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Conocybe

Conocybe is a genus of small to medium-sized agaric fungi in the family Bolbitiaceae, characterized by fragile fruiting bodies with conical to campanulate caps, slender stipes, and rusty-brown spore prints.^[1]^[2] The generic name derives from the Greek words kônos (cone) and kubê (head), alluding to the distinctive cap morphology.^[3] With over 240 described species, primarily saprotrophic and often coprophilous or terricolous in grasslands and disturbed soils worldwide, the genus encompasses a spectrum of edibility; while many are inconspicuous and non-toxic, select species produce the hallucinogenic compounds psilocybin and psilocin, and others contain potent amatoxins responsible for severe gastrointestinal and hepatic poisoning akin to that of Amanita phalloides.^[4]^[5]^[6] These traits underscore the risks of misidentification in foraging, as innocuous-appearing Conocybe specimens have contributed to documented intoxications.^[7]^[8]

Taxonomy

Etymology and classification history

The genus name Conocybe derives from the Greek words kōnos (κόνος), meaning "cone," and kubē (κυβή), meaning "head," referring to the characteristic conical shape of the pileus in many species.^[2] The genus was formally established by Swiss mycologist Victor Fayod in 1889 within his treatment of the agarics from the Geneva region, with Conocybe tenera designated as the type species based on its representative morphology including the campanulate cap and brown spores.^[9]^[10] Early classifications placed Conocybe species among small brown-spored agarics, often near genera with superficial resemblances such as those in the Coprinaceae, due to habitat overlaps and macroscopic similarities, though lacking the auto-digestion typical of coprinoid fungi.^[11] Taxonomic challenges arose in delimiting Conocybe from look-alikes like Galerina, relying on microscopic features such as the shape of cheilocystidia—lecythiform or utriform in Conocybe versus more variable in Galerina—and spore ornamentation.^[12] In 1948, Rolf Singer circumscribed the family Bolbitiaceae and transferred Conocybe thereto, emphasizing spore morphology with olivaceous to rusty-brown pigmentation, a prominent germ pore, and smooth walls, alongside the absence of chrysocystidia, distinguishing it from broader agaric families.^[13] Throughout the early 20th century, mycologists including Federico Kühnemann described additional species, particularly from temperate grasslands and dung, underscoring the genus's saprobic nature and morphological variability while refining boundaries with confamilial genera like Bolbitius.^[14]

Phylogenetic position and recent revisions

Molecular phylogenetic analyses employing nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) rDNA sequences have established Conocybe's position within the Bolbitiaceae family of the Agaricales order.^[15] These multi-locus approaches, prominent since the early 2000s, confirm a sister-group relationship with Bolbitius, while molecular data corroborate morphological distinctions such as the consistent absence of pleurocystidia in Conocybe, contrasting with their presence in Bolbitius.^[16] This placement diverges from earlier morphology-centric classifications that occasionally aligned Conocybe more broadly with coprinoid or strophariaceous fungi, highlighting how DNA-based phylogenetics has refined family-level boundaries by resolving paraphyletic groupings in traditional Bolbitiaceae concepts.^[17] Post-2000 revisions have increasingly integrated molecular tools to address cryptic diversity, with DNA barcoding via ITS revealing numerous morphologically indistinguishable species complexes previously overlooked in field-based taxonomy.^[18] A key example is the 2023 phylogenetic reassessment of Conocybe section Pilosellae in China, which utilized ITS and morphological data to describe seven new species and reconcile longstanding taxonomic inconsistencies, expanding sectional diversity through clade-specific analyses.^[19] Similarly, 2025 studies from Pakistan employed multilocus phylogenies (including ITS, LSU, and additional markers) to delineate novel lineages, such as Conocybe pakistanensis from Punjab, underscoring regional endemism and the role of integrated approaches in uncovering hidden variation.^[20] ^[21] Ongoing debates center on subgeneric delimitations, particularly the status of section Pholiotina, where proposals to elevate it to genus level stem from distinctive lecythiform cystidia and veil remnants, yet molecular phylogenies often support its retention as a Conocybe subgenus due to shared ITS-LSU clades with core Conocybe groups.^[2] These controversies illustrate the tension between micromorphological traits and genomic evidence, with recent barcoding efforts favoring broader generic circumscriptions to accommodate polyphyletic sections revealed by sequence divergence.^[10] Such revisions continue to differentiate Conocybe from pre-molecular era classifications reliant on spore shape and habitat alone, emphasizing causal links between genetic divergence and subtle ecological adaptations.

Morphology

Macroscopic characteristics

Species in the genus Conocybe exhibit small basidiocarps, with pilei generally 0.5–2 cm in diameter, initially conical to campanulate and often expanding slightly with maturity.^[1] The pileus is frequently hygrophanous, darkening when moist and paling upon drying, with margins typically striate from translucent radial grooves visible under hydration.^[1] Coloration varies across species but commonly spans pale buff, yellowish-tan, to various browns or reddish hues, with surfaces smooth to faintly fibrillose.^[1] ^[22] Stipes measure 2–6 cm in length and 0.5–1.5 mm in thickness, arising centrally from the pileus, and are slender, fragile, and often hollow or fistulose.^[1] They lack a true annulus in most species, though membranous remnants of a partial veil may occur rarely.^[12] Lamellae are adnate to sinuate, close to crowded, with edges entire or minutely fimbriate; they start pallid or whitish and mature to cinnamon-brown as spores develop.^[1] The overall fruitbodies display high fragility, prone to rapid deliquescence or collapse in humid environments, aiding in field recognition but complicating collection.^[23]

