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Mosque

A mosque is a Muslim place of worship, with the English term deriving from the Arabic masjid, meaning "place of prostration" or assembly for ritual prayer.^[1]^[2] It functions primarily as a site for the five daily congregational prayers (salah), oriented toward the qibla—the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca—and the obligatory Friday communal prayer led by an imam from a pulpit (minbar).^[3] Beyond prayer, mosques historically and presently serve as hubs for religious instruction, community deliberation, and charitable distribution, reflecting their role in Islamic social organization since the faith's inception.^[1]^[2] The earliest mosque originated in Medina, with the Quba Mosque constructed by Muhammad and his followers in 622 CE during the Hijra migration from Mecca, marking the first structured site for Islamic worship and community governance.^[4]^[5] This simple, open-air prototype evolved into diverse architectural forms, including hypostyle halls with column-supported roofs in early examples like the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, while later developments under caliphates incorporated minarets for the call to prayer (adhan), mihrabs as recessed niches denoting the qibla, and decorative elements like domes and arabesques, though such features are not doctrinally essential.^[2]^[3] The three holiest mosques—Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem—hold unique ritual significance, drawing millions for pilgrimage (Hajj and Umrah) and underscoring mosques' centrality to Islamic devotion and identity.^[1]^[6] While mosques embody architectural innovation adapted from regional precedents—such as Byzantine basilicas or Persian palaces—they emphasize functional simplicity and avoidance of idolatry, with interiors typically featuring geometric patterns, calligraphy of Quranic verses, and ablution areas rather than figurative art.^[2]^[3] Controversies have arisen over mosques' adaptation of conquered sites, like the conversion of churches into mosques (e.g., Hagia Sophia), reflecting historical conquest dynamics rather than inherent doctrinal mandates, and modern tensions involving non-Muslim access or political utilization in some regions.^[6]

Etymology

Derivation and historical usage

The English term "mosque" derives from the Arabic word masjid (مَسْجِد), meaning "place of prostration" or "place of worship," rooted in the verb sajada (سَجَدَ), which denotes the act of prostrating oneself in submission.^[7]^[8] This etymological path entered European languages through medieval interactions with Islamic Spain and the Levant: the Old Spanish mezquita (from Arabic masjid), which influenced Italian moschea and Middle French mosquée, ultimately anglicized as "mosque" by the early 17th century, with the first recorded English usage appearing around 1610.^[7]^[8] In Arabic, masjid originally encompassed any designated spot for ritual prostration during prayer, not limited to built structures; early Islamic sources describe it as applicable to open, clean ground suitable for sujud (prostration), reflecting the nomadic and communal nature of 7th-century Arabian worship.^[9] The term appears in the Quran, such as in references to Masjid al-Haram (the Sacred Mosque in Mecca) and Masjid al-Aqsa (in Jerusalem), denoting revered prayer sites predating formalized architecture, though these were likely simple enclosures or natural spaces by the time of Muhammad's era in 622 CE.^[1] Historically, masjid usage evolved with Islamic expansion: pre-Islamic Arabs applied it to pagan worship sites involving prostration, as noted in hadith collections like those of Bukhari, while post-622 CE it standardized for purpose-built communal prayer halls in Medina, such as the Prophet's Mosque, incorporating multifunctional roles like assembly and adjudication.^[10] By the 8th-9th centuries under Abbasid rule, the term solidified for elaborate edifices serving religious, educational, and administrative functions across conquered territories, distinguishing them from mere prayer rugs or temporary setups in frontier regions.^[11] This shift mirrored broader Islamic institutionalization, though masjid retained its core connotation of prostration amid varying regional adaptations, such as Persian masjed or Turkish cami for congregational variants.^[8]

History

Origins in 7th-century Arabia

![The Quba Mosque in Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia](./assets/Quba_Mosque_$2 The origins of the mosque trace to the Hijra in 622 CE, when Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina, marking the establishment of the first dedicated places of Islamic worship. Upon arriving in the Quba suburb of Medina, Muhammad oversaw the construction of Masjid Quba, widely regarded as the earliest mosque, where he personally laid the foundational stones using local materials like mud bricks and palm trunks.^[12] This simple, open-air structure featured an unroofed courtyard oriented toward Jerusalem as the initial qibla, serving primarily for communal prayers and embodying the nascent Islamic community's need for a fixed site of prostration amid tribal alliances.^[2] Shortly after, in central Medina, Muhammad initiated the building of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in 622 CE, integrating it with his residence and those of his wives, which expanded the mosque's role beyond prayer to include governance, education, and social welfare. The Prophet's Mosque comprised a rectangular courtyard approximately 100 by 100 meters, enclosed by walls of unbaked bricks topped with palm-leaf roofs for shade over part of the prayer area, supported by date palm columns without decorative elements.^[13] This design reflected 7th-century Arabian vernacular architecture, prioritizing functionality over ornamentation, with ablution areas using rainwater collection and no minaret, as the adhan was called from rooftops or within the courtyard.^[2] Early mosques in Medina emphasized egalitarianism, with no hierarchical seating or barriers, allowing all believers—free or enslaved, Arab or non-Arab—to pray shoulder-to-shoulder on simple mats or bare ground. In 624 CE, the qibla shifted from Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, prompting minor adjustments to the prayer wall in Masjid an-Nabawi, as evidenced by the site's designation as Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Mosque of the Two Qiblas).^[14] These foundational structures set the prototype for subsequent mosques, diverging from pre-Islamic Arabian practices where worship occurred in homes or around the Kaaba without formalized congregational buildings.^[2]

Expansion through conquests and site conversions

The expansion of mosques beyond the Arabian Peninsula began with the military conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, as Arab armies rapidly overran Byzantine and Sassanid territories in the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia by the mid-7th century. In these newly acquired regions, mosques were constructed or designated as focal points for Islamic prayer and governance, often utilizing prominent existing sites to signify the shift in religious authority. For instance, after the conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Temple Mount—previously the site of the Jewish Temples and left in ruins—was cleared of accumulated debris and rubbish, establishing it as a designated prayer area that prefigured the later construction of the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE and the Al-Aqsa Mosque.^[15] ^[16] In Damascus, captured in 634 CE, initial prayer spaces were improvised within the walls of the existing Byzantine church of Saint John the Baptist during a period of shared use between Muslims and Christians. By 705–715 CE, under Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I, this church—built atop a Roman temple to Jupiter—was fully repurposed into the Umayyad Mosque, involving the demolition of its apse and the incorporation of Byzantine architectural elements like mosaics depicting paradisiacal landscapes.^[17] ^[18] ^[19] This conversion exemplified a broader Umayyad strategy of adapting conquered sacred sites to assert caliphal legitimacy while drawing on skilled artisans from Byzantine territories.^[20] Similar patterns emerged in other conquests: Egypt fell in 642 CE, leading to mosque foundations in Fustat (later Cairo), while Persia's Sasanian territories, subdued by 651 CE, saw Zoroastrian fire temples repurposed or supplanted by Islamic structures amid gradual religious transitions. In Iberia, following the Umayyad invasion in 711 CE, the Cathedral of Saint Vincent in Cordoba was partially incorporated into the Great Mosque of Cordoba, expanding incrementally from 784 CE onward to accommodate growing Muslim populations. These site conversions typically involved architectural adaptation rather than wholesale destruction, reflecting pragmatic resource use and symbolic dominance, though archaeological evidence indicates tipping points where church abandonment accelerated mosque construction around the 8th–9th centuries in some areas.^[21] Later Ottoman expansions perpetuated this tradition; after Mehmed II's conquest of Constantinople in 1453 CE, the Hagia Sophia—originally a 6th-century Byzantine cathedral—was immediately converted into a mosque, with four minarets added and its Christian mosaics plastered over to align with Islamic aniconism, serving as the city's principal imperial mosque until 1935.^[22] ^[23] Such transformations underscored conquests' role in mosque proliferation, embedding Islamic worship within the built landscapes of vanquished civilizations while facilitating community consolidation under sharia governance.^[24]

Medieval regional evolutions

In the medieval Islamic world, spanning roughly the 8th to 15th centuries, mosque architecture evolved distinctly across regions, reflecting dynastic shifts, local materials, and interactions with pre-Islamic traditions while preserving essential features such as the hypostyle prayer hall, sahn courtyard, and qibla-oriented mihrab. Umayyad constructions in the Levant and al-Andalus established foundational models with monumental scale and borrowed elements from Byzantine and Sassanian precedents, emphasizing expansive colonnaded halls and early minaret forms.^[25] Under the Umayyads (661–750 CE), the Great Mosque of Damascus, completed between 706 and 715 CE, exemplified early innovations by incorporating a vast rectangular courtyard flanked by a porticoed prayer hall supported by over 200 columns recycled from Roman structures, alongside gilded mosaics depicting paradisiacal landscapes. This design influenced subsequent mosques by prioritizing axial symmetry and visual splendor to assert caliphal authority. In al-Andalus, the Great Mosque of Cordoba, initiated in 785 CE by Abd al-Rahman I and expanded through the 10th century, featured a hypostyle hall with distinctive double-tiered horseshoe arches in brick and stone, adapting Syrian prototypes to Iberian Roman-Visigothic remnants for enhanced light diffusion and structural stability.^[26]^[27] Abbasid mosques in Mesopotamia (750–1258 CE) shifted toward baked brick construction and larger enclosures suited to Mesopotamian floodplains, as seen in the Great Mosque of Samarra (848–851 CE), which covered approximately 10 hectares with mud-brick walls up to 12 meters high and a spiraling malwiya minaret rising 52 meters for the adhan call. Stucco revetments with geometric and vegetal motifs adorned interiors, marking a departure from stone masonry toward abstract decoration that avoided figural representation. These features prioritized communal scale over ornate detailing, reflecting the caliphate's administrative decentralization.^[28] In North Africa and Ifriqiya, Fatimid (909–1171 CE) and predecessor Aghlabid mosques integrated Berber and Byzantine influences, evident in the Al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo (990–1003 CE), which introduced paired square minarets and a dome over the mihrab, using limestone facades carved with Kufic inscriptions. The Great Mosque of Mahdiya (early 10th century) employed stucco panels and horseshoe arches, facilitating adaptation to coastal climates while supporting Shi'i ritual emphases on esoteric symbolism.^[29]^[30] Persian and eastern Islamic regions under the Seljuks (11th–12th centuries) pioneered the four-iwan plan, with vaulted halls opening onto a central courtyard, as refined in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan by around 1120 CE, incorporating muqarnas squinches for dome transitions and turquoise tilework precursors. This layout, derived from Sasanian palace models, optimized multifunctional use for prayer, education, and assembly, influencing later Timurid and Safavid designs amid Turkic migrations and Zoroastrian substrate.^[31]

Modern and postcolonial developments

In postcolonial Muslim-majority countries, the construction of grand national mosques emerged as a strategy for political elites to reinforce regime stability and assert Islamic identity amid independence from European colonial rule. From the late 1970s to 2010, nations spanning Morocco to Yemen invested in monumental mosques, often blending traditional Islamic motifs with modern engineering to symbolize sovereignty and counter secular nationalist challenges.^[32]^[33] For instance, Pakistan's Faisal Mosque, funded by a $28 million grant from Saudi King Faisal and completed in 1986 after construction began in 1976, exemplifies this trend with its contemporary design eschewing traditional domes and minarets in favor of tent-like geometry inspired by the region's badlands.^[34] Saudi Arabia played a pivotal role in global mosque proliferation during the late 20th century, channeling billions through organizations like the Muslim World League to finance over 1,500 mosques, schools, and Islamic centers worldwide between 1982 and 2005, often promoting Salafi interpretations that emphasized scriptural literalism over local Sufi or folk traditions.^[35] This funding, peaking under King Fahd, extended to Europe and North America, where immigrant communities constructed mosques adapted to urban contexts, such as converted industrial buildings or purpose-built structures without minarets to navigate zoning restrictions. By 2020, Saudi Arabia announced cessation of foreign mosque funding, shifting toward domestic reforms and moderating its global religious outreach.^[36]^[37] The 20th and 21st centuries witnessed mosque architecture evolve through integration of modern materials and sustainability features, responding to urbanization and environmental concerns while preserving functional prayer spaces. In the United States, the number of mosques surged 31% to 2,769 by 2020 from 2,106 in 2010, driven primarily by Muslim immigration and higher birth rates among the growing population, which reached about 3.45 million or 1.1% of Americans.^[38]^[39] Similar expansions occurred in Europe due to labor migration from Turkey, North Africa, and South Asia post-World War II, though often sparking local debates over integration and visibility. Architectural studies note a trend toward simplified designs in some regions, with modern styles reducing symbolic elements like domes by up to 23% in surveyed cases, prioritizing open prayer halls over ornate historicism.^[40]

