive choke point and a symbolic threshold.^[35] The gate employs a single-bend corridor design opening inward to the southeast, flanked by two octagonal towers and reinforced by masonry pillars, with the overall structure reaching 9.95 meters in height.^[35] Its facade centers on a lobed horseshoe arch for the lower passage, surmounted by a simpler upper horseshoe arch, both framed in intricate zellij tilework forming geometric star patterns and a muqarnas (honeycomb) frieze that adds depth and shadow play.^[35] An epigraphic band in Kufic script crowns the ensemble, recording the construction date of July 8, 1339, and invoking blessings on the sultan, thereby blending pious invocation with royal commemoration.^[35] The interior passage features a brick-vaulted ceiling, enhancing acoustic and structural integrity. Engineering innovations underpinned the enclosure's longevity, combined with the flexible nature of rammed earth—which absorbs seismic energy better than rigid stone.^[35]

Khalwa and Religious Complex

The Khalwa at Chellah serves as the central Sufi retreat and mausoleum complex within the Marinid necropolis, functioning as a zāwiya for spiritual seclusion and veneration of royal interments during the 13th and 14th centuries.^[36] Established as a ribat, or spiritual retreat, it encompasses a mosque, adjacent madrasa, and funerary structures, reflecting the Marinid dynasty's emphasis on combining religious education, prayer, and commemoration of deceased rulers.^[24] The complex, enclosed by the pentagonal Marinid walls for security, occupies a rectangular area measuring approximately 54 meters by 35 meters and features two main gates for access.^[23] At the heart of the Khalwa is the 14th-century Mosque of Abu Yusuf Yaqub, constructed in 1284 with a hypostyle prayer hall spanning 9.95 meters by 18.90 meters, supported by 14 brick pillars and divided into three naves by horseshoe arches.^[23] The mosque's southeastern mihrab, measuring 1.12 meters by 0.90 meters and adorned with stucco, indicates the qibla direction, while an underlying five-sided mihrab suggests earlier modifications.^[23] An ablution basin, fed by a nearby spring, stands adjacent to the minaret, facilitating ritual purification for worshippers.^[24] The courtyard preceding the prayer hall contains unmarked tombs, integrating funerary elements into the daily religious practice.^[23] Adjoining the mosque to the northeast is the madrasa, developed or completed under Sultan Abu Inan in the mid-14th century, which provided quarters for Quranic study and included a dedicated prayer hall (15.75 meters by 5.80 meters), student cells, and a courtyard with ornate zellige tilework on its minaret.^[24]^[23] The madrasa's mihrab (2.10 meters by 1.45 meters) features intricate decoration, underscoring its role in scholarly and devotional activities.^[23] This layout allowed for seamless integration of education and worship, with the complex serving as a hub for Sufi disciples seeking spiritual guidance.^[36] The Khalwa's mausoleum functions are prominent in structures like the Chapel of Abu al-Hassan, a square edifice with 6-meter sides crowned by a dome on pendentives and embellished with ceramic marquetry, where key Marinid royals were interred.^[23] Notable burials include Sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub's wife Umm al-Izz (1284), the sultans Abu Yaqub Yusuf (1307), Abu Thabit Amir (1308), Abu al-Hassan (reburied 1351 after his death), and Shams al-Duha, mother of Abu Inan (1349), marking it as the primary necropolis for the dynasty's elite.^[24]^[36] A white marble stele for Abu al-Hassan, standing 2.16 meters tall with epigraphic inscriptions, commemorates these interments.^[23] Associated rituals emphasize the site's enduring spiritual significance, including annual pilgrimages to the madrasa and mausoleums, supported by endowments from Sultan Abu Sa'id II in the early 14th century to accommodate visiting devotees.^[36] Traditions of seeking baraka, or divine blessing, persist through veneration at the royal tombs and the ablution basin, where offerings symbolize petitions for fertility and protection, rooted in Marinid-era practices of saintly intercession.^[23]^[36]

