Clusivity

Clusivity is a grammatical distinction in linguistics between inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns (or verbal morphology), where the inclusive form refers to the speaker and the addressee together ("we, including you"), and the exclusive form refers to the speaker and others but excludes the addressee ("we, excluding you").^[1]^[2] This phenomenon, also known as the inclusive-exclusive opposition, is absent in most European languages but is widespread in certain language families worldwide.^[1] It was first documented in non-European languages, such as Quechua in the 16th century, and has since been identified in approximately 31% of sampled languages globally, with higher prevalence in Austronesian (e.g., Malay, where kita is inclusive and kami exclusive), Dravidian (e.g., Tamil), northern Australian, and some Sino-Tibetan languages like Mandarin (where wǒmen is exclusive and zánmen inclusive).^[1]^[3] In contrast, it is rare in Africa and much of Eurasia, appearing in only a minority of languages there.^[1] Clusivity often manifests in independent pronouns but can extend to verbal agreement systems, and asymmetries are common: for instance, in languages without a full distinction, the inclusive form typically patterns with the first person singular rather than the second person.^[2] Semantically, it involves features like AUTHOR (speaker) and PARTICIPANT (addressee or others), with processes such as exhaustification explaining why exclusive forms can serve as general first-person plurals in partial systems.^[2] The term "clusivity" was formalized in typological studies around 2005, highlighting its role in pronominal person systems and its potential as a universal linguistic principle influenced by scope and reference.^[4] In pidgins and creoles, clusivity is less common overall (present in only about 12% of surveyed varieties) but persists or emerges due to substrate influences, particularly from Austronesian languages, as seen in Tok Pisin (yumi inclusive vs. mipela exclusive).^[3] Typological research underscores clusivity's cross-linguistic patterns, including its diachronic development through contact or grammaticalization, making it a key feature for understanding person reference and social deixis in human languages.^[5]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Concept

Clusivity refers to the grammatical distinction in first-person plural pronouns (and sometimes related forms) between inclusive variants, which include both the speaker and the addressee (along with possible others), and exclusive variants, which include the speaker and others but exclude the addressee.^[1]^[2] This opposition allows speakers to encode whether the addressee is part of the referent group, a feature absent in languages like English, where a single "we" neutralizes the distinction.^[1] The phenomenon appears in approximately one-third of the world's languages, particularly in families such as Austronesian, Dravidian, and some Papuan and Australian groups.^[2] In a basic schematic paradigm, first-person non-singular forms (dual or plural) split into two categories: the inclusive form, often glossed as "we (inclusive)" to denote speaker + addressee (+ others), and the exclusive form, glossed as "we (exclusive)" for speaker + others (not addressee).^[1] For instance, in many languages with clusivity, the inclusive may derive semantically from combining first- and second-person features, while the exclusive results from exhaustifying a broader participant set to exclude the addressee.^[2] This binary split is primarily pronominal but can extend to verbal agreement in some systems.^[6] The inclusive-exclusive distinction was first systematically described in European linguistics in 1560 by Domingo de Santo Tomás in his grammar of Quechua, where he noted the opposition in Andean languages.^[1] It gained prominence in typological studies through reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian pronouns, notably in Robert Blust's 1977 analysis, which identified *kami (exclusive) and *kita (inclusive) as inherited forms, highlighting the feature's deep roots in Austronesian subgrouping and its near-universal presence in the family. The modern term "clusivity" emerged in the early 2000s to encompass broader inclusion-exclusion patterns beyond pronouns.^[6] Semantically, clusivity serves as a form of social deixis, anchoring participant roles relative to the discourse context by positioning the addressee inside or outside the speaker's referential group, often via metaphorical mappings of inclusion (e.g., shared space) versus exclusion (e.g., boundary separation).^[6] This encoding influences discourse dynamics, signaling solidarity or dissociation among interlocutors based on their relational status.^[2]