Religious and communal functions

Obligatory prayers and congregational requirements

The five daily obligatory prayers (salah) in Islam—Fajr at dawn, Dhuhr at noon, Asr in the afternoon, Maghrib after sunset, and Isha at night—must be performed by every sane adult Muslim, male or female, within their prescribed time windows, facing the qibla (direction of the Kaaba in Mecca).^[41]^[42] These prayers consist of specific units (rak'ahs): 2 for Fajr, 4 for Dhuhr and Asr, 3 for Maghrib, and 4 for Isha, recited in Arabic with physical prostrations and recitations from the Quran.^[42] While the individual performance of these prayers fulfills the personal obligation (fard 'ayn), congregational prayer (jama'ah) in a mosque multiplies the reward—reported in hadith as 27 times greater than solitary prayer—and is deemed an emphasized recommended act (sunnah mu'akkadah) for men by the majority of Islamic jurists (Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi'i schools), though the Hanbali school considers it obligatory for those nearby.^[43]^[44] Women may join but face no such communal expectation, often praying at home to prioritize domestic responsibilities.^[45] The congregation requires an imam to lead, with participants aligning in straight rows behind, and a minimum quorum varying by school (e.g., 3-40 men for validity in some views), emphasizing collective discipline over the fard kifayah communal duty where sufficient participation suffices for the group.^[46] The Friday noon prayer (Jumu'ah) uniquely mandates congregation at the mosque for adult, healthy, free, and resident Muslim men, superseding the Dhuhr prayer with two rak'ahs, a sermon (khutbah), and public assembly, as stipulated in Quran 62:9-10: "O you who have believed, when [the adhan] is called for the prayer on the day of Jumu'ah [Friday], then proceed to the remembrance of Allah and leave trade."^[47]^[48] Failure to attend without excuse (e.g., illness or danger) incurs sin, with historical enforcement including rulers compelling attendance.^[49] Women are exempt from this obligation and may instead perform four rak'ahs of Dhuhr privately, though attendance is permissible and rewarded.^[50]^[51] Mosques accommodate Jumu'ah by clearing spaces for larger crowds, often with amplified calls to prayer (adhan) and segregated areas.^[52]

Observances for Ramadan, Eid, and other rituals

During Ramadan, mosques serve as central venues for Tarawih prayers, voluntary nightly prayers performed in congregation after the obligatory Isha prayer, consisting of eight or twenty rak'ahs with extended recitations from the Quran to complete its entirety over the month.^[53] These prayers, rooted in the practice of the Prophet Muhammad, draw significantly larger crowds than routine services, often filling mosque capacities and spilling into adjacent open areas, as observed in major sites like Mecca's Masjid al-Haram where millions participate annually.^[54] Attendance emphasizes communal recitation and reflection, with participants standing for prolonged periods, though individual performance at home is permissible if congregational access is unavailable.^[53] In the final ten days of Ramadan, many mosques host Itikaf, a Sunnah practice of ritual seclusion where devotees remain within the mosque premises for worship, minimizing external interactions to focus on prayer, Quran reading, and supplication, particularly seeking Laylat al-Qadr.^[55] This retreat, emulating the Prophet's annual observance, requires prior intention and continuous presence except for essential needs like ablution, with men and women observing separately; it underscores mosques' role as dedicated spaces for intensified devotion amid fasting.^[55]^[56] For Eid al-Fitr, marking Ramadan's end, mosques facilitate special congregational prayers typically held shortly after sunrise, involving two rak'ahs with additional takbirs, often accommodating overflow in courtyards or nearby fields due to high attendance.^[57] In Saudi Arabia alone, nearly 20,000 mosques prepared for these prayers in 2025, equipped for large gatherings post-fasting.^[58] Similarly, Eid al-Adha prayers follow the same format, commemorating Abraham's sacrifice, and are conducted in mosques or open spaces, prioritizing communal participation over individual observance.^[57] Other mosque-based rituals include occasional voluntary prayers like Salat al-Istisqa for rain, led by an imam during droughts, and funeral prayers (Janazah) performed in absentia without prostration, both reinforcing the mosque's function beyond daily salat as a site for collective supplication and lifecycle events.^[59] These practices, while not obligatory, enhance social cohesion, with empirical attendance data from global mosques showing peaks during these periods that can exceed routine capacities by factors of 5-10 in urban centers.^[60]

Education, charity, and community welfare

Historically, mosques served as primary centers for Islamic education, with the Prophet's Mosque in Medina functioning as both a place of worship and learning from the 7th century onward, where the Prophet Muhammad instructed followers in religious texts and jurisprudence.^[61] This tradition persisted through the early Islamic period, as mosques in cities like Basra and Kufa hosted informal teaching circles (halaqas) covering Quran recitation, hadith, and sciences, evolving into structured institutions by the 10th century when madrasas emerged alongside mosques to formalize curricula in theology, law, and astronomy.^[62]^[63] In contemporary settings, many mosques maintain educational programs, particularly Quran schools (maktabs) and after-school classes focused on memorization (hifz), tajwid (recitation rules), and Islamic ethics for youth. For instance, U.S. mosques often host Sunday schools teaching dua, hadith, and Quranic studies to children aged 6-16, with programs like those at Masjid DarusSalam emphasizing moral development alongside academics.^[64] Attached academies, such as Al Manara Academy, integrate Islamic principles with secular subjects up to 8th grade, serving as accredited institutions in some communities.^[65] Mosques facilitate charity through collection and distribution of zakat (obligatory alms, typically 2.5% of savings) and sadaqah (voluntary giving), often prioritizing local needs like food aid and debt relief. In the U.S., mosques collected an average of $40,640 in zakat funds in 2020, supporting the poor as mandated by Islamic law, while broader Muslim American philanthropy reached $1.8 billion in 2021, with significant portions channeled via mosques for poverty alleviation.^[66]^[67] Examples include mosque-led initiatives providing emergency financial assistance and orphan sponsorship, aligning with sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity) principles like well-building or education endowments.^[68] Beyond direct aid, mosques contribute to community welfare by offering social services such as counseling, health clinics, and disaster response coordination, fostering self-reliance and cohesion. Organizations like Masjid Muhammad operate faith-based committees delivering food, wellness programs, and support irrespective of ethnicity, while mosque partnerships have aided mental health stigma reduction through support groups and literacy efforts.^[69]^[70] In developing regions, independent mosque movements promote economic empowerment via multifunctional centers that include job training and microfinance, reducing dependency on external aid.^[71]

Architectural features

Core structural elements

The core structural elements of a mosque prioritize functional alignment with Islamic prayer requirements, centering on orientation toward the Kaaba in Mecca and provisions for communal worship. Essential components include the prayer hall, qibla wall, mihrab, and minbar, which emerged in the earliest mosques like the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, founded in 622 CE as a simple enclosure with a shaded area for prayer.^[2] These elements ensure the space facilitates salah, the ritual prayer performed five times daily, without necessitating later ornamental additions like domes or minarets.^[3] The prayer hall, or musalla, forms the primary enclosed area for congregational prayer, typically a rectangular hypostyle space supported by columns or arches to create an open floor for prostration. In traditional designs, it adjoins an open courtyard (sahn) for overflow during peak times, such as Friday prayers, and features a flat roof or, in some cases, a dome symbolizing the vault of heaven over the qibla axis. The hall's floor is covered with carpets marked for individual prayer positions, accommodating rows of worshippers facing the qibla.^[72] ^[2] The qibla wall demarcates the direction of Mecca, serving as the focal orientation for all prayers; it is invariably the most decorated surface, often with geometric patterns, calligraphy of Quranic verses, or vegetal motifs avoiding figurative representation. Embedded within this wall is the mihrab, a concave niche—typically semicircular and about 1-2 meters deep—indicating the precise qibla and symbolizing the imam's position as intermediary, though any Muslim can lead prayer from there. Originating possibly from pre-Islamic niches but standardized by the 7th century, the mihrab amplifies the imam's voice acoustically and visually directs the congregation.^[3] ^[73] Adjacent to the mihrab stands the minbar, a stepped wooden or stone pulpit ascended via stairs, used by the imam for delivering the khutbah (sermon) during Jumu'ah (Friday) prayers. Dating back to the Prophet Muhammad's era, where a simple palm stump sufficed, the minbar evolved into an ornate structure with multiple tiers, often capped by a canopy, emphasizing hierarchical teaching while remaining functional for visibility and audibility.^[9] ^[3] Supporting these are ancillary structures like the ablution area, usually a fountain in the courtyard for wudu (ritual washing), ensuring purity before entry, though not strictly part of the prayer space itself. Minarets, tall towers for the adhan (call to prayer), became common by the 8th century but are absent in original Medina and Mecca mosques, underscoring that core elements prioritize interior ritual efficacy over external signaling.^[72] ^[9]

Regional and stylistic variations

Mosque architecture exhibits significant regional variations shaped by local materials, climatic conditions, cultural influences, and historical interactions, while preserving essential Islamic elements such as the mihrab, minbar, and orientation toward the qibla. In the Arabian Peninsula, early mosques like the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, expanded in the 7th century, featured simple hypostyle halls with flat roofs supported by palm trunks or stone columns, emphasizing functionality over ornamentation in arid environments.^[74] Persian styles, emerging from the 11th century under the Seljuks, introduced the four-iwan layout—a central courtyard flanked by vaulted halls—with prominent brick domes, intricate turquoise tilework depicting geometric and floral motifs, and muqarnas (honeycomb vaulting) for transitions, as seen in Isfahan's Shah Mosque completed in 1629.^[1] These designs prioritized symmetry and celestial symbolism, adapting to seismic-prone regions with flexible brick masonry.^[75] Ottoman architecture, peaking in the 16th century under architects like Mimar Sinan, favored massive central domes cascading into semi-domes, slender pencil-shaped minarets often in pairs or multiples, and expansive porticos, drawing from Byzantine precedents like Hagia Sophia, as in the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul built between 1550 and 1557.^[76] Iznik tiles with floral and arabesque patterns adorned interiors, while stone facades suited temperate climates. In contrast, Mughal Indo-Islamic mosques in South Asia, from the 16th century, blended Persian influences with indigenous elements, featuring bulbous onion domes, red sandstone or white marble inlays, chhatris (pavilion kiosks) on roofs, and jali (perforated stone screens) for light filtration, exemplified by Delhi's Jama Masjid constructed from 1650 to 1656 under Shah Jahan with three gateways and two 40-meter minarets.^[77] These adaptations incorporated Hindu motifs like lotus finials and lotus-inspired domes to local aesthetics and monsoon resilience.^[78] Southeast Asian mosques, influenced by Indian Ocean trade from the 13th century, diverged markedly by adopting multi-tiered pyramidal roofs (tajug or meru) reminiscent of Hindu-Buddhist temples, timber framing on stilts for flood-prone areas, and open pavilions, as in Java's Demak Great Mosque built around 1479 with a tiered roof echoing pendopo halls.^[79] Local woods and thatch prevailed, with minarets sometimes omitted or stylized as tiered towers, prioritizing ventilation in tropical humidity over domes. In sub-Saharan Africa, particularly West Africa, Sudano-Sahelian styles used sun-baked mud bricks (banco) for thick walls and flat or conical roofs, with palm-log minarets and toron (mud pinnacles) for decoration, as in Mali's Great Mosque of Djenné, annually replastered since its 13th-century origins and rebuilt in 1907 to withstand erosion.^[80] These forms absorbed animist building techniques, forgoing imported stone for sustainable, community-maintained structures in Sahelian climates. East Asian mosques, especially in China, integrated imperial timber-frame traditions from the Tang dynasty onward, featuring pitched roofs with upturned eaves, bracket systems (dougong), and courtyards without prominent domes, as in the Great Mosque of Xi'an founded in 742 CE and rebuilt in the Ming era (1368–1644) with pagoda-like minarets and calligraphy-laden halls. This sinicization accommodated Confucian spatial hierarchies and seismic needs via flexible wood, while minarets evoked local watchtowers. North African Maghrebi variants emphasized square-based minarets with stepped profiles, horseshoe arches, and stucco arabesques, adapting Roman and Berber precedents for Mediterranean and desert interfaces.^[74] Such diversity underscores how mosques evolved through pragmatic synthesis rather than rigid replication, with core rituals dictating spatial flow amid stylistic divergence.^[81]