Hammam

The hammam at Chellah, constructed during the Marinid period between 1339 and 1358 CE, served as a key bathing facility within the necropolis enclosure, located to the southeast of the funerary complex near the khalwa to facilitate ritual purification for pilgrims and residents.^[23] This 14th-century structure exemplifies classic Moorish bath design, emphasizing hygiene and communal cleansing integral to Islamic daily life and religious observance.^[23] Architecturally, the hammam features a rectangular layout measuring 28.5 by 10.4 meters, with an angled entrance leading to successive vaulted chambers. The original undressing room, now partially destroyed, included a central square bay flanked by two groin-vaulted side galleries, followed by three principal rooms: a cold room (frigidarium), a warm room (tepidarium), and a hot room (caldarium). The hot room contains a niche for a basin or trough to hold hot water, while arched ceilings and integrated drainage systems throughout highlight the sophisticated engineering for steam and water management.^[23] The facility employed a hypocaust heating system, with vaulted cloister arches supporting the floors and a dedicated fireplace beneath the hot room to generate steam, allowing for progressive temperature immersion typical of medieval Islamic baths. Positioned adjacent to the religious complex, it played a vital social role by providing ablutions essential for prayer and pilgrimage, underscoring the Marinid emphasis on spiritual and physical purity in this sacred site.^[23]

Shrines and Tombs

The Marinid necropolis at Chellah features prominent royal tombs that underscore the site's role as a dynastic burial ground, particularly that of Sultan Abu al-Hasan (r. 1331–1348, d. 1351). Abu al-Hasan's tomb is housed in a chapel topped by a 6-meter square dome supported by pendentives, adorned with intricate cut stones and ceramic marquetry in green and white hues, reflecting Marinid architectural sophistication. His funerary stele, measuring 2.16 meters, bears Quranic inscriptions in Kufic script detailing his death in the High Atlas mountains and the subsequent transfer of his remains from Marrakech to Chellah, emphasizing the site's sanctity as a royal resting place.^[23]^[12] These cenotaphs served not only as memorials but also as focal points for royal legitimacy, blending political symbolism with Islamic funerary traditions. The tombs' inscriptions invoke divine mercy and eternal reward, drawing pilgrims to reflect on the sultans' legacies of patronage and piety.^[23] Several shrines dedicated to Sufi mystics further enhance Chellah's mystical allure, with structures added primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries to accommodate growing veneration. The shrine of Sidi Umar al-Masnawi, a revered Sufi figure, stands out with its white-domed pavilion and pilgrimage markers, including stelae etched with invocations for baraka (blessing), attracting devotees seeking spiritual intercession.^[23] These domes, often modest yet elegant, symbolize the mystics' elevated status and the site's evolution into a Sufi pilgrimage hub, where visitors circumambulate the enclosures in ritual devotion.^[23] Cultural practices at these shrines revolve around commemorative rituals that blend devotion and folklore. Pilgrims traditionally leave votive offerings, such as eggs or bread, at the adjacent eel pool—believed to be a site of miraculous intervention—to invoke protection from evil and fulfillment of wishes, a custom rooted in local Sufi traditions. Stork nests, prominently built atop minarets and walls, hold symbolic significance in Moroccan culture as emblems of renewal, fertility, and good fortune, their presence enhancing the site's aura of divine favor and harmony with nature.^[23]^[37]

Archaeology and Artifacts

Key Excavations and Discoveries

Archaeological interest in Chellah intensified during the French Protectorate in the early 20th century, when the Antiquities Service initiated excavations that uncovered key Roman structures, including the forum and elements of the western necropolis. Scholars such as Henri Basset and Evariste Lévi-Provençal conducted surveys focused on the Marinid necropolis, documenting architectural features and epitaphs, while Jules Borély and Khadija Riaz-Bey revealed the base of a triumphal arch, the Capitol, the Curia Ulpia, the Decumanus Maximus, and a medieval hammam. These efforts, spanning the 1920s to 1940s, laid the groundwork for understanding the site's layered history but were limited by colonial priorities.^[31]^[32] Following Morocco's independence in 1956, excavations transitioned to Moroccan-led initiatives, with Jean Boube directing comprehensive digs from 1958 to 1986 under the Institut National des Sciences de l'Archéologie et du Patrimoine (INSAP). Boube's work expanded on prior findings by fully exposing the Roman Capitol, triumphal arch base, and additional necropolis tombs, while also clarifying Marinid wall configurations through systematic stratigraphic analysis.^[31]^[22] Post-independence surveys in the late 20th century further mapped the site's boundaries, emphasizing preservation amid urban encroachment.^[31] In November 2023, INSAP archaeologists announced a major discovery outside the Marinid enclosure: the first known Roman port district in Morocco, dating to the 1st-2nd century CE and situated along the Bou Regreg River. This expansive area, spanning approximately 1.2 square miles, includes wharves for maritime trade, a large thermal bath complex, and associated infrastructure, indicating Sala's role as a vital imperial outpost.^[6]^[38] The findings, part of ongoing site expansion efforts since 2020, were facilitated by targeted excavations resumed after pandemic-related closures.^[39] Modern methodologies at Chellah incorporate geophysical surveys, such as electrical resistivity tomography, to non-invasively map subsurface features before invasive digs. These techniques, applied in recent projects, have aided in delineating site layouts and integrating data with historical records for precise site management.^[40]^[31]