Inclusive vs. Exclusive Distinction

The inclusive-exclusive distinction in clusivity represents a fundamental binary in the semantics of first-person plural reference, where the inclusive form denotes a group comprising both the speaker (author) and the addressee (participant), often signaling cooperation or shared perspective, as seen in Evenki mit ("we inclusive") used in contexts of joint action.^[2] In contrast, the exclusive form refers to a group that includes the speaker but explicitly excludes the addressee, typically conveying separation or opposition, exemplified by Evenki bu ("we exclusive") in scenarios where the addressee is not part of the referenced collective.^[2] This opposition arises semantically through mechanisms like exhaustification, where the exclusive emerges as a strengthened interpretation of a basic first-person form in competition with the inclusive, rather than as a primitive category.^[2] Pragmatically, the choice between inclusive and exclusive forms influences interpersonal dynamics, such as politeness and solidarity, by aligning or distancing the speaker from the addressee within the discourse context. Inclusive forms promote solidarity and positive politeness by invoking shared identity and common ground, as in political speeches where "we" fosters unity between speaker and audience to build cohesion.^[7] Exclusive forms, conversely, can heighten conflict or dissociation, signaling opposition and negative face-threatening acts, such as excluding adversaries in rhetorical strategies to emphasize division.^[6] In languages without clusivity, like English, the single "we" resolves such ambiguities pragmatically through context—e.g., "We won the game" might exclude the addressee if spoken competitively, relying on inference for inclusion or exclusion.^[7] A rare extension beyond this binary appears in some languages' hortative or minimal inclusive forms, which specify a restricted dual inclusive ("you and I only") distinct from broader plurals, as in minimal-augmented systems where the dual is limited to the inclusive to mark intimate joint reference.^[1] For instance, certain Austronesian languages encode this minimal inclusive in dual pronouns, providing a third category for precise speaker-addressee pairing without encompassing larger groups.^[1] Theoretically, clusivity integrates with deictic theory by treating the speaker and addressee as core deictic roles, where inclusive forms expand the deictic center to include both, while exclusives contract it to the speaker's group, often analyzed through deictic shift operations in discourse.^[7] This framework highlights pragmatic markedness, with inclusive often carrying a marked status due to its explicit inclusion of the addressee, influencing discourse markedness in contexts of asymmetry or emphasis.^[7]

Grammatical Realizations

Pronominal Morphology

Clusivity is most commonly encoded in pronominal morphology through suppletion, where inclusive and exclusive forms derive from entirely distinct roots, as seen in patterns like AAA (identical singular and non-singular forms extending to inclusive), ABB (singular matching exclusive, differing for inclusive), ABC (all three distinct), and AAB (singular and inclusive sharing roots, differing for exclusive).^[8] These suppletive patterns reflect a containment hierarchy where the inclusive form incorporates features of both speaker and hearer, precluding unattested ABA configurations (singular matching inclusive, exclusive differing).^[8] Affixation provides another strategy, often marking the more complex inclusive form with suffixes or prefixes, such as the inclusive suffix *-e'ex in Itzaj Maya (1pl inclusive *to'on-e'ex) or the exclusive suffix *-ge in Limbu (1pl exclusive *angi-ge). Portmanteau morphemes, which fuse person, number, and clusivity into single forms, also occur, as in Dolakha Newar where the 1pl inclusive *chiji encodes multiple features compactly.^[8] The distinction is sensitive to number, appearing predominantly in non-singular forms like dual and plural, while singular inclusive pronouns represent an extremely rare pattern with no well-attested examples in Formosan languages.^[9] In most languages, clusivity emerges only beyond the singular, aligning with the inherent plurality of inclusive reference that incorporates the addressee.^[8] Cross-person patterns center on the first person, with the inclusive/exclusive split prototypically in the first-person plural (1pl), but extending to first-person dual (1du) in languages with elaborate number systems and occasionally to second-person forms in rare cases like honorific or reciprocal extensions. For instance, in Tagalog (an Austronesian language of the Philippines), the 1pl inclusive tayo (speaker + hearer + others) contrasts suppletively with the 1pl exclusive kami (speaker + others), both extending from the 1sg ako, while no singular clusivity applies.