Contemporary designs and technological integrations

Contemporary mosque designs often reinterpret traditional Islamic architectural elements—such as geometric patterns, courtyards, and minarets—through minimalist forms, advanced materials like glass, steel, and concrete, and sustainable engineering to align with 21st-century urban contexts and environmental imperatives.^[82]^[83] Architects increasingly eschew ornate domes and spires in favor of sleek, abstract silhouettes that evoke spiritual symbolism without historical mimicry, as seen in projects emphasizing light modulation and spatial fluidity.^[84] For instance, the Hadrovića Mosque in Podgorica, Montenegro, completed in early 2025, features a single-pitched roof typology integrated with contemporary facades using perforated metal screens for privacy and ventilation, blending local typology with modular construction techniques.^[85] Technological integrations in these structures prioritize energy efficiency and operational automation, transforming mosques into smart buildings equipped with IoT sensors for occupancy-based climate control, LED lighting systems, and building management software to optimize resource use.^[86]^[87] Sustainability features are prominent, including photovoltaic solar panels, rainwater harvesting, and passive cooling via rammed earth walls, as exemplified by the Masdar City Mosque in Abu Dhabi, designed as the world's first net-zero energy mosque operational by mid-2025, achieving LEED Zero Carbon certification through solar arrays covering 20% of its roof and natural ventilation shafts reducing mechanical cooling needs by 40%.^[88]^[89] In Indonesia, the Istiqlal Mosque retrofitted in 2022 incorporates solar panels generating 120 kW, smart energy meters monitoring consumption in real-time, and reflective coatings on roofs and walls to cut cooling loads by up to 30%, marking a pioneering green upgrade for a national landmark.^[90] These innovations reflect a causal emphasis on reducing operational costs and carbon footprints in regions with high energy demands for air conditioning, where traditional designs prove inefficient; however, implementation varies by funding and regulatory environments, with Middle Eastern projects leading due to oil-derived wealth enabling advanced engineering.^[91]^[92] Digital enhancements extend to acoustic systems with distributed microphones and speakers for clear adhan broadcasts and prayer amplification, alongside apps for virtual participation, though core designs maintain separation of technology from sacred spaces to preserve ritual focus.^[93]^[94]

Practices and regulations

Ritual purity and ablution

Ritual purity, or taharah, constitutes a foundational requirement in Islam for the validity of acts of worship, particularly the five daily prayers (salah), which are congregational in mosques. The Quran mandates purification before prayer, stating: "O you who have believed, when you rise to [perform] prayer, wash your faces and your forearms to the elbows and wipe over your heads and wash your feet to the ankles" (Quran 5:6). This ablution ensures removal of minor ritual impurities (hadath asghar), such as those arising from urination or defecation, rendering the individual eligible to enter the mosque's prayer area and prostrate during salah. Failure to achieve this state invalidates the prayer, as emphasized in prophetic tradition: "The key to prayer is ablution."^[95] Minor ablution (wudu) involves a sequential washing: beginning with the intention (niyyah) to purify for Allah's sake, followed by rinsing the mouth and nostrils, washing the face from forehead to chin and ear to ear, the arms up to the elbows (right then left), wiping the head with wet hands, and washing the feet up to the ankles. The Prophet Muhammad described cleanliness as "half of faith," underscoring its spiritual weight alongside physical hygiene.^[96] For major impurities (hadath akbar), such as post-sexual emission (janabah), menstruation, or postpartum bleeding, a full-body ritual bath (ghusl) is obligatory, involving an intention, washing the hands and private parts, performing wudu, and thoroughly pouring water over the entire body, including the hair roots.^[97] Individuals in janabah are explicitly barred from entering the mosque until ghusl is completed, preserving the sanctity of the space dedicated to worship.^[97] Mosques worldwide incorporate dedicated ablution facilities to facilitate these practices, typically comprising rows of basins, foot-washing stations, or central fountains with running water, drains, and mirrors, often segregated by gender and located adjacent to restrooms but separate from the prayer hall to avoid contamination.^[98] These areas prioritize hygiene through features like non-slip flooring, water-efficient taps, and ventilation, accommodating peak usage during congregational prayers; for instance, larger mosques may feature 30–50 basins to serve hundreds of worshippers efficiently.^[99] Water must be pure and unused for prior rituals, aligning with Quranic emphasis on clean sources for purification (Quran 5:6). In cases of water scarcity, alternatives like tayammum (dry ablution with clean earth) permit entry and prayer, though mosques emphasize accessible wet facilities as standard.

Behavioral etiquette and dress

Upon entering a mosque, adherents follow sunnah practices derived from prophetic tradition, including stepping in with the right foot while reciting the supplication "Allāhumma iftah lī abwāba raḥmatika" (O Allah, open the doors of Your mercy for me), followed by performing two rakʿahs of optional prayer (Ṣalāt al-Ṭaḥiyyat al-Masjid) to honor the space.^[100]^[101] General conduct emphasizes reverence and focus on worship: voices must remain low to avoid disrupting prayers or recitations, idle chatter, gossip, or business dealings are prohibited, and physical movements should reflect humility without running or unnecessary noise.^[102]^[103] Eating and drinking are permissible if cleanliness is maintained and foul-odored foods (such as garlic or onions) are avoided, though many mosques discourage it to uphold sanctity; impurities or strong scents that could offend worshippers are strictly forbidden.^[104]^[105] Dress requirements extend Islamic modesty rules to ensure coverage of the awrah during prayer and presence in the mosque. Men must wear clean, loose garments covering at minimum from the navel to the knees, avoiding silk, gold, or immodest styles, as per Qurʾān 24:30 and hadith stipulations.^[106] Women are obligated to don loose, opaque outer garments (jilbāb) enveloping the body except face and hands, paired with a head covering (khimār), excluding tight, sheer, or perfumed attire that accentuates form, in line with Qurʾān 33:59 and 24:31.^[106] All visitors remove footwear at the entrance to prevent tracking in impurities, a practice rooted in preserving ritual purity.^[107] These norms apply universally in Sunni contexts, with minor variations in Shia or cultural practices, but deviations compromising modesty or decorum may bar entry.^[108]

Gender segregation and family accommodations

In traditional Islamic practice, mosques allocate separate prayer spaces for men and women to promote modesty and minimize distractions during worship, a custom derived from hadiths in which the Prophet Muhammad directed women to form rows behind men or in designated rear areas.^[109]^[110] This separation, often enforced via physical partitions, screens, balconies, or distinct entrances, aims to allow participants to lower their gaze and focus on prayer, as articulated in sources emphasizing avoidance of intermingling unrelated individuals.^[111]^[112] While the Quran does not explicitly mandate spatial division, prophetic traditions and subsequent caliphal precedents, such as those under Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE), institutionalized it to preserve decorum in communal settings.^[113] Women's sections typically comprise 10–20% of total prayer space in many mosques, frequently resulting in overcrowding, poor ventilation, or limited visibility of the imam, which can hinder auditory and visual access to sermons.^[114] In family contexts, mothers often bring young children to these areas, where accommodations vary: some mosques provide minimal facilities like changing mats or quiet zones, but complaints persist regarding inadequate space for strollers, noise from children disrupting prayer, or lack of dedicated childcare, effectively discouraging family attendance.^[115] Fathers rarely accompany children to women's sections, placing primary caregiving on women, which aligns with hadith encouraging women to prioritize home prayer for greater reward while not barring mosque access.^[110]^[116] Contemporary adaptations in non-Muslim-majority countries, such as North America, include "family-friendly" mosques with expanded women's halls, audio-visual links to main areas, or hybrid sections for spouses and children during non-peak times, driven by community feedback to boost participation rates, which hover around 20–30% for women globally.^[117] However, strict segregation remains normative in Sunni and Shia mosques, with exceptions like Mecca's Masjid al-Haram allowing proximity without barriers, though women often self-segregate to outer rings for privacy.^[118] These arrangements reflect causal priorities of ritual purity over egalitarian access, though empirical surveys indicate that substandard women's facilities correlate with lower female attendance, prompting calls for equitable space allocation without altering core separations.^[119]

Imams, prayer leadership, and non-Muslim access

In Islamic tradition, the imam serves as the primary religious leader within a mosque, responsible for leading the five daily congregational prayers (salah), delivering the Friday sermon (khutbah), and providing spiritual guidance to the community.^[120]^[121] This role extends to conducting rites of passage such as marriages, funerals, and circumcisions, as well as teaching Quranic recitation and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).^[122] Traditionally, imams are male scholars selected for their mastery of the Quran, often requiring full memorization (hifz) and proficiency in tajwid (rules of recitation), though women may lead prayers in gender-segregated settings in some communities.^[123]^[124] Appointment as an imam typically involves formal training in Islamic seminaries (madrasas) or universities, emphasizing knowledge of hadith, theology (aqidah), and local cultural contexts, particularly in non-Muslim-majority countries where English proficiency and interfaith dialogue skills are valued.^[125] In Saudi Arabia, imams at major sites like the Masjid al-Haram must be Saudi nationals with verified expertise in recitation and adherence to state-approved Salafi interpretations, reflecting governmental oversight to ensure doctrinal uniformity.^[126] Sectarian differences influence leadership: Sunni imams focus on mosque-based prayer guidance without claims to infallibility, while in Shia contexts, the term "imam" also denotes divinely appointed historical figures, with contemporary mosque leaders prioritizing ritual purity aligned with Twelver jurisprudence.^[127] Prayer leadership requires specific qualifications to ensure validity (sahih) of the congregational rite: the imam must be an adult Muslim of sound mind, capable of reciting the Quran accurately from memory, and free from major moral disqualifications like public sin.^[128] In Sunni practice, any qualified male can lead if knowledgeable, though permanent imams are preferred for consistency; Shia traditions impose stricter conditions, including adherence to specific prayer postures and prohibitions against following leaders with divergent creedal views, such as praying behind Sunnis if ritual differences (e.g., combining zuhr and asr prayers) render the prayer invalid.^[129]^[130] These variances stem from interpretive disputes over prophetic succession and fiqh schools, leading to separate congregational spaces in mixed communities to avoid invalidation claims.^[131] Access for non-Muslims to mosques varies by location, jurisprudence, and mosque policy, with no universal prohibition in Islamic law but frequent restrictions during worship to maintain ritual purity. In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslims are barred from the prophetic mosques in Mecca and Medina under Wahhabi-influenced statutes prohibiting non-Islamic presence in sacred precincts, enforced since the kingdom's founding in 1932.^[132]^[133] Conversely, many mosques in Turkey, Europe, and North America permit guided tours for educational purposes outside prayer times, requiring modest dress, shoe removal, and avoidance of sacred areas like the mihrab, as endorsed by bodies like the Islamic Society of North America to foster community relations.^[134]^[135] Hanafi and Maliki schools often allow respectful entry, citing historical precedents of Prophet Muhammad receiving delegations, though some Salafi scholars advocate caution against potential desecration, reflecting debates on causality between openness and doctrinal dilution.^[136]

Global presence and adaptations

In Muslim-majority nations

In Muslim-majority nations, mosques constitute the core infrastructure of Islamic practice, facilitating obligatory prayers, Jumu'ah congregations, and supplementary religious education, with densities often exceeding one per several thousand residents. Saudi Arabia, home to Islam's holiest sites, operates over 94,000 mosques, including expansive complexes like Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, which accommodates up to four million worshippers during Hajj.^[137] Egypt maintains more than 114,000 registered mosques, many clustered in urban centers like Cairo, supporting a population where over 90% identify as Muslim.^[138] State oversight prevails in most such countries, centralizing control over imam selection, sermon approval, and funding to harmonize religious activities with governance objectives, including countering dissent or extremism. In Turkey, the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) administers all mosques, appointing imams, drafting uniform Friday sermons, and funding operations through the national budget, a structure established in 1924 to consolidate secular authority over Sunni Islam.^[139]^[140] Egypt's Ministry of Endowments regulates over 100,000 mosques, mandating that imams hold al-Azhar credentials and prohibiting unlicensed preaching to curb unauthorized ideologies.^[141] In Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs restricts mosque preaching to state-vetted imams adhering to Salafi interpretations, with recent maintenance efforts covering thousands of facilities annually.^[142]^[143] Variations exist; Indonesia, with the world's largest Muslim population exceeding 240 million, features around 800,000 mosques, predominantly small-scale and community-funded, though the government aids landmark constructions like Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta and enforces basic standards for public safety and ritual compliance.^[144] In Algeria, all 17,000 mosques fall under state administration, with imams salaried by the government to ensure doctrinal uniformity.^[145] This governmental integration adapts mosques to national contexts, embedding them in welfare distribution, such as Ramadan aid, while sometimes limiting autonomous theological discourse.