Notable Artifacts

Among the most significant Roman artifacts from Chellah is a headless statue of a female deity, unearthed in 2023 during excavations in the ancient port district. Dating to the 2nd century CE, this marble sculpture represents one of the earliest such finds in Morocco since the 1960s and is believed to depict a Roman goddess associated with the site's religious practices.^[34] The statue, along with other stone and bronze sculptures depicting deities and figures, highlights the artistic and religious dimensions of Sala Colonia, the Roman city underlying Chellah.^[41] Inscriptions from the capitolium provide key insights into the site's civic and religious life, including a monumental dedicatory inscription dated to circa 120 CE, fragments of which were reused in later structures. A notable Latin inscription on Greek marble featuring twelve tablets commemorates C. Hosidius Severus, a prominent citizen of Sala who funded a temple, underscoring local patronage of Roman cults. Latin inscriptions on stone, metal, and ceramic further document administrative and dedicatory functions.^[41] Fragments of mosaics, though less extensively documented as portable items, complement these finds by illustrating Roman decorative motifs, with some pieces conserved from villa and public building contexts.^[42] Marinid-era artifacts from Chellah emphasize the site's transformation into a royal necropolis in the 13th-14th centuries, including fragments of zellij tiles and carved stucco recovered from the khalwa religious complex. These intricate geometric and floral designs, typical of Marinid craftsmanship, were part of decorative panels and wall facings, reflecting Islamic artistic traditions. Ceramic lamps and other pottery items, such as painted jars inscribed with Kufic script like "Al-‘Izzah," offer evidence of daily religious and domestic life. A main gate inscription in Kufic, dated 739 AH (1339 CE) and commissioned by Sultan Abu El Hassan, attests to the necropolis's construction.^[41] Many of these artifacts, spanning both Roman and Marinid periods, have been transferred to national collections for conservation, notably at Rabat's Museum of History and Civilizations, where they are preserved and studied to prevent deterioration from environmental exposure. In 2024, an exhibition at the Bank Al-Maghrib Museum in Rabat showcased select Chellah treasures, including bronze coins depicting agricultural products and religious symbols, pottery, tools, and the 2023 statue, illustrating the site's role as a trade and cultural hub. Provenance details trace most items to systematic excavations since the early 20th century, with ongoing conservation efforts focusing on stabilization and restoration to maintain their historical integrity.^[43]^[44]

Contemporary Use

Tourist Attraction and Ecology

The Chellah archaeological site in Rabat reopened to the public in May 2024 following a comprehensive restoration project that began in 2021, undertaken by the Rabat Region Historical Heritage (RRPH).^[45] The renovations enhanced accessibility through improved pathways and lighting, while revitalizing the site's gardens to create a more immersive visitor experience.^[46] These upgrades have positioned Chellah as a key draw for tourists exploring Rabat's historical landscape, bolstered by its status as part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[47] Visitor facilities at Chellah include affordable entry fees, with adults paying 70 Moroccan dirhams (approximately $7 USD) for standard admission, and reduced rates for students and children.^[48] Audio-guided tours are available for an additional 50 dirhams, providing multilingual narration that highlights the site's Roman, Islamic, and medieval layers in a self-paced format.^[49] Licensed guides can be hired for group accompaniment at 300 dirhams per two-hour session, offering personalized insights into the necropolis's history.^[50] The site operates daily from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM in winter and until 8:00 PM in summer, with parking and taxi access facilitating easy arrival.^[50] Ecologically, Chellah features lush Andalusian-style gardens interspersed with ancient ruins, where orange trees and wildflowers thrive amid the stone structures, creating a verdant contrast to the historical remnants.^[51] A prominent natural element is the large colony of white storks that nest on the minarets and walls, regarded in Moroccan tradition as symbols of blessing and protection for the site.^[52] These migratory birds, numbering in the hundreds during breeding season, add a dynamic layer to visits with their clattering calls and aerial displays. Feral cats also roam freely, particularly around the central water features, forming a community of dozens that locals view as informal guardians of the grounds.^[53] As a tourist attraction, Chellah draws visitors seeking its serene ambiance and panoramic sunset views over the Bou Regreg River, often described as a highlight for photography and reflection on the site's multifaceted past.^[54] Audio tours emphasize this layered history, guiding explorers through the ruins while underscoring the harmony between archaeology and nature. In 2024, Rabat's tourism sector, including sites like Chellah, recorded over 713,000 overnight stays through October, reflecting a 4% growth.^[55] Nationally, Morocco's tourism saw continued growth in 2025, with over 20.3 million overnight stays by August, up 10% from the previous year, underscoring the site's ongoing role in the capital's appeal to cultural travelers.^[56]