Person/Number	Form	Gloss
1sg	ako	I
1pl inclusive	tayo	we (incl. hearer)
1pl exclusive	kami	we (excl. hearer)

^[10] In Fijian (another Austronesian language), clusivity applies across non-singular numbers via suppletion and affixation, with inclusive forms often incorporating hearer-inclusive prefixes like ke-da- and exclusive using kei-. The 1sg remains neutral (au), but dual, trial (paucal), and plural distinguish clearly, as in the subject pronoun paradigm below. Verbal extensions of these pronominal forms may integrate clusivity in predicates, but pronominal morphology alone suffices for nominal reference.^[11]

Number	Inclusive Form	Exclusive Form
Singular	(N/A)	au
Dual	kedaru	keirau
Trial	kedatou	keitou
Plural	keda	keimami

^[11]

Verbal Distinctions

Clusivity manifests in verbal morphology through agreement affixes on verbs that encode distinctions between inclusive and exclusive first-person non-singular arguments, often as subject or object markers in languages featuring polypersonal agreement. This encoding integrates clusivity directly into the verb complex, allowing the verb to reflect whether the addressee is included in the referent group without relying on separate pronouns. Such systems are relatively rare cross-linguistically, occurring in only a small subset of languages, primarily in regions like northern Australia, the Pacific, and the Americas.^[12] In Austronesian languages, particularly those in the Oceanic branch near New Guinea, verbal clusivity is common in subject agreement prefixes. For instance, in Manam, an Oceanic language spoken in Papua New Guinea, realis mood verbs distinguish first-person plural inclusive with the prefix ta- (e.g., ta-mələk 'we (inclusive) look') from exclusive forms using prefixes like u- or m- (e.g., u-mələk 'we (exclusive) look'), with variations across moods and tenses.^[12] This pattern extends to object agreement in transitive verbs, where clusivity markers align with the pronominal system but adapt to the verb's argument structure. Similar distinctions appear in other Austronesian verb complexes, particularly in Oceanic languages with polypersonal agreement.^[12] Papuan languages also exhibit verbal clusivity, particularly in subject agreement systems. In Yimas, a Lower Sepik-Ramu language, verb prefixes mark first-person plural inclusive versus exclusive, splitting the non-singular paradigm; for example, the inclusive form incorporates the addressee in transitive subject agreement (e.g., inclusive na- versus exclusive tu- in certain conjugations). This interacts with number marking, where dual and plural forms further subdivide into inclusive/exclusive variants, as seen in some Papuan languages with elaborate number systems, reflecting a heightened sensitivity to participant inclusion in multi-argument verbs.^[12] These patterns highlight how clusivity in Papuan verbal systems often correlates with ergative alignment and switch-reference mechanisms.^[12] The distinction primarily affects first-person forms, with inclusive marking the addressee's inclusion and exclusive excluding them, though rare instances of second-person verbal clusivity exist, typically in paradigms where plural second-person splits based on whether it includes third parties. Cysouw (2003) analyzes clusivity within polypersonal agreement as part of broader pronominal typology, noting that bound forms in such systems often replicate free pronoun oppositions but exhibit unique syncretisms, such as merging inclusive with second-person in certain tenses, which underscores the paradigmatic pressures on verbal person marking.