Establishment in Western and non-Muslim contexts

In the United States, the earliest mosques were established by immigrant laborers and traders in the early 20th century, with the first known instance in Biddeford, Maine, in 1915, followed by structures in Ross, North Dakota (1920), Highland Park, Michigan (1923), and Highland, Indiana (1925).^[146] The oldest surviving purpose-built mosque, known as the Mother Mosque of America in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, was completed in February 1934 after construction began in 1929, serving a community of Syrian and Lebanese Muslims.^[147] This growth paralleled waves of immigration from the Ottoman Empire and later Middle Eastern countries, though early congregations often worshiped in homes or rented spaces due to limited resources and small population sizes. By 2020, the U.S. hosted 2,769 mosques, marking a 31% increase from 2,106 in 2010, attributable to post-1965 immigration reforms, higher birth rates among Muslims, and conversions, with the highest concentrations in states like New York (343 mosques) and California.^[66]^[148] In the United Kingdom, the first recorded mosque opened in a Liverpool terrace house in 1889, founded by a group of about 20 British converts and Muslim visitors under the Liverpool Muslim Institute.^[149] The inaugural purpose-built facility, the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking, Surrey, was erected between 1888 and 1889 with funding from Indian Muslim royalty, initially catering to students and dignitaries rather than a settled community.^[150] Expansion accelerated after World War II with South Asian and Middle Eastern immigration, leading to thousands of mosques by the late 20th century, often converted from industrial buildings or houses amid urban demographic shifts. Continental Europe saw similar patterns, with post-1950s guest worker programs from Turkey, North Africa, and the Balkans spurring mosque foundations in converted warehouses or basements; Germany, for example, reported over 2,800 mosques by the 2010s, many tied to Turkish diaspora networks.^[151] France maintained around 2,500 mosques as of 2015, predominantly in immigrant-heavy suburbs, though new constructions frequently faced municipal delays over land use and architectural compliance.^[152] Establishment in these contexts has routinely involved surmounting regulatory and social barriers, including zoning restrictions, noise complaints from amplified calls to prayer, and public referendums on visible Islamic features like domes or minarets—such as Switzerland's 2009 national ban on new minarets following local campaigns citing cultural preservation.^[153] In Australia and Canada, mosques proliferated from the 1970s onward with family reunification policies, reaching over 300 in Australia by 2020, often blending local materials with traditional designs to align with planning approvals. Beyond the West, in non-Muslim Asian nations, mosques trace to trade routes: India's Cheraman Juma Mosque in Kerala dates to 629 CE, built during Arab merchant settlements, while modern examples include Japan's Tokyo Camii, first opened in 1938 for a expatriate community and rebuilt in 2000 as Ottoman-style to accommodate growing tourism and residents.^[154] China's historical mosques, numbering over 40,000, primarily serve Hui and Uyghur populations but have faced state oversight on construction since the 2010s amid security policies. These establishments reflect pragmatic adaptations to minority status, with funding typically from community donations or overseas kin, though opacity in some foreign contributions has prompted scrutiny in secular frameworks.^[155]

Integration challenges and local modifications

In Western countries, mosque construction frequently encounters zoning disputes and community opposition, often centered on concerns over traffic congestion, parking shortages, noise from amplified calls to prayer (adhan), and perceived impacts on property values. A 2012 Pew Research Center analysis documented over 20 high-profile controversies in the United States since 2010, with local residents citing these practical issues alongside broader apprehensions about cultural integration and security; similar patterns emerged in Europe, where a 2014 study identified more than 200 mosque-related conflicts across the continent, predominantly in urban areas with growing Muslim populations.^[156] ^[157] ^[155] In response, many proposals adapt by selecting industrial or underutilized sites rather than residential zones, as evidenced by a 2021 survey of U.S. mosque opposition cases where relocation to non-residential areas resolved 70% of disputes without litigation.^[158] Architectural and operational modifications are common to comply with local regulations and mitigate tensions. Switzerland's 2009 constitutional ban on new minarets, approved by 57.5% of voters amid fears of symbolic Islamization despite only four existing minaret-equipped mosques, prompted subsequent designs to omit spires entirely or integrate them discreetly into building facades.^[159] ^[160] In Germany and other European nations, adhan broadcasts face volume limits or time restrictions—such as prohibitions after 10 p.m. in cities like Cologne—to address noise complaints, with electronic alternatives like apps or internal announcements increasingly used.^[161] A 2023 study of mosque architecture in non-Muslim contexts highlighted hybrid designs incorporating local elements, such as Gothic-inspired arches in British mosques or pagoda-like roofs in some Asian adaptations, to blend with surroundings and secure permits.^[162] ^[163] Beyond Europe and North America, state-driven modifications reflect integration pressures in secular or majority-non-Muslim settings. In China, since 2018, authorities have altered or demolished Islamic features in over 75% of 2,312 surveyed mosques, replacing domes and minarets with Han Chinese architectural motifs like upturned eaves to align with "Sinicization" policies aimed at cultural assimilation.^[164] These changes, enforced through campaigns in Xinjiang and other regions, reduced visible Islamic symbolism while preserving core prayer functions, though critics argue they undermine religious identity.^[164] In contrast, voluntary adaptations in places like Japan and Taiwan often feature minimalist structures without traditional domes, using contemporary materials to fit urban landscapes and avoid perceptions of foreign imposition, as seen in Tokyo's mosques built in converted warehouses since the 1930s.^[162] Such modifications sometimes exacerbate internal community debates over authenticity versus pragmatism, with a 2023 Austrian analysis of Turkish-managed mosques revealing sermons that discourage assimilation, contributing to parallel societal structures and heightened local resistance.^[165] Empirical data from integration studies indicate that mosques emphasizing ethnic segregation over civic engagement correlate with lower host-society trust, as measured by surveys showing 40-50% lower participation rates in local volunteering among attendees of non-adapted facilities compared to hybrid ones.^[166] Nonetheless, successful cases, like purpose-built centers with community halls for interfaith events, demonstrate that targeted adaptations can foster dialogue, reducing opposition by 60% in tracked U.S. instances.^[157]

Political dimensions

Role in mobilization and governance

In early Islamic history, the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, established around 622 CE, functioned as the primary center for governance, military planning, and social administration, where Muhammad consulted companions on political and strategic matters, such as during preparations for the Battle of Badr in 624 CE.^[167] This model positioned mosques as multifunctional institutions beyond prayer, incorporating judicial rulings, education, and community welfare distribution.^[168] Under the Rashidun Caliphs (632–661 CE), mosques retained these roles, serving as venues for political consultations, propaganda, and administrative announcements, adapting to the expanding caliphate's needs.^[167] During the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates (661–1258 CE), mosques evolved into symbols of state authority, with grand structures like the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus hosting official ceremonies, legal proceedings, and educational sessions that reinforced caliphal legitimacy.^[169] These institutions centralized religious and political discourse, enabling rulers to propagate ideology and mobilize support, though their administrative functions diminished over time as specialized bureaucracies emerged.^[170] In the modern era, mosques have frequently served as bases for political mobilization in Muslim-majority countries, leveraging their communal role to organize opposition or state-aligned activities. During the Iranian Revolution of 1978–1979, Shi'ite mosque networks, enjoying relative autonomy from the Pahlavi regime, coordinated protests, disseminated Khomeini's tapes, and mobilized millions against the Shah, culminating in the establishment of an Islamic Republic.^[171]^[172] Similarly, in Algeria, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) utilized mosques in the early 1990s to rally support before elections, mirroring tactics employed by the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt for grassroots activism.^[169] In Turkey under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan since 2014, the Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) has expanded control over approximately 90,000 mosques, using Friday sermons and imam appointments to promote government narratives on issues like secularism and foreign policy, while funding overseas mosques to extend soft power in regions such as the Balkans.^[173] This state integration of mosques into governance has included converting historic sites like Hagia Sophia to mosques in 2020, signaling a revival of Islamist-leaning policies amid Erdoğan's consolidation of power.^[174] In post-Suharto Indonesia, mosques have been politicized by authorities to counter deviant ideologies, serving as mobilization sites for state-favored religious discourse.^[175] Such uses highlight mosques' enduring capacity to bridge religious authority with political influence, often amplifying Islamist movements where secular governance weakens.^[170]

Foreign funding mechanisms and influences

Saudi Arabia has historically been the largest state sponsor of mosque construction and operations globally, channeling funds through entities like the Muslim World League (MWL) to promote Salafi-Wahhabi interpretations of Islam. Between 1982 and 2005, the Saudi government under King Fahd allocated over $1 billion for building mosques, Islamic schools, and training preachers abroad, with estimates suggesting cumulative expenditures exceeding $100 billion on dawah (proselytization) efforts worldwide.^[35]^[176] These mechanisms often involved direct grants to local Muslim organizations, construction of grand mosques, and scholarships for imams to study in Saudi institutions, fostering ideological alignment with Riyadh's puritanical doctrines. In 2020, Saudi officials announced a halt to foreign mosque funding via the MWL, signaling a pivot toward moderate outreach amid domestic reforms, though prior investments continue to shape sermons and curricula in recipient communities.^[177]^[36] Qatar employs quasi-governmental charities such as Qatar Charity to finance mosque projects, particularly in Europe, often linked to Muslim Brotherhood-affiliated networks that emphasize political Islam. From 2004 to 2019, Qatar disbursed over €770 million in "humanitarian aid" to 288 organizations in Western countries, including funding for 140 mosques and Islamic centers totaling €71 million.^[178]^[179] These funds support not only physical infrastructure but also imam training and community programs that propagate Brotherhood ideologies, prioritizing transnational solidarity and resistance to secular governance over local integration. Critics, including European parliamentary inquiries, highlight how such opacity enables influence operations that prioritize Qatari foreign policy interests, such as support for Hamas-linked groups.^[180]^[181] Turkey's Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) extends influence through taxpayer-funded mosque construction, imam deployments, and operational subsidies abroad, aiming to cultivate loyalty to the Turkish state model under President Erdogan. The Diyanet has financed projects like the €30 million Namazgah mosque in Tirana, Albania, in 2025, and invested $110 million in the Diyanet Center of America near Washington, D.C., in 2016, while its Türkiye Diyanet Foundation has built 105 mosques overseas as of 2022.^[182]^[181]^[183] Deployed imams, numbering over 1,000 in Europe alone, deliver state-scripted sermons via satellite from Ankara, reinforcing neo-Ottoman narratives and political mobilization aligned with Turkey's geopolitical aims, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia.^[184]^[173] This model contrasts with Saudi efforts by emphasizing nationalistic Islam rather than strict scripturalism, yet similarly leverages mosques for soft power projection. Iran focuses funding on Shia-specific infrastructure and events, using state budgets to build mosques in pilgrimage hubs like Najaf and Karbala, and subsidizing global Shia processions to export Twelver Shiism. Annual allocations, such as 100 billion tomans ($1.67 million) for Arba'een pilgrimages in 2024, indirectly support foreign Shia centers through pilgrim facilitation and ideological propagation.^[185]^[186] In cases like the Islamic Centre of England, probed in 2022 for governance issues, Iranian funds have raised concerns over embedding regime loyalty and anti-Western rhetoric in diaspora communities.^[187] Overall, these foreign mechanisms—often routed through charities to evade scrutiny—enable donor states to export ideologies that prioritize sectarian or political agendas, potentially undermining local cohesion by fostering parallel authorities within host societies.^[181]^[36] Responses include national efforts, like France's 2016 foundation to localize mosque financing and curb radical foreign inputs.^[188]