Cultural Events and Music Venue

The Jazz au Chellah festival, launched in 1996 through a partnership between the European Union and Morocco's Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports, established the Chellah site as a premier venue for contemporary music amid its ancient Marinid necropolis. Held annually until 2024, the event showcased collaborations between European jazz ensembles and Moroccan artists, utilizing the ruins' natural acoustics in an amphitheater-like configuration to create an immersive fusion of historical heritage and modern improvisation.^[57]^[58] The 26th edition, from May 10 to 12, 2024, featured instrumental performances by international groups such as the Tania Giannouli Trio and local talents, drawing audiences to the site's evocative setting for three evenings of cultural exchange.^[59] In September 2025, the festival relocated to Rabat's Parc Hassan II and rebranded as Jazz à Rabat, held from September 25 to 27, marking the end of its two-decade tenure at Chellah while preserving its emphasis on cross-continental musical dialogue.^[60]^[61] Chellah's role as a music venue extends through its integration with the Mawazine Festival, Rabat's flagship annual event celebrating global rhythms. Designated as the stage for "Musiques du Monde," the site hosts world music performances during Mawazine's run, such as the 2025 edition from June 20 to 28, where artists like Luis Salazar performed amid the ruins, blending traditional and contemporary sounds in a UNESCO-protected environment.^[62]^[63] Organized by Maroc Cultures and the Ministry of Youth, Culture, and Communication, this collaboration transforms Chellah into a hub for diverse genres, including oriental and international acts, reinforcing its status as a living cultural landmark. The 2025 festival drew 3.75 million attendees overall. Complementing these musical programs, the 2024 launch of the exhibition "Sala, Hidden Treasures: The Maurétanian Legacy" at Chellah provided archaeological tie-ins to ongoing events, displaying coins, sculptures, and other artifacts from the site's Roman and pre-Roman phases to contextualize its layered history for festival visitors. Running from May 28, 2024, to December 31, 2025, and curated by the Rabat-Salé-Kénitra Region's Historical Heritage Department, the exhibit overlapped with the Jazz au Chellah edition and Mawazine preparations, enriching attendee engagement with the site's tangible past.^[58] These cultural initiatives at Chellah have bolstered local tourism and economic vitality in Rabat, with events like Mawazine driving over 20% growth in tourism turnover and hotel occupancy rates between 60% and 100% during their duration. The Jazz au Chellah similarly enhanced the capital's appeal as a cultural destination, fostering job creation and regional socio-economic benefits through increased visitor footfall to the historic site.^[64]^[65]