Variations by Person

First-Person Clusivity

First-person clusivity primarily manifests in the distinction between inclusive and exclusive forms of the first-person plural (and sometimes dual) pronouns or verbal affixes, where the inclusive form refers to the speaker and the addressee (plus possibly others), while the exclusive form refers to the speaker and others excluding the addressee.^[1] This split underscores the speaker's role in defining group membership relative to the interlocutor, a core feature documented across numerous language families.^[1] In dual forms, the inclusive may denote just the speaker and addressee, paralleling the plural but with stricter numeracy, as seen in systems where number interacts with person marking. Rare patterns of singular inclusive forms exist, where a first-person singular pronoun can contextually include the addressee, effectively blending singular reference with dual semantics. In Vietnamese, an Austroasiatic language, the pronoun ta serves as a first-person singular that can also function inclusively to encompass the speaker and addressee, particularly in informal or intimate discourse, contrasting with the strictly exclusive tôi.^[13] Similarly, in related Muong dialects, ta exhibits this dual usage, allowing the form to shift from singular ego-reference to inclusive based on pragmatic context.^[13] These cases are exceptional, as inclusive semantics typically require plural or dual morphology to accommodate multiple referents.^[2] Semantic extensions of first-person clusivity often intersect with honorific systems, where inclusive forms convey deference by incorporating the addressee into the speaker's elevated group, a pattern prevalent in Southeast Asian languages. For instance, in Javanese and other Austronesian languages, the inclusive plural may honorifically include superiors, softening directives or aligning the speaker with the addressee's status. Interactions with evidentials are less common but occur in discourse where clusivity marks shared knowledge sources; in some Tibeto-Burman languages, exclusive forms pair with non-witnessed evidentials to exclude the addressee from verified events, emphasizing epistemic boundaries. These extensions highlight clusivity's role in negotiating social and informational dynamics beyond mere reference. A prominent example appears in Malagasy, an Austronesian language spoken in Madagascar, where the first-person plural pronouns clearly encode the distinction: isika (inclusive, 'we including you') versus izahay (exclusive, 'we excluding you'). In sentences like Isika mandeha ho any amin'ny trano ('We [including you] are going to the house'), isika fosters solidarity, while Izahay mandeha ho any amin'ny trano ('We [excluding you] are going to the house') signals separation, often in narratives or commands. This opposition extends to possessive forms, such as antsika (inclusive 'our') and anay (exclusive 'our'), influencing verb agreement in VOS syntax. Theoretically, such first-person clusivity reinforces ego-centric deixis by anchoring the deictic center at the speaker while variably incorporating the addressee, challenging universal models of person reference and illuminating how languages encode interpersonal alignment.

Second-Person Clusivity

Second-person clusivity refers to a grammatical distinction in second-person pronouns or verbal forms that differentiates between an inclusive form, encompassing the addressee along with the speaker (e.g., "you and I"), and an exclusive form referring solely to the addressee and others excluding the speaker (e.g., "you but not I"). This phenomenon contrasts with the more common first-person clusivity by focusing on addressee-centered groupings rather than speaker-centered ones. Unlike first-person distinctions, which are widespread in approximately 31% of the world's languages, second-person clusivity is extremely rare and its very existence remains controversial among linguists, with few verified attestations.^[1] Morphological realizations of second-person clusivity, when present, typically involve affixal or suppletive markers on second-person plural or dual forms, often integrating elements reminiscent of first- or second-person singular bases. In some cases, these markers appear in reciprocal constructions or dual pronouns to signal whether the speaker is included in the addressee's group. Alleged instances have been reported in some Amazonian languages of the Tukanoan and Witotoan families, though these claims are disputed and not universally accepted as true second-person clusivity. These realizations differ from first-person norms by lacking dedicated dual-exclusive forms in most systems, often relying on contextual disambiguation instead. Functionally, second-person clusivity serves pragmatic roles in dialogue and storytelling, where the inclusive form fosters empathy, solidarity, or shared agency, signaling that the speaker aligns with the addressee's perspective or actions. The exclusive form, by contrast, maintains separation, emphasizing directives or descriptions targeted at the addressee without speaker inclusion. In Amazonian contexts, inclusive second-person markers highlight reciprocal or joint events, such as "you and I together observe," enhancing narrative cohesion and social bonding. This usage parallels first-person inclusive functions in promoting group identity but is addressee-focused, often emerging in dual or small-group interactions rather than broad plurals. Despite these roles, second-person clusivity is absent in the vast majority of languages with clusivity systems, underscoring its marginal typological status.