Controversies and criticisms

Associations with extremism and terrorism

Certain mosques have served as hubs for radical preachers who advocate violent jihad, facilitating recruitment and planning for terrorist acts. For instance, the Finsbury Park Mosque in London, under the influence of Abu Hamza al-Masri from the late 1990s to 2003, hosted sermons endorsing terrorism, including calls for attacks on non-Muslims; Hamza was convicted in 2015 on 11 U.S. terrorism charges related to aiding plots such as the 1998 kidnapping of Westerners in Yemen and training militants for al-Qaeda-linked activities.^[189]^[190] Attendees included figures like Zacarias Moussaoui, the "20th hijacker" in the 9/11 plot, and Richard Reid, the "shoe bomber" who attempted to down an American Airlines flight in 2001.^[191] In the United States, several 9/11 hijackers, including Hani Hanjour and Khalid al-Mihdhar, frequented mosques such as the Islamic Center of San Diego, where Anwar al-Awlaki served as imam from 1996 to 2000; al-Awlaki later became a key al-Qaeda propagandist and was linked to multiple plots before his 2011 killing by U.S. drone strike.^[192] A 2009 empirical survey of 100 representative U.S. mosques found a strong correlation between mosque leadership's adherence to Sharia doctrines and the presence of literature justifying violence against non-believers; 51.9% of surveyed mosques contained texts promoting such violence, and 58% had invited guest imams known for advocating violent jihad.^[193]^[194] Mosques scoring higher on Sharia adherence indices were over three times more likely to feature violence-positive materials than those scoring lower.^[195] Foreign funding has amplified these associations, particularly through Saudi Arabia's export of Wahhabi ideology via mosque construction and literature distribution. From the 1970s onward, Saudi entities financed over 1,500 mosques in Western Europe alone, often disseminating texts that glorify martyrdom and enmity toward "infidels," contributing to radicalization pathways observed in attacks like the 2005 London bombings, where perpetrators had ties to Wahhabi-influenced networks.^[196]^[197] A 2017 U.K. analysis identified at least 110 mosques receiving funds from Gulf states, including Saudi Arabia, linked to preachers or materials supporting extremism; such funding correlated with higher incidences of attendee involvement in terrorism-related activities compared to domestically funded mosques.^[196] In France, government closures of over 20 "radical" mosques since 2017 targeted those used for Salafist preaching tied to ISIS recruitment, with officials citing sermons inciting hatred and violence as key factors.^[198] These cases reflect causal links where mosques function not merely as places of worship but as nodes in networks propagating ideologies that justify terrorism, often under doctrinal pretexts like defensive jihad; however, empirical data indicate such patterns cluster in subsets adhering to literalist interpretations rather than mainstream practice.^[195] Counterterrorism efforts, including surveillance and funding scrutiny, have disrupted these activities, as evidenced by a decline in mosque-attributable plots post-2010 in monitored Western jurisdictions.^[199]

Cultural clashes and separatism debates

In Europe, debates over mosques frequently center on their role in either facilitating cultural integration or enabling separatism, with empirical evidence from policy responses, public referenda, and localized enforcement attempts highlighting persistent tensions. Governments and local authorities have cited instances where mosque-affiliated preaching and activities prioritize sharia principles over secular laws, fostering parallel communities resistant to host-society norms such as gender equality, free speech, and secular governance. These concerns are substantiated by official investigations and judicial outcomes, contrasting with narratives in some academic and media sources that attribute opposition primarily to xenophobia, though such accounts often overlook documented non-compliance with integration standards.^[200] A prominent example is Switzerland's 2009 federal referendum, which banned the construction of new minarets on mosques by a margin of 57.5% to 42.5%, driven by public apprehension that these structures symbolized an encroaching Islamist influence incompatible with Swiss cultural identity. Prior to the vote, only four minarets existed nationwide, none featuring loudspeakers for the call to prayer, yet the initiative reflected broader fears of separatism amid rising Muslim immigration; the ban withstood legal challenges, including at the European Court of Human Rights, affirming its basis in protecting national cohesion rather than mere aesthetics.^[159]^[160] France's 2020 crackdown exemplified state intervention against perceived separatist tendencies in mosques, as Interior Minister Gérald Darmanin announced inspections of 76 sites—approximately 3% of the nation's over 2,600 Muslim prayer venues—suspected of promoting radical ideologies and undermining republican values like laïcité. This followed the beheading of teacher Samuel Paty in October 2020 by an Islamist radical, prompting temporary closures of several mosques and the expulsion of 66 foreign imams; the actions were part of the "anti-separatism" law enacted in August 2021, which mandates civic training for worship leaders to counter communal withdrawal.^[200]^[201] In Austria, a 2023 study commissioned by Vienna's Integration Ambassador analyzed sermons and publications from the city's mosques, concluding that they systematically advocate Islamic separatism by rejecting Austrian legal supremacy and discouraging assimilation, such as through calls for gender-segregated spaces and sharia adherence over civil law. The report, drawing from monitoring of over 100 mosques, noted that Turkish- and Arabic-language materials often portrayed Western society as corrupt, impeding social mixing; this aligns with Austria's 2015 Islamgesetz, which requires imams to preach in German to promote integration, yet enforcement reveals ongoing resistance.^[165] Vigilante actions linked to mosque networks have intensified clashes, as seen in the UK's 2013 "Muslim Patrol" incidents in East London, where Islamist youths, inspired by radical sermons at nearby mosques, harassed passersby for alleged violations like public drinking, immodest dress, or interracial couples holding hands, declaring areas under "Muslim rule." Three perpetrators received prison sentences ranging from 6 to 20 months for religiously aggravated harassment, with videos of the patrols garnering widespread condemnation for attempting sharia enforcement. Similarly, in Germany's Wuppertal in 2014, a Salafist group dubbed "Sharia Police" patrolled nightclub districts near mosques, verbally accosting individuals against alcohol and gambling; while initially not prosecuted for lacking criminal threats, the group's leader was later fined €6,600 in 2016 for incitement, underscoring judicial recognition of parallel normative systems.^[202]^[203] These cases fuel arguments that unchecked mosque proliferation risks eroding social cohesion, supported by attitudinal data such as a 2016 ICM poll of 1,081 British Muslims, where 23% favored sharia application in Muslim-majority areas and 52% believed homosexuality should be illegal—figures higher among younger respondents—indicating preferences for separatism over liberal integration. Proponents of mosques counter that such activities represent fringe elements, yet recurrent official interventions suggest systemic challenges in ensuring religious practice aligns with civic duties, with biases in academia often minimizing these causal links in favor of framing critiques as discriminatory.^[204]

Funding opacity and geopolitical manipulations

Foreign governments, particularly from the Middle East, have provided substantial funding to mosques in non-Muslim-majority countries, frequently with minimal public disclosure requirements, enabling potential ideological propagation without oversight.^[181]^[205] Organizations such as Saudi Arabia's Muslim World League have channeled billions in oil-derived funds since the 1960s to construct and maintain thousands of mosques globally, often prioritizing the dissemination of Salafi-Wahhabi doctrines over local integration.^[206]^[207] This opacity stems from cash transfers, anonymous donations, and lax reporting in recipient nations, as evidenced by instances like the €88,888 donation from Saudi Arabia to a mosque in Dordrecht, Netherlands, reported without detailed scrutiny of strings attached.^[208] Saudi Arabia's strategy exemplifies geopolitical maneuvering, using mosque financing to extend Wahhabi influence as a counter to rival sects and secularism, with estimates indicating over 1,500 mosques built or supported worldwide by the 1990s, many featuring curricula aligned with Riyadh's religious establishment.^[209]^[210] A 2017 Henry Jackson Society report documented how such funding has radicalized communities in Europe, including Germany, by importing imams trained in Saudi institutions that emphasize literalist interpretations conducive to separatism.^[207] U.S. Senate hearings in 2003 highlighted Wahhabi preaching in American mosques funded indirectly through Saudi channels, urging reforms to curb this export of extremism.^[210] While Saudi officials claim post-2003 reforms reduced overt radicalism, ongoing MWL activities suggest persistent soft power projection, often bypassing host-country vetting.^[211] Qatar has similarly funneled millions to European mosques via charities, as revealed in 2022 investigations into transfers supporting Muslim Brotherhood-aligned networks, with documents indicating undisclosed euros to German Islamic centers for infrastructure and personnel.^[212]^[205] This funding promotes Doha-favored Islamist ideologies, rivaling Saudi Salafism, and exploits transparency gaps in EU regulations to influence diaspora politics. Turkey's Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) deploys over 1,000 imams abroad annually, backed by mosque construction funds exceeding hundreds of millions since 2016, to advance President Erdogan's neo-Ottoman agenda among expatriates.^[213]^[214] These efforts, documented in Nordic Monitor analyses, prioritize political loyalty over religious neutrality, with imams reporting to Ankara on community sentiments. Such manipulations raise concerns over sovereignty, as opaque financing circumvents democratic accountability and fosters parallel structures resistant to assimilation. Government audits, like those in France and Germany, have exposed non-disclosure of foreign donors, complicating efforts to mitigate extremism risks.^[181]^[215] While proponents argue funding supports legitimate worship, empirical patterns link it to heightened sectarian tensions and policy lobbying, as seen in U.S. GAO assessments of Saudi-backed entities pre-2005.^[216] Calls for mandatory donor registries persist, yet enforcement remains inconsistent amid diplomatic sensitivities.^[181]