References

[1]
The story - Site archéologique de Chellah
The site of Chellah is also of remarkable historical interest due to its hypothetical Phoenician passage before Roman times.
[2]
Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage
### Summary of Chellah within Rabat World Heritage Site
[3]
[PDF] Rabat, modern capital and historic city (Morocco) No 1401
Mar 14, 2012 · The city is located on the Atlantic coast, in the north-west of the country, on the left bank of the River Bou. Regreg estuary. In geographical ...
[4]
La nécropole Chellah de Rabat
... city of Sala Colonia, the Chellah necropolis is located at a distance of two kilometers from the city center, off the Almohad enclosure. According to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
Moroccan archaeologists unearth new ruins at Chellah, a tourism ...
a 1.2-square-mile (3.15-square-kilometer) UNESCO World Heritage Site with a footprint almost five times the size of Pompeii.
[6]
Chellah | Rabat, Morocco | Attractions - Lonely Planet
First came the Phoenicians, then the Romans took control of this beautiful hilltop site above the fertile Bou Regreg river plain around 40 CE.<|control11|><|separator|>
[7]
African world heritage: a remarkable diversity
The archaeological site of Chellah (also known as Sala or Chellam) was a fertile area with a plentiful water supply, slightly higher than the surrounding ...
[8]
Why 2026 is the year to explore Rabat—Morocco's understated capital
Oct 21, 2025 · ... rocky promontory overlooking the Atlantic ... Chellah: The Phoenicians and then the Romans took ownership of this beautiful hilltop site.
[9]
(PDF) Deterioration processes on archaeological sites of Chellah ...
Dec 11, 2015 · The two rocks were highly demanded as building stones of the Rabat and Salé regions since prehistoric times: they were found both in the ...Missing: topography | Show results with:topography
[10]
Chellah to Kasbah of the Udayas - 3 ways to travel via tram, taxi, and ...
How far is it from Chellah to Kasbah of the Udayas? The distance between Chellah and Kasbah of the Udayas is 4 km. How do I travel from Chellah to Kasbah of ...
[11]
https://www.rome2rio.com/s/Chellah/Kasbah-of-the-Udayas
[12]
[PDF] Eleftheria Pappa Introduction: Phoenician presence in Morocco
Further south on the coast, 7th century BC Phoenician pottery has been identified at the site of Sala, situated close to the estuary of the Bou Regreg, close.
[13]
A survey of the archaeological evidence. Dossiê "Fenícios", edited ...
Oct 22, 2020 · Here, the earliest Phoenician presence and developments down to the Punic period (associated with the Carthaginian expansion) are presented, ...
[14]
Phoenician colonization from its origin to the 7th century BC
Other colonies established in the 7th century BC include Sala (Rabat) and Mogador on the Atlantic coast of Africa (CitationAubet Semmler, 2009), Cossyra on ...
[15]
[PDF] THE PHOENICIAN TRADE NETWORK - CORE
This network involved both direct and indirect exchange of raw and finished products, people, as well as political and cultural ideas. The colonies were ...
[16]
Roman Province of Mauretania Tingitana and its Economic Potential
Apr 14, 2022 · ... municipium, leader of the auxilia [fighting] against Aedemon ... Sala Colonia, the dating of. the wall structures to the same period ...
[17]
Exports and Imports in Mauretania Tingitana: The Evidence from ...
The export of grain from Tingitana to Rome had already been suggested by Besnier (1906). For the province of Mauretania Caesariensis we have no data to ...
[18]
Chella Rabat, Morocco - Archnet
Sala Colonia was located at the site of an older Phoenician or Carthaginian settlement known as Chella that dated from the third century BCE. It was from ...
[19]
The civic district of Sala (Chellah – Rabat, Morocco): shaping and ...
Sep 26, 2022 · This article investigates the development of urbanism and architecture at the site of Sala (Chellah), from the end of the first century BC to the latter half ...
[20]
The Marinid Necropolis - Site archéologique de Chellah
The primitive core of the necropolis was founded in 685 AH/1285 by the Marinid sultan Abou Youssef Yaqub (1258-1286), then came Sultan Abou El Hassan ...Missing: Hasan | Show results with:Hasan
[21]
Marinid religious complex of Chellah - Mosqpedia
After his death in exile in 1351, Abu al-Hasan's body was buried in a mausoleum here as well, near his wife. This mausoleum may have been finished by his son ...
[22]
Shālla and its antecedents: Patronage of funerary architecture under the Marīnid dynasty (1269–1465) of Morocco
### Summary of Marinid Period at Chellah (Shālla)
[23]
https://www.chellah.site/en/visit-chellah/the-site/the-marinid-necropolis/