Typological Distribution

Language Families and Prevalence

Clusivity, the distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns, is attested in approximately 31.5% of the world's languages based on a sample of 200 languages from the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS), with 63 languages showing both forms differentiated and the remainder lacking the opposition or showing other patterns.^[1] This feature is more prevalent in certain regions and families, often appearing in pronominal systems, and less so in verbal inflection, where only 15% of sampled languages exhibit the distinction.^[12] High-prevalence families include Austronesian, where the inclusive-exclusive opposition is nearly universal across non-Malayic branches and reconstructible to Proto-Austronesian with forms such as *kita (inclusive) and *kami (exclusive).^[14] In Trans-New Guinea (Papuan) languages, clusivity occurs in various subgroups, such as Mountain Ok and central-western branches, though it is not uniform across the phylum.^[15] Australian languages also show high prevalence, particularly in non-Pama-Nyungan varieties, with 40 out of 71 sampled languages distinguishing inclusive and exclusive forms.^[1] Moderate prevalence is observed in families like Indo-European, where the feature is rare and limited to innovative forms in some Indo-Aryan languages due to contact influences, but absent in the core branches including ancient forms like Sanskrit.^[1] In Niger-Congo, clusivity appears sporadically, as in some Atlantic languages like Diola-Fogny, but remains uncommon overall in sub-Saharan Africa.^[1] Sino-Tibetan exhibits moderate occurrence, notably in Tibeto-Burman subgroups such as Kirati languages (e.g., Chamling, Bantawa), where inclusive and exclusive distinctions are morphologically marked.^[16] Low or absent clusivity characterizes the core Indo-European languages, many isolates (e.g., Basque, Ainu), and creoles, which tend to simplify pronominal systems and rarely retain such oppositions due to their contact origins.^[1] Evolutionarily, clusivity in high-prevalence families like Austronesian likely arose as an innovation through analogy or contact, as evidenced by its reconstruction to Proto-Austronesian and subsequent losses in peripheral branches.

Geographic and Areal Patterns

The inclusive/exclusive distinction, or clusivity, exhibits a pronounced geographic concentration in certain regions of the world, with Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania serving as primary hotspots. In Insular Southeast Asia, clusivity is nearly ubiquitous among Austronesian languages, such as Malay and Javanese, where it manifests in pronominal systems across diverse island ecologies. This pattern extends prominently into Oceania, encompassing both Austronesian languages like Chamorro in the Marianas and Paamese in Vanuatu, as well as select Papuan languages in areas of intense contact, forming a key areal feature of the region. Similarly, the Amazon Basin shows significant prevalence among indigenous languages, with approximately half of sampled Amerindian tongues encoding the distinction, often in Tupi-Guarani and Arawakan families, reflecting deep-rooted typological traits in lowland tropical environments. Northern Australia represents another core area, where non-Pama-Nyungan languages overwhelmingly feature clusivity, and even within the expansive Pama-Nyungan family, about 40 out of 71 sampled languages retain it, underscoring the feature's resilience in arid and coastal settings.^[1] Areal linguistics plays a crucial role in the spread and maintenance of clusivity, particularly through diffusion in contact zones. In the New Guinea highlands and surrounding lowlands, clusivity has diffused from Austronesian to neighboring Papuan languages via sprachbunds, as seen in Huon Peninsula varieties where non-Austronesian systems adopted the opposition under bilingualism pressures, though retention varies with ongoing contact intensity. Australian languages further illustrate this, with areal patterns overriding genetic affiliations in Pama-Nyungan groups; for instance, the distinction intensifies along northern borders adjacent to non-Pama-Nyungan areas, suggesting horizontal transfer over millennia of interaction. Such phenomena highlight clusivity's propensity for borrowing in multilingual ecologies, contrasting with its recessive nature in high-contact Eurasian settings where it is more readily lost.^[1] Notably absent from Europe and the interiors of Africa and Eurasia, clusivity appears in only rare instances across these continents, with no documented cases in any European language and minimal presence in sub-Saharan Africa beyond isolated outliers. In the Americas, while widespread in the Amazon, the feature shows patchy distribution northward, with diffusion evident in western regions through inter-family contacts.^[1]^[17] Recent linguistic surveys from the 2020s, integrating databases like Glottolog with typological resources, indicate clusivity in approximately 25–30% of the world's languages (around 1,750–2,100 as of 2025 estimates), predominantly in small, isolate-rich families of the aforementioned core regions. However, endangerment and urbanization pose risks, with the feature eroding in contact-heavy contexts; for example, West Oceanic languages in urbanizing Papua New Guinea exhibit clusivity loss as speakers shift to dominant creoles, accelerating decline in vulnerable highland and island communities.^[18]