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The mosque was built between 705 and 715 on the orders of the Caliph al-Walid I. It was built on the site of the byzantine church of Saint John the Baptist ...
[19]
the knotty religious history of the Umayyad Mosque - Apollo Magazine
The place was Christianised in the fourth century; after the Muslim conquest in the 630s, a mosque was built within the walls, and for a few decades it remained ...
[20]
The Great Mosque of Damascus (article) - Khan Academy
The mosque's location and organization were directly influenced by the temples and the church that preceded it. It was built into the Roman temple wall and it ...
[21]
Conquest to Conversion: The Archaeology of Religious ...
Mar 31, 2023 · This article examines critically the material evidence for mosque construction and church abandonment and proposes certain tipping points in the ...
[22]
Hagia Sophia has been converted back into a mosque, but the ...
Aug 18, 2020 · ... Sophia was transformed into a mosque by the Ottomans upon their conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1934, it was declared a museum by the ...
[23]
Hagia Sophia's continuing legacy - Stanford Report
Aug 7, 2020 · Stanford history professor says conquest narratives don't fully explain Hagia Sophia's lasting legacy ... Today in Turkey, the Ottoman conquests, ...
[24]
How Islam Spread Throughout the World - Yaqeen Institute
Dec 14, 2018 · This article describes some of the prominent factors in the Islamization of different regions of the world in history.
[25]
early Islamic art and architecture of the Umayyads and Abbasids
The Umayyads, an introduction: Umayyad rulers sponsored art forms ranging from new designs of coins to large congregational mosques, creating a coherent ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[26]
The Great Mosque of Córdoba - Smarthistory
Known locally as Mezquita-Catedral, the Great Mosque of Córdoba is one of the oldest structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled Al-Andalus ...
[27]
Umayyad Mosque - Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum
The Umayyad Mosque, built in Damascus (706-715 AD) on a Roman site, has a large courtyard, a prayer hall, and a preserved mosaic. It became a prototype for ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[28]
The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258)
Oct 1, 2001 · Since the style set by the capital was used throughout the Muslim world, Baghdad and Samarra became associated with the new artistic and ...
[29]
The Art of the Fatimid Period (909–1171)
Oct 1, 2001 · Besides elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the Mosque of al-Aqmar (1125) as well as the monumental gates ...
[30]
Mosque of al-Hakim bi Amrillah - Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum
This type of decorative style was introduced to Egypt by the Fatimids and originated in North Africa, seen in the Great Mosque of Susa in Tunisia (AH 236 / AD ...
[31]
The Seljuk Iwan - Muslim Heritage
Apr 13, 2003 · The Iwans plans of Seljuk Mosques were mainly developed for multi-functions including, prayer, teaching, lodging of teachers and students, libraries and ...
[32]
Constructing an Islamic Nation: National Mosque Building as a Form ...
Jan 28, 2019 · This article suggests that national mosque construction was the result of political elites' anxieties regarding the threat to regime stability posed by ...
[33]
Baker Institute expert: Islamic countries built mosques to bolster ...
Feb 1, 2019 · In countries ranging from Morocco to Yemen, national mosque construction from the late 1970s through 2010 was the result of political elites ...
[34]
8 Modern Mosques that Blend an Age-Old Religion with ... - Architizer
Constructed in 2013 in the Indonesian capital, this mosque is defined by distinctive white ribs that possess rhythmic qualities similar to buttresses seen in ...
[35]
The Impact and Complexity of Saudi Funding on the Dissemination ...
Feb 7, 2025 · Between 1982 and 2005, an official record shows that the Saudi regime under King Fahd spent over US$1 billion “on mosques, schools, preachers ...
[36]
Influence Abroad: Saudi Arabia Replaces Salafism in its Soft Power ...
Dec 23, 2024 · The Saudi Arabian decision to scale down its support for Salafism has had several implications. In stopping the financing of mosques and ...
[37]
Saudi Arabia to stop funding mosques in foreign countries
Jan 25, 2020 · Former Saudi minister of justice, Mohammed Bin Abdul-Karim Issa, has announced that his country will stop funding mosques in foreign countries.
[38]
Number of mosques in US grows, but Black mosques in decline
Jun 30, 2021 · “In 2020, the US Mosque Survey counted 2,769 mosques, which is a 31 percent increase from the 2010 count of 2,106 mosques,” said Bagby. “ ...
[39]
Muslims are a growing presence in U.S., but still face negative views ...
Sep 1, 2021 · Since then, growth has been driven primarily by two factors: the continued flow of Muslim immigrants into the U.S., and Muslims' tendency to ...
[40]
The Effects of Modern Architecture on the Evolution of Mosques in ...
Modern architectural styles have impacted mosques by increasing structural obstructions in 14%, reducing symbolic elements in 23%, and simplifying designs with ...
[41]
Salah (Prayer) - The Second Pillar of Islam | Islamic Relief UK
Salah (salat) is the Arabic term for the ritual prayer that is obligatory for Muslims to perform five times a day. It is one of the pillars of Islam.
[42]
The Rules of Prayer | A Summary of Rulings - Al-Islam.org
The Obligatory Daily Prayers. Issue 288: The obligatory daily prayers are five (5), they are: • The Noon Prayer (Salatuz-Zuhr) 4 Raka'ah. • The Afternoon ...
[43]
Virtues of Congregational Prayer - OnePath Network
Feb 1, 2022 · The Prophet ﷺ informs us in the authentic narration that the obligatory prayer in congregation is better than an individual prayer by twenty ...
[44]
What is the Ruling on Praying the Obligatory Prayers at Home?
Dec 6, 2023 · Performing the five daily prayers in congregation at the mosque is an emphasized Sunnah for men, and some scholars even consider it obligatory.
[45]
When Is It Compulsory to Pray at the Mosque? - Islam Question ...
Nov 20, 2024 · I know it is compulsory for men to pray their 5 daily prayers at the Masjid. But when a person lives a distance away from the Masjid at what ...
[46]
Congregational prayer: its importance and status - Islamic Fiqh
'Whoever hears the call must respond; his prayer away (from the mosque) is invalid unless he has a good reason.' Related by Abu Dawud, hadith 551; Ibn Majah, ...
[47]
https://islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=62&verse=9&to=11
[48]
Jummah Prayer on Friday | Islam Q&A - Jibreel App
Sep 21, 2025 · Jummah prayer is obligatory (fard 'ayn) for every adult Muslim male who is healthy, a resident, free, and has safe access to the prayer location ...
[49]
Jum'ah: The Friday Prayer | The Pluralism Project
The Friday prayer is required only for men, though women are encouraged to attend. While Friday is the start of the weekend in many Muslim-majority countries, ...
[50]
Do Women Pray Jumu`ah? - Islam Question & Answer
Feb 21, 2006 · The scholars agreed that Jumu`ah prayer is not obligatory for women, and that they may pray four Rak`ahs of Dhuhr in their homes.
[51]
Can Women Perform Friday Prayer? | About Islam
May 8, 2023 · It is certainly permissible for women to pray the Friday (Jumuah) Prayer in the mosque even if it is not obligatory for them.
[52]
Ruling on Congregational Prayer in the Mosque - Islam Question ...
Nov 15, 1997 · So this is evidence that salat al-jama'ah is obligatory because the meaning of the verse is not accomplished except through congregation. B ...
[53]
What Is the Tarawih Prayer and How Is It Performed?
Mar 13, 2024 · It is recommended that Salat Al-Tarawih be performed in congregation, jama'ah, in the masjid (mosque). If one cannot make it to the mosque, then ...
[54]
Taraweeh prayers from around the world - Al Majalla
Muslims perform the 'Tarawih' evening prayers at the Great Mosque of Mecca, which commonly known as al-Masjid al-Haram during the holy fasting month of Ramadan.
[55]
What Is I'tikaf (Ritual Retreat) and How Is It Done in Ramadan?
Apr 1, 2024 · I'tikaf is a voluntary ritual retreat in a mosque, best done in Ramadan, requiring intention and no time limit, and is a continuous worship.
[56]
The Significance of 'Itikaf in Ramadan - Masjid Al-Falah
Mar 21, 2025 · 'Itikaf is a virtuous act of worship that is encouraged in Islam and highly encouraged in the month of Ramadan. The default ruling on ...
[57]
How to pray Eid salah (prayer) - Islamic Relief Worldwide
Mar 28, 2025 · First, perform ghusl/wudhu, eat something, say takbir tashriq. Then, say opening takbir, supplication, 3 takbir, listen to imam, and follow the ...
[58]
Eid Al Fitr prayers: Nearly 2,500 mosques ready for worshippers
Mar 29, 2025 · Some 19,887 mosques across Saudi Arabia are prepared for the Eid prayer. These places of worship are fully equipped, furnished, maintained, and ...<|separator|>
[59]
Islamic Practices - The Pluralism Project
In the mosque, prayers are often led by an imam, or the religious leader. Prayers are performed in cycles of bowing and prostration called rak'at. Muslims, ...
[60]
Where to Pray Eid al-Adha 2025: Top Mosques Across the U.S.
Jun 4, 2025 · Looking for Eid prayer times and locations? Find top masjids in NYC, Houston, Chicago, and more. Start Eid with prayer and a lasting act of ...
[61]
The Integral Role of Islamic Education Centers in Muslim Communities
Mar 20, 2025 · Islamic education centers began with the construction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina in the seventh century. It serves as a dual center for ...
[62]
An Analytical Overview of the Historical Development of Madrasah ...
Aug 16, 2025 · Throughout the early Islamic period, mosques became educational hubs for Madrasah education. In Basra and Kufa, pious Caliphs founded large ...
[63]
Madrasas as Universal Centers of Education and Culture - UNESCO
During the 10th century, madrasas emerged as independent institutions, distinct from mosques, which helped to create a new type of educational system. As a ...
[64]
Sunday School - Masjid DarusSalam
The Sunday school program for ages 6-16 covers du’a, hadith, adab, sunnah, and Qur’an, and is held on Sundays from 10:30AM to 1:45PM.
[65]
Al Manara Academy & Mosque | Masjid Al-Manara
Al Manara Academy is a state-accredited Pre-K through 8th grade Islamic school, rooted in Islamic concepts and technology, preparing students with 21st-century ...Faculty and Staff · Tuition · Visiting Scholar · Contact<|separator|>
[66]
American Mosque Survey 2020 Report 1 - ISPU
Mosques collect on average $40,640 for zakah (a required charity which is to be given to poor people). Combining budget and zakah, mosques collect on average ...
[67]
Muslim Americans gave $1.8bn in charity in 2021, study finds - IRUSA
Apr 25, 2022 · Middle East Eye | Muslim Americans gave $1.8bn in charity in 2021, study finds · The average Muslim gave $2,070 in zakat, one of the five pillars ...
[68]
Build A Mosque | Masjid Construction - Muslim Global Relief
Donate and give sadaqah to the Mosque Building Fund. This fund is used to construct the house of Allah in rural communities across Africa and Asia. Build a ...<|separator|>
[69]
Masjid Muhammad
Masjid Muhammad Social Services and Health Wellness is a faith-based committee committed to assisting the community regardless of ethnicity.<|separator|>
[70]
Role of Mosque Communities in Supporting Muslims with Mental ...
Nov 2, 2022 · Mosques can support mental health with support groups, activities, social workers, and virtual support, but face barriers like stigma and lack ...Missing: welfare | Show results with:welfare
[71]
[PDF] The Independent Mosque Movement in Improving Empowerment ...
The independent mosque movement aims to transform mosques into multifunctional centers for Muslim welfare, independent of aid, and to encourage economic ...
[72]
Islamic Architecture: Parts of a Mosque - Learn Religions
Jul 3, 2019 · The main dome of a mosque usually covers the main prayer hall of the structure. Some mosques may have secondary domes, as well. Prayer Hall.
[73]
The Architectural Elements and Features of a Mosque
May 20, 2023 · The Mihrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the Qibla. It is the focal point in the prayer hall, positioned at ...Missing: key | Show results with:key
[74]
Common types of mosque architecture (article) | Khan Academy
The interior of the mosque features the forest of columns that has come to define the hypostyle type.Missing: essential | Show results with:essential<|separator|>
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https://parametric-architecture.com/mimar-sinan-and-10-iconic-mosques/
[76]
Mosque architecture | Islamic World Class Notes - Fiveable
Regional styles showcase the diversity of Islamic architecture. Arabian mosques emphasize simplicity, while Persian designs feature grand domes and intricate ...
[77]
Indo-Islamic Architecture | Features & Examples 2025 - Novatr
Jul 21, 2023 · Indo-Islamic architecture blends Indian and Islamic styles, featuring domes, minarets, and pointed or horseshoe arches, often with Hindu motifs.Types of Islamic Architecture · Key Characteristics of Islamic...
[78]
Mosque and Mausoleum: Understanding Islam in India Through ...
This design style has alternately been described as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic, the term we will use here.
[79]
Introduction to Southeast Asian Forms of Mosque Architecture | IIAS
Southeast Asian mosques include the pyramidal-hip roof (tajug), gable/hip, hipped, and simple gable roof types, with variations in roof tiers and wall ...
[80]
West African Mosque Architecture - A Brief Introduction
Mar 31, 2006 · Mosques built in parts of the Muslim world where Arabs migrated or took control of through wars developed a distinct tradition of domes and minarets.
[81]
The architectural evolution of mosques | Salaam Gateway
Sep 6, 2022 · The Prophet's mosque at Medina was originally a simple orthogonal walled space with an open courtyard having two or three doors and a shaded ...
[82]
Eight mosques that offer a contemporary take on Islamic architecture
Sep 6, 2025 · Architects are increasingly reimagining what a Muslim place of worship can look like. Here, we've rounded up eight examples of avant-garde ...Missing: century | Show results with:century
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22 Contemporary Mosques Around The World That Redefine Sacral ...
May 12, 2021 · We are highlighting 22 contemporary and modern mosques around the world that have been reinterpreted by architects using indigenous materials and traditional ...
[84]
3 modern mosque designs in South Asia that reimagine Islamic ...
Mar 4, 2024 · Here's rounding up three boundary-bending South Asian mosques with contemporary expressions that are heralding an exciting new chapter of mosque designs.Missing: 21st | Show results with:21st