[24]
Kingdoms of North Africa - Morocco - The History Files
However, Sultan Abu al-Hasan of Fez is defeated in 1348 by Arab tribes who resent his authoritarian attitude. The sultan's son returns to Fez from his ...Missing: relocation | Show results with:relocation
[25]
History of Morocco - Wikipedia
During the reign of Juba II, Augustus founded three colonies of Roman citizens in Mauretania close to the Atlantic coast: Iulia Constantia Zilil, Iulia ...
[26]
The Archaeological site of Chellah - Foundation for the safeguarding ...
Occupied since the highest antiquity (7th and 5th centuries BC), this site is mentioned by Roman authors under the name of Sala.
[27]
Chellah Rabat: Complete Guide to Morocco's Ancient Roman Ruins
Dec 31, 2024 · This UNESCO World Heritage site, dating back to the 6th century BC, stands as one of Morocco's most significant archaeological treasures.
[28]
Le Service des Antiquités du Maroc - jstor
Charles Tissot et Henri de la Martinière, amateurs avertis d'archéologie antique, qui s'attachèrent les premiers à les décrire scientifiquement; leurs ...
[29]
Excavations - Site archéologique de Chellah
The archaeological excavations carried out by Lévi-Provençal and Basset essentially focused on the Marinid necropolis, making an inventory that was mainly ...
[30]
Moroccan archaeology is on the road to independence - Le Monde
Sep 26, 2024 · Located north of Rabat, Chellah was first excavated by knowledgeable enthusiasts when Morroco was a French protectorate, then, from the 1950s ...Missing: early | Show results with:early
[31]
Chellah Archaeological Site Finally Welcomes Public After Renovation
May 21, 2024 · The site offers a unique glimpse into the layered history of Morocco, from its Phoenician and Roman roots to its Islamic and Marinid heritage.
[32]
The Ancient City - Site archéologique de Chellah
The forum is the main square of the Roman city located on the Decumanus Maximus axis. ... It is where bases of honorary inscriptions dedicated to emperors and ...Missing: basilica | Show results with:basilica
[33]
The ramparts and gates - Site archéologique de Chellah
These towers have irregular dimensions, measuring approximately 5 meters wide by 3.50 to 3.90 meters in projection. These towers have a unique plan.Missing: Rabat pisé circumference
[34]
Archnet > Site > Chellah (MEGT)
It takes its name from the Phoenician and Roman settlement of Sala Colonia, amongst whose ruins the necropolis was built. It was first patronized as an Islamic ...
[35]
The White Stork of Morocco: A Symbol of Hope, Migration, and ...
The white stork is a symbol of harmony, a migratory bird from Europe, and a sacred bird in Moroccan folklore, associated with good fortune.Missing: practices votive
[36]
Archaeologists unearth remnants of an expansive port city in Morocco
Nov 7, 2023 · This sprawling 1.2-square-mile site, almost five times larger than Pompeii, has exposed ancient ruins that paint a vivid picture of a bustling port city.
[37]
Archaeologists Discover New Ruins in Ancient Chellah, Rabat
Nov 3, 2023 · The main excavation site has been closed for renovation since the pandemic, and archaeologists have been working on its re-opening since March.
[38]
Multi-Scale Geophysical Methodologies Applied to Image ... - MDPI
May 23, 2021 · In this study, DC resistivity (1D vertical sounding and/2D/3D ERT) and magnetic surveys (total and gradient) as a multi-scale approach was applied in a highly ...Missing: Chellah INRAP
[39]
Ministry of Culture unearths a major archaeological discovery in ...
Nov 3, 2023 · The major discovery is the first Roman port district in Morocco, a large thermal complex, funerary columbariums, and a headless Roman statue.<|separator|>
[40]
Discoveries - Site archéologique de Chellah
Ancient coins have been discovered at Chellah, offering clues to the monetary systems used in different eras. They are useful for dating archaeological layers.
[41]
Sala and Chellah - Roman Morocco - Rome Art Lover
Sala was a Roman town, and Chellah is a site with remains of Sala and a Marinid necropolis, and a burial site for the royal family.
[42]
Chellah Ancient Ruins in Rabat - The Student Explorer
Chellah is one of the best attractions to see in Rabat. Its full off history from a Phonciain settlement to an Islamic necropolis.Missing: geology topography rocky promontory
[43]
Morocco exhibition shows treasures of ancient port city of Chellah
Nov 1, 2024 · Scholars believe the area was first settled by the Phoenicians and emerged as a key Roman Empire outpost from the second to fifth century. The ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[44]
Rabat's Chellah to Reopen Doors to Public After Major Renovations