[85]
Hadrovića Mosque by ARHINGinženjering in Podgorica - UNI.xyz
Feb 20, 2025 · Hadrovića Mosque by ARHINGinženjering redefines modern mosque architecture, blending traditional single-pitched roof typology with contemporary design and ...
[86]
Emerging Technologies for Transforming Mosques into Smart ...
Jul 18, 2024 · Transforming mosques into smart buildings involves integrating technologies like sensors, big data engineering, cloud, and fog computing. These ...
[87]
The Future of Mosque Design: Balancing Tradition and Innovation
Nov 16, 2024 · The integration of smart technologies is revolutionizing how mosques function. Features like automated lighting, climate control systems, and ...
[88]
world's first net-zero mosque in abu dhabi integrates rammed earth
Jun 2, 2025 · adu dhabi's masdar city mosque will achieve a net-zero energy profile as it targets LEED zero carbon certification.
[89]
'World's first net-zero energy mosque' is made with mud and solar ...
Sep 26, 2025 · The Abu Dhabi's mosque will merge centuries-old Islamic design with modern touches, renewable energy and low-carbon materials.
[90]
Indonesia's National Mosque Goes Green in World-First ...
Apr 6, 2022 · By using reflective paint for the roof and external walls, energy-saving lighting in internal and external spaces, smart energy meters and solar ...
[91]
Sustainable development in mosque construction | Scientific Reports
May 23, 2025 · This includes numerous sustainable features like energy-efficient lighting, rainwater harvesting, and the use of renewable materials, ...
[92]
(PDF) Impact of Modern Technologies on Islamic Architecture in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This study is to investigate the positive and negative impacts of modern technologies on Islamic Architecture, including Malaysia and Middle East countries.
[93]
Mosque tech and innovation take giant strides forward
Jun 20, 2017 · Recent mosque tech and innovation include enabling zakat transactions via payment cards, centralising the employment of imams, automating ...
[94]
Top 5 Ways Mosques Can Use Technology to Engage Their ...
By using mobile apps, mosques create a direct, modern, and engaging way to stay connected with their members. ... Online Quran Classes:: Using platforms like Zoom ...
[95]
Hadith on Wudu: Key to Paradise is prayer, ablution - Faith in Allah
Sep 7, 2012 · Jabir ibn Abdullah reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The key to Paradise is prayer, and the key to prayer is ablution.”
[96]
SAHIH MUSLIM, BOOK 2: Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah)
Purification (Taharah) in Islam involves purifying the soul from evil, starting with body cleanliness, and is essential for prayer. Cleanliness is half of ...
[97]
A Comprehensive Guide on How to Perform Ghusl Correctly
It is prohibited for a person in a state of ritual impurity to enter a mosque, perform circumambulation (tawaf), touch, or recite the Holy Qur'an.
[98]
What are Ablution Fountains in Mosques? - the submitters
Feb 5, 2025 · The fountain provides a designated space for worshippers to perform this purification ritual, ensuring cleanliness before entering the prayer ...
[99]
What Is Wudu Basin? - SISOSU's
Each Mosque have WUDU(or Wudoo) place consists of average 30-50 basin or more and toilets (depends on Mosque size and how many prayers can accommodate).<|control11|><|separator|>
[100]
Etiquette of Visiting the Prophet's Mosque - Islam Question & Answer
Oct 20, 2024 · You should enter with your right foot first and say the reported Du`a. Then you should pray as you like. It is better for you to pray in Ar-Rawdah.
[101]
Etiquettes of the Masjid
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[102]
Etiquette in the Mosque - Al Islam
You may offer two Rakaat Nafl on entering the mosque; it will be something like gratitude to God on enabling you to reach the mosque for a virtuous deed (the ...
[103]
Rules for the Masjid (Mosque) | Al-Islam.org
1. At the door of the mosque, recite this Du'a taught by Imam Hasan b. · 2. Enter the mosque with humility and submissiveness for it is the house of Allah (swt) ...
[104]
Is it allowed to eat in the Masjid? - Abu Khadeejah
Nov 27, 2013 · Eating in the masjid is generally allowed, except for foul-smelling foods. Those making i'tikaaf should eat within, and a cloth should be used ...Missing: etiquette talking<|separator|>
[105]
Eating in the mosque - Islam Question & Answer
Jun 14, 1999 · It is makrooh to eat it in the mosque, and the person who has eaten them should be stopped from entering the mosque until the smell has gone.
[106]
Understanding the Muslim Dress Code: Modesty for Men and the ...
Oct 19, 2017 · A Muslim is allowed wear whichever clothes he wishes so long as they are modest, free from impurities, not made from forbidden materials and within textual ...
[107]
How to dress when stepping inside a Masjid (mosque)
Like men, women should remove their shoes upon entering the mosque and clean socks or bare feet are acceptable, skirts, dresses, or tops that are revealing and ...Missing: etiquette sources
[108]
Islamic Clothing Rules and Requirements - Learn Religions
Sep 7, 2024 · Clothing worn by Muslims should be clean and decent, neither excessively fancy nor ragged. One should not dress in a manner intended to gain the ...
[109]
What are the sources supporting gender segregation in Islam?
Nov 12, 2022 · These ahadith teach that men and women should be separate and far from each other in the mosques and that they should leave at different times ...
[110]
Why Do Men And Women Pray Separately In Islam?_Explore Islam
Feb 10, 2025 · While the Prophet (peace be upon him) encouraged women to pray at home for greater rewards, he did not prohibit them from attending mosques.
[111]
Partitions Between Men & Women in the Mosque - Islam Awareness
But women should not be put in a totally separate room in the Masajid unless there is a shortage of space and no other proper arrangement can be done for them.
[112]
Gendered Space: Men's and Women's Prayer Rooms
The masjid includes separate entrances for women and men, each one closer to that gender's respective prayer space, although the separation is not strict.
[113]
[PDF] Women in the Mosque: Historical Perspectives on Segregation
The first major changes in the placement of women in the mosque took place during `Umar ibn al-Kha‹‹Œb's reign (634-44), which initiated the sec- ond subperiod.
[114]
Muslim Women to Mosque: Tear Down This Wall - MuslimMatters.org
sometimes filthy, often crowded with children — make it impossible to see and hard to hear the imam. The ...
[115]
Challenges of women space in Masjids - SoundVision.com
This tends to be because most men dump the responsibility for taking care of their active children on their wives when they go to the men's section of mosque.
[116]
Are women allowed in mosques? - Al Islam
Yes. Mosques are for both men and women but they pray in separate areas, most often in separate halls. The reason for this is that during worship nothing ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[117]
The Inclusion of Women in Masjids - Fiqh Council of North America
Oct 6, 2021 · Women should be allowed to pray in the main musalla with men, praying behind the men with no barrier in-between men and women, as it was the practice of ...
[118]
Where was the first wall put inside a Mosque? - Islam Stack Exchange
Jun 28, 2015 · Assuming by wall you mean a gender separation, which -these days- might be found in almost all mosques around the world except al-Masjid al Haram!
[119]
View of Women in the Mosque - American Journal of Islam and Society
Gender segregation, as seen in most mosques today, is such alimitation, for it limits women's full access. This both hampers their partic-ipation and can ...
[120]
Engaging Muslim Leaders | Center for Religion and Civic Culture
Apr 13, 2016 · Imam: prayer leader; may also function as a spiritual advisor and expert in Islamic Law. (Traditionally, a congregation's Imam is a man; a woman ...
[121]
The Imam's Role in Meeting the Counseling Needs of Muslim ...
As with Christian and Jewish clergy members, the traditional roles of imams are to lead prayers, deliver sermons, conduct religious cere- monies, and provide ...
[122]
Turkish imams and their role in decision-making in palliative care
In addition to leading the five daily prayers and preaching the Friday sermon, imams serve their congregations by conducting rites of passage (involving birth, ...
[123]
Becoming an Imam - Grinnell College
Imams are religious leaders in the religion of Islam. They lead daily prayers, teach people about the Quran (the Muslim holy book) and the life of the Prophet ...
[124]
CRITERIA FOR APPOINTING IMAMS & MUADHINS AT THE TWO ...
May 5, 2020 · The imam must have memorised the Holy Quran and possess good articulation, be certified with an exceptionally pleasant voice and recitation ...
[125]
Imams:Requirements - Vault
An imam who is employed at an American mosque should have good English skills, a thorough understanding of U.S. culture, and the ability to work with people of ...High School · Postsecondary Education · Certification
[126]
how can you be appointed imam and khateeb of masjid al haram?
Apr 23, 2023 · According to the new rules for appointment of an Imam, an individual has to be a Saudi National, who has full capacity and experience of being an Imam.
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[PDF] SUNNI AND SHI'A ISLAM: DIFFERENCES AND RELATIONSHIPS
Imam: leader; in Shi'a Islam, a religious, political and spiritual leader; in Sunni Islam, one who leads prayers in a mosque. Ismaili Shi'ism: A school of ...
[128]
Criteria for being imam of prayer=imam of whole ummah?
May 26, 2007 · Scholars have put certain conditions for someone to be qualified to lead the people in Prayer. The imam must be a Muslim, sane, adolescent, male ...
[129]
Praying in a Shi`a/Sunni Mosque - Fiqh - IslamOnline
There is nothing wrong for a Sunni Muslim to pray behind a Shi`i as long as the Imam Prayer is correct and valid according to the teachings ofShari`ah, and vice ...
[130]
What are the major differences between Sunni and Shi'i prayer?
Jul 23, 2012 · In a 3 or 4 rakat prayer, after the 2nd prostration of the 2nd rakat, Shias only recite the tashahhud. I believe Sunnis recite both the taslim/ ...Missing: leading | Show results with:leading
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Can a Shia lead sunnis in prayer? - Quora
Jan 29, 2017 · Shia are not allowed to lead a Sunni Muslim in Solat because there are differences in their religious beliefs. Allahu li musta'an.Which one could be better as a Shia? Should a person perform his ...Is it acceptable for Shias to participate in Sunni congregational ...More results from www.quora.com
[132]
[PDF] SAUDI ARABIA The laws and policies restrict religious freedom, and ...
The public practice of any religion other than Islam is prohibited, and there is no separation between state and religion. The government did not respect ...
[133]
Are Non-Muslims Banned from Mecca in 2025? - Young Pioneer Tours
Yes, most mosques in the world are open to non-Muslims. Non-Muslims cannot enter the city of Mecca. However, non-Muslims can enter the city of Medinah, located ...<|separator|>
[134]
The Benefits of Non-Muslims Visiting Mosques - IslamiCity
There are many divergent jurisprudential opinions on whether non-Muslima should be allowed to enter mosques, or not. Almost absolute prohibition is ...
[135]
A GUIDE TO VISITING MOSQUES AROUND THE WORLD (FOR ...
Apr 24, 2024 · These two are open to non-Muslims as well, but have set rules in place of when to visit, how to dress, etc. 1. Check the hours of operation.Missing: access | Show results with:access
[136]
Are non-Muslims not supposed to be allowed inside a mosque? If ...
Non Muslims are not allowed to enter Masjid according to obligatory precaution but they are allowed to inter all other religious places like Islamic centers ...
[137]
Which Country Has the Most Mosques in the World? - The Halal Times
May 5, 2024 · The total number of mosques in Saudi Arabia exceeds 94,000. These mosques serve not only the local population but also the millions of pilgrims ...
[138]
Churches in Egypt: Harassed Islands in a Sea of Mosques
May 26, 2021 · ” On the other hand, based on the number of mosques in Egypt (114,000 in 2016, more now) and Egypt's estimated Muslim population, there is about ...
[139]
The Rise of Diyanet: the Politicization of Turkey's Directorate of ...
Oct 9, 2015 · Diyanet was created in order to maintain control over the religious sphere of Islam. All imams in every mosque across Turkey were appointed by ...
[140]
Turkey's Global Soft-Power Push Is Built on Mosques - The Atlantic
Jun 1, 2019 · Turkey's mosques are controlled by the Directorate of Religious Affairs, or Diyanet, a state body that employs imams, writes sermons, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[141]
Government Regulations to Place Mosques under Azhar Control
Sep 17, 2013 · The Egyptian Ministry of Endowments recently announced that it will stop granting licenses to imams who are not affiliated with al-Azhar.
[142]
Saudi Arabia spends $133m on maintaining more than 6000 mosques
Aug 19, 2024 · RIYADH: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs has completed work on more than 6,000 mosques across the Kingdom so far this year.
[143]
Islamic Institutions in Arab States: Mapping the Dynamics of Control ...
Successive regulations have been adopted to limit preaching in the kingdom's mosques only to Saudi and full-time imams who have fallen under stricter ...
[144]
Indonesia Hosts Over 800,000 Mosques Worldwide – Heart Of Asia
According to the “Jakarta Post,” the country boasts over 800,000 mosques. These mosques not only serve as places of worship but also play a vital role in ...
[145]
The Ulema-State Alliance: A Barrier to Democracy and Development ...
Sep 2, 2021 · This report will argue, the main cause of authoritarianism and underdevelopment in many Muslim-majority countries is the alliance between Islamic scholars (the ...
[146]
Early American Mosques | The Pluralism Project
Early mosques were built in Maine (1915), North Dakota (1920), Michigan (1923), and Indiana (1925). The oldest purpose-built mosque is in Cedar Rapids, Iowa ( ...
[147]
The Mother Mosque of America
The Mother Mosque is the first and oldest surviving mosque in North America. Construction of the mosque began in 1929 and was officially completed on ...
[148]
Dramatic increase in number of new mosques in US | Islam Channel
Jul 23, 2021 · The study showed that mosques could be found in all 50 states of America, with the highest number being in New York with 343 – an increase of 33 ...
[149]
Where Was Britain's First Recorded Mosque? - Historic England
Mar 15, 2018 · The earliest recorded mosque in Britain was founded in a Liverpool terrace house in 1889. The Muslim Institute was established by a group of 20 British ...
[150]
The History of the English Mosque - The Historic England Blog
May 2, 2022 · The first purpose-built mosque was the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking (built between 1888 and 1889). The William Abdullah Quilliam Mosque, ...
[151]
Muslims in Europe: The Mosques - Saudi Aramco World
Not all of the European mosques are new. One, put up by Elector Carl Theodor, a German prince, was built in 1778. Before building a mosque, the Elector had ...
[152]
Building a Mosque in France, Never Easy, May Get Even Harder
Oct 8, 2021 · About two million of them practice their faith in 2,500 mosques that receive little or no public money, according to a 2015 Senate report. Image.
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The rise of mosques becomes catalyst for conflict across Europe
Oct 10, 2007 · Estimated at about 18 million and growing, the Muslims of western Europe ... They are established. This is a sign of normalisation, of ...
[154]
Mosques in Asia - The LADO Group
National-Mosque-Malaysia ; Zahir-Mosque-Malaysia ; Ubudiah-Mosque-Malaysia ; Tokyo-Camii-Tokyo-Japan ; The-Wazir-Khan-Mosque-located-in-Lahore-Pakistan.
[155]
[PDF] Conflicts over Mosques in Europe Policy issues and trends
4 These may overlap, and are often the same as Islamic cen- tres, but there are cases of ad hocmosques that are not organized and structured. Islamic centres, ...
[156]
Controversies Over Mosques and Islamic Centers Across the U.S.
Sep 27, 2012 · In many cases, the opposition has centered on neighbors' concerns about traffic, noise, parking and property values – the same objections ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[157]
Mosque Opposition Study - ISPU
This research is based on a survey of 42 instances of mosque opposition in the United States, two case studies, prior research and guidance by ISPU, and best ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[158]
[PDF] Mosque controversies in the United States - Portail HAL Sciences Po
Oct 22, 2021 · In the last decade, the number of mosques in the United States has considerably grown, from 12091 to 19252 . As shown by sociologist Akbar.
[159]
Swiss vote to ban construction of minarets on mosques - The Guardian
Nov 29, 2009 · The surprise result, banning minarets in a country that has only four mosques with minarets and no major problems with Islamist militancy, ...
[160]
Switzerland's controversial minaret ban, ten years on - Swissinfo
Nov 29, 2019 · A decade ago, a majority of Swiss voters backed a people's initiative banning the building of minarets in the country.
[161]
State-Mosque Relations in Europe, the Other Half of the Story
approximately one out of every 25 Western ...
[162]
Architecture of mosques and Islamic centers in Non-Muslim context
The study aims to examine each factor and their influences on the architecture of mosques and Islamic centers in non-Muslim context
[163]
[PDF] The Effect of Building Regulations in Non-Islamic Contexts ... - IIETA
Feb 15, 2023 · Most Western countries currently lack clear planning policies and building regulations pertaining to Islamic places of worship. Therefore, the ...
[164]
How China is tearing down Islam - Visual and data journalism
Nov 26, 2023 · An analysis of 2,312 mosques once featuring Islamic architecture shows that three-quarters have been modified or destroyed since 2018. For some ...
[165]
Austria's Mosques Work Against Muslim Integration
Mar 23, 2023 · The study reveals that Turkish mosques are, collectively, by far the greatest obstacles to integrating Muslims into Austrian society. Most ...
[166]
Mosques and political engagement in Europe and North America
Among second generation immigrants only 18 percent attend weekly services. The rates are higher in the United States. According to the 2011 Pew survey of Muslim ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth
[167]
[PDF] Military Role of Mosques during the lifetime of the Prophet (PBUH ...
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[PDF] The Multifunctional Role of Mosques in the Development of Islam
For instance, the Prophet Muhammad's mosque in Medina served as a place of prayer and as a center for community gatherings, education, social welfare, and even ...
[169]
[PDF] The Mosque as a Political, Economic, and Social Institution 622
Throughout the various phases and epochs of Islamic history the mosque's functions have fluctuated and adapted to the political, economic and social realities ...
[170]
The Mosque as the First Political-Ideological Base in the Islamic ...
The main purpose of the mosque was worship and prayer, but it was equally used as a place to congregate and perform different social, cultural, educational, ...
[171]
Ideology and Iran's Revolution: How 1979 Changed the World
Feb 11, 2019 · What gave the Islamists the upper hand over the secular opposition was their access to a vast network of mosques and religious institutions ...
[172]
Mosque and Its Impact on the Khomeini Revolution: The Iranian ...
In short, from Khomeini's view of the mosque is to see the spiritual basis and guiding thought of Khomeini's revolution which aims to further realize the ...
[173]
Turkey Uses Mosques, State-Employed Imams to Influence Millions ...
Oct 17, 2024 · This year President Erdogan's office directed the Diyanet to collaborate with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) established by Turkey abroad ...
[174]
Turkey's Camlica Mosque: Ottoman heritage or modern nationalism?
May 22, 2023 · Camlica Mosque reflects how Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has attempted to challenge the secular narrative of Turkish nationalism.
[175]
[PDF] The Politicization of Mosques for the Interest of the Statein Post ...
Furthermore, mosques are often used as the space for the mobilization of the mass to control deviant religious discourse or religious views. (Zuhri, 2016).
[176]
How much evidence is there linking Saudi funding for conservative ...
Jun 4, 2017 · Saudi Arabia may have spent more than $100 billion promoting Wahabism throughout the Islamic world.Is there an evidence of Saudis funding Masjids in Europe? - RedditSaudi Arabia has been funding mosques throughout Europe that ...More results from www.reddit.com
[177]
2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saudi Arabia
In January, Muslim World League (MWL) secretary-general Mohammed al-Issa announced that Saudi Arabia will stop funding mosques in foreign countries.Missing: worldwide | Show results with:worldwide
[178]
External funding of radical mosques in Europe | E-000345/2022
Jan 27, 2022 · Between 2004 and 2019, Qatar distributed over EUR 770 million in the form of 'humanitarian aid' to 288 radical organisations in the West.
[179]
Qatar said to be leading funder of mosques in Europe - Swissinfo
Apr 5, 2019 · The book says that Qatar Charity has funded 140 mosque and Islamic centre projects in Europe to the tune of €71 million (nearly CHF80 million/$ ...
[180]
Qatar plays major role in funding European Muslim Brotherhood ...
Sep 30, 2020 · Qatar plays a major role in financing Islamist groups in Europe, mainly through its Qatar Charity NGO, according to a latest report.
[181]
How Middle Eastern States Leverage Mosques to Influence Western ...
Aug 26, 2025 · Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates long have funded imams, mosques, and charities abroad, while Turkey and Qatar support rival ...Missing: worldwide | Show results with:worldwide
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https://www.global-influence-ops.com/turkey-influence-operations-western-balkans-mosques/
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Adhans are recited throughout the world at mosques constructed by ...
Oct 6, 2022 · The Türkiye Diyanet Foundation (TDV) has constructed 3,952 mosques across the country and 105 abroad since the fulfillment of Ankara Kocatepe ...
[184]
Germany pressures Turkish government-funded mosques to break ...
Sep 10, 2025 · Originally founded as a secular state body to counteract radicalism in Turkey, the Diyanet has undergone a profound transformation under ...
[185]
Iranian Regime Funnels Public Funds into Foreign Religious Influence
Aug 15, 2024 · The regime allocates substantial funds to the annual Arba'in pilgrimage. The 2024 budget law provides 100 billion tomans ($1.67 million) to the ...
[186]
Iranian activity to expand its regional religious-cultural influence ...
Sep 6, 2023 · Iran develops, and builds mosques in Najaf and Karbala, cities holy to Shi'a and important destinations for pilgrims from around the globe.
[187]
UK: Iran-funded mosque under investigation over 'serious ...
Nov 24, 2022 · The Islamic Centre of England in London's Maida Vale is undergoing a statutory inquiry launched by the Charity Commission over “serious governance concerns”
[188]
France plans mosque funding foundation to stop radicalisation from ...
Aug 1, 2016 · A new foundation will be created to help finance mosques in France in an effort to prevent the funding of places of worship by radical overseas benefactors.
[189]
Abu Hamza found guilty of terrorism | MI5 - The Security Service
Jan 10, 2015 · Former Finsbury Park Mosque preacher Abu Hamza was found guilty of 11 charges of terrorism and kidnapping in a Manhatten court.
[190]
Abu Hamza profile - BBC News
Jan 9, 2015 · Abu Hamza al-Masri has been found guilty of supporting terrorism by a court in New York and sentenced to life in prison.
[191]
Why did it take so long to bring Abu Hamza to justice? - The Guardian
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[192]
The Anwar al-Awlaki File, Explained | National Security Archive
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[193]
Correlations between Sharia Adherence and Violent Dogma in U.S. ...
A random survey of 100 representative mosques in the U.S. was conducted to measure the correlation between Sharia adherence and dogma calling for violence ...
[194]
(PDF) Sharia Adherence Mosque Survey: Correlations between ...
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[195]
[PDF] Sharia Adherence Mosque Survey - Perspectives on Terrorism
Since we know that mosques are in fact a situs of recruitment and “radicalization” for terrorism committed in the name of Islam, this study seeks to enter into ...
[196]
[PDF] Foreign Funded Islamist Extremism in the UK - Henry Jackson Society
Jul 4, 2017 · Tom specialises in the study of extremist groups and counter-terrorism strategy. His research has focussed on both the growth of extremism in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Saudi Arabia boosting extremism in Europe, says former ambassador
Jul 13, 2017 · Saudi Arabia has been funding mosques throughout Europe that have become hotbeds of extremism, the former British ambassador to Saudi Arabia Sir William Patey ...Missing: worldwide | Show results with:worldwide<|separator|>
[198]
Radicalization in Prisons and Mosques in France - Air University
Jun 9, 2020 · While many issues regarding radicalization stem from migration stretching back decades, the rapid increase in immigrants from war-torn areas, ...Missing: empirical data
[199]
FBI — Islamic Radicalization
Sep 20, 2006 · ... Islamic radicalization in the United States. I would like to emphasize before I begin that the issue is not Islam itself but how the ...
[200]
France to investigate dozens of mosques suspected of 'separatism'
Dec 3, 2020 · Darmanin said 76 mosques out of the more than 2,600 Muslim places of worship had been flagged as possible threats to France's Republican ...
[201]
France to investigate dozens of mosques suspected of radicalisation
Dec 3, 2020 · French authorities will swoop down Thursday on dozens of mosques and prayer halls suspected of radical teachings as part of a crackdown on ...
[202]
Muslim vigilantes jailed for 'sharia law' attacks in London | Crime
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[203]
German court lets off 'Sharia police' patrol in Wuppertal - BBC News
Dec 10, 2015 · A German court rules that Islamists who patrolled a city's streets as "Sharia police" did not break the law and will not be prosecuted.Missing: mosque examples
[204]
Muslims: integration or separatism? - The New Criterion
The choice facing Muslims settling in Europe was between integration with their hosts, or separatism; between accepting the new nationality of their choice or ...
[205]
Qatar Papers: Secret Funding for Islamic Organizations in Europe
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[206]
Has Saudi Arabian Funding Spread Wahhabism around the World?
May 11, 2022 · A Corporation-supported project explores the nature and impact of Saudi religious influence in nations across multiple world regions.
[207]
Saudi Arabia 'exports extremism' to many countries - DW
Jul 9, 2017 · A British study has found that Saudi Arabia plays a key role in the radicalization of Muslims. The Wahhabi influence, fueled by oil money, can be seen in ...
[208]
Scrutinizing Transnational Actors' Funding on Islamic Philanthropy ...
Jan 28, 2021 · Articles often carry titles with statements of fact such as “The Dordrecht mosque received 88.888 dollar from Saudi-Arabia”. But this short ' ...Missing: opacity | Show results with:opacity
[209]
Extreme Enemy Saudi Arabia Export - Army University Press
Apr 29, 2019 · ... mosques, and schools for children presents a dangerous problem for ... Saudi Arabia's efforts to prevent terrorism financing. The FATF ...
[210]
S.Hrg. 108-267 — TERRORISM: GROWING WAHHABI INFLUENCE ...
... Saudi schools, and putting an end to the extremist Wahhabi preaching that takes place in so many of the mosques in Saudi Arabia. If the Saudis do not end ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[211]
The U.S.-Saudi Arabia counterterrorism relationship | Brookings
Daniel Byman testifies before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade on the U.S.-Saudi ...
[212]
Qatari Funding of German Mosques Highlighted by German Media
Nov 15, 2022 · An explosive video from Qatar as well as documents from Qatari charities suggest that millions of euros may have been funneled from Qatar to ...
[213]
Turkey's religious arm injected fresh capital to advance political ...
Aug 10, 2023 · It is actively involved in expanding the influence of this religious network in foreign countries. The Diyanet has initiated a specialized ...Missing: opacity | Show results with:opacity
[214]
Turkey aims to influence millions abroad by utilizing mosques and ...
Oct 17, 2024 · The aim is to use religious motivations to drive these NGOs toward advancing the political objectives of the Erdogan government in foreign ...
[215]
Islam, made in France? Debating the reform of Muslim organizations ...
May 1, 2019 · Many assume that French Muslims are too poor to fund their own places of worship and that they are dependent on foreign funding. In reality ...
[216]
Information on U.S. Agencies' Efforts to Address Islamic Extremism
... Saudi Arabia is but one source of funding and support for Islamic extremism. ... mosques, and purge extremism and intolerance from religious education. The ...