May 21, 2024 · The Chellah archeological site is now open to the public following major restoration work, the Rabat Historical Heritage Region (RRPH), the regional ...Missing: attraction ecology
[45]
Chellah reopens after restoration, unveiling new visitor experience
May 21, 2024 · The Regional Development Company «Rabat Region Historical Heritage» (RRPH) has announced the reopening of the Chellah archaeological site to ...Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology
[46]
Best of the World 2026 | National Geographic
Oct 21, 2025 · The beautiful hilltop site of Chellah is a 14th-century Islamic ... It's recently reopened after an extensive restoration. Among the ...
[47]
Chellah Rabat (2025) - All You Need to Know BEFORE ... - Tripadvisor
Rating 4.5 (16) Not to be missed if you are in Rabat. After traveling through Morocco for 9 days finally a touristic site that is well designed where you can learn ...Missing: Sidi Ahmad al- shrine
[48]
Audio Guides - Site archéologique de Chellah
Explore Chellah at your own pace with the audio guide · Individual audio guide · Audio Tour for Groups. from 10 people minimum · Mobile App ...
[49]
Practical information - Site archéologique de Chellah
Group Entry : The Chellah site is specially designed to accommodate groups of 25 people or more, offering a rewarding and practical experience for large groups ...Missing: Sidi Ahmad al- Tazi shrine
[50]
Chellah Garden - Gardenvisit.com
Chellah Garden, Rabat ... Wild flowers and trees sprouting out of the ruins and yes a very healthy colony of storks roosting Dr Seuss-like in the trees.Missing: cats | Show results with:cats
[51]
Rabat's Ancient Ruins and their Modern Guardians: Cats and Storks
Jun 9, 2017 · Yes, even here in Chellah cats roam free amongst the ancient ruins. Often you can find them napping under a palm tree, or find kittens climbing that same palm ...Missing: ecology gardens
[52]
The Angel in a Tan Djellaba: Caring for Chellah's Cats
Jul 14, 2019 · Cats can be found all throughout the site, but in the area surrounding the eel pool and the tombs, several dozen are gathered at any given time to eat, drink, ...Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology<|separator|>
[53]
The Chellah Necropolis: Echos of the Past [Feel Morocco]
Feb 10, 2022 · Size: 12 acres (70,000 m2) approx. Construction date: The Necropolis started in the 3rd century B.C.E. as a Phoenician settlement. In 40 C.E., ...Missing: distance geology
[54]
Rabat Tourism Experiences Growth with 713,566 Overnight Stays in ...
Dec 27, 2024 · By the end of October, the Moroccan capital had recorded 713,566 overnight stays, surpassing the 683,910 stays recorded during the same period ...
[55]
JAZZ AT CHELLAH - A3 COMMUNICATION
The Chellah Jazz Festival was initiated in 1996 by the European Union in partnership with the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Communications as well as the ...
[56]
Events - Site archéologique de Chellah
... Chellah, in Rabat, Morocco. This year, the Jazz Festival will take place from 10 to 12 May 2024. This magical and enchanting event offers a unique ...
[57]
26th edition of the Chellah Jazz Festival from 10 to 12 May 2024
May 17, 2024 · The 26th Chellah Jazz Festival is from May 10 to 12, 2024, in Rabat, featuring European and Moroccan musicians. It is an EU initiative.
[58]
The Jazz au Chellah festival relocates and becomes Jazz à Rabat
Sep 4, 2025 · The 27th edition of Jazz au Chellah marks a turning point in the festival's history. Now renamed Jazz à Rabat and relocated to the ...
[59]
27 Years of 'Jazz à Rabat' Bring Moroccan and European Music ...
Sep 25, 2025 · Since its debut in 1996, “Jazz au Chellah” has turned Rabat's historic Chellah site into a center for artistic collaboration. Its rebranding as ...
[60]
Historical Site of Chellah | Mawazine Festival
The Chellah site is the image of Mawazine, a festival that looks forward to the future and pays tribute to the most beautiful musical traditions of the planet.
[61]
Program | Mawazine Festival
Tuesday, June 24th ; 17h30, Luis salazar, International, HISTORICAL SITE OF CHELLAH ; 21h00, Tamer Achour, Oriental, MOHAMMED V NATIONAL THEATER.Ticket et Billetterie · ElGrandeToto · Lil Baby · Lost Frequencies
[62]
Morocco's summer festival economy, explained - HESPRESS English
May 15, 2024 · Retail trade, restaurants, and the transportation sector see their sales increase by an average of 30% during the festival, Mawazine's official ...
[63]
Rabat, City of Light - VFM - Visa For Music
... Chellah archaeological site, which hosts the annual Jazz au Chellah festival. ... This enhancement of the region's image also has a positive socio-economic impact ...