Microscopic characteristics

The basidiospores of Conocybe species are smooth, ellipsoid to subcylindrical or occasionally sigmoid, typically measuring 6–13 × 4–7.5 µm, with a distinct truncate germ pore (1–2 µm wide) and hilar appendage; they are thick-walled (0.5–1 µm) and produce a rusty-brown spore deposit in mass.^[1]^[12] Variations in size and shape occur across sections, such as shorter, broader forms (e.g., 8.5–12 × 5–7 µm, Q=1.7) in some coprophilous taxa or more elongated ones (12–15 × 6.8–8.5 µm, Q=1.76) in others, but the presence of a prominent germ pore remains diagnostic for the genus.^[12]^[24] Basidia are clavate, predominantly 4-spored (occasionally 2- or 3-spored in certain species), measuring 15–25 × 6–9 µm, and arise from a trama of interwoven hyphae.^[1] The pileipellis is structured as a cutis of repent, cylindrical to slightly inflated hyphae, 3–12 µm in diameter, often with non-incrusted walls and lacking distinct pigmentation layers.^[1]^[25] Cystidia exhibit section-specific variation: cheilocystidia are frequently present on gill edges, appearing as flexuous, capitate, or lecythiform elements (20–50 × 5–10 µm), while pleurocystidia are generally absent or rare; caulocystidia may occur at the stipe apex in some taxa.^[1]^[24] A key diagnostic trait is the absence of chrysocystidia (refractive, thick-walled elements), which distinguishes Conocybe from related genera like Bolbitius, where such structures are common on gill faces.^[1]^[26] Clamp connections are typically absent on hyphae throughout the basidiomata.^[1]

Ecology and distribution

Habitat preferences

Conocybe species function primarily as saprotrophic fungi, deriving nutrients from decomposing organic matter in terrestrial environments. They thrive in substrates rich in decayed plant material, such as grasslands, lawns, roadsides, and forest floors, where they contribute to nutrient cycling by breaking down lignocellulosic compounds and humus.^[22]^[9]^[27] Many species exhibit a strong affinity for nitrogen-enriched substrates, including manured or base-rich soils, which support their rapid colonization and enzymatic activity on complex organic residues. Coprophilous habits are prevalent, with fructifications emerging directly on herbivore dung, while others are terricolous, colonizing disturbed soils, wood chips, or litter layers with elevated nutrient availability. This substrate specificity links to their morphology, as the fungi's delicate, evanescent basidiomata facilitate efficient spore dispersal in open, aerated microhabitats.^[14]^[28]^[29] Fructification is episodic, typically aligning with seasonal moisture pulses from spring through fall in temperate zones, where post-rainfall saturation triggers primordia formation and mycelial expansion. The lifecycle is abbreviated, with basidiomata maturing within days under conducive conditions of humidity and moderate temperatures, enabling quick exploitation of transient nutrient flushes before competitive exclusion or desiccation. This r-selected strategy underscores their ecological role in early-successional decomposition phases.^[19]^[30]

Global distribution

The genus Conocybe exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution, with over 270 species recorded across multiple continents.^[28] Its highest species diversity occurs in the temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in Europe, North America, and Asia, where biogeographic factors such as historical spore dispersal and suitable climatic envelopes have supported extensive speciation.^[12] ^[29] In North America, at least 50 species are documented, reflecting dense sampling in grassland and woodland ecosystems.^[4] Extensions into subtropical and tropical regions are evident in Asia, with recent taxonomic work uncovering endemics such as four new species from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in China and Conocybe telasar from Pakistan, both described in 2025.^[31] ^[32] These findings highlight ongoing discoveries in understudied Asian highlands, potentially indicating localized endemism driven by altitudinal gradients and isolation.^[15] Occurrences in the Southern Hemisphere remain limited, with sparse records in Australia (approximately five confirmed species) and South America, where diversity lags behind northern temperate areas despite occasional sightings of widespread taxa. ^[33] Some species, including Conocybe tenera, appear to have been introduced to these regions via human-mediated dispersal, such as through international trade in agricultural products or livestock, facilitating opportunistic establishment beyond native ranges.^[33]

Species diversity

Overview of species count and sections

The genus Conocybe encompasses an estimated 243 to 270 accepted species worldwide, with figures varying due to ongoing taxonomic revisions and molecular phylogenetic analyses that resolve cryptic diversity among morphologically similar taxa.^[15]^[34] This range reflects databases and recent studies as of 2024, though higher counts including synonyms exceed 500 names, complicating precise enumeration. Infrageneric classification divides Conocybe into over 10 sections, primarily delineated by microscopic traits such as cystidia morphology (e.g., presence of candicystidia in sect. Candidae or pilocystidia in sect. Pilosellae) and spore ornamentation (e.g., phaseoliform or rugulose spores in sect. Phaeocephalis).^[22] Sections like Pilosellae, which feature species with pilose pilei and specific cheilocystidia, have received particular attention in recent Chinese surveys, revealing high regional endemism.^[19] These groupings facilitate identification but underscore challenges in delimitation, as phylogenetic data increasingly reveal polyphyly in traditional sections. Species estimation faces hurdles from extensive synonymy—arising from historical descriptions based solely on morphology—and undescribed cryptic lineages, particularly in understudied regions like Asia and high-altitude plateaus.^[31] No comprehensive global monograph has superseded partial regional treatments from the 1980s, leaving gaps filled by piecemeal molecular studies.^[10] Recent integrations of morphology and multi-locus phylogenetics have accelerated discoveries, with at least seven new species described in 2025 alone from sites in China and Oman, exemplifying ongoing diversification.^[15]^[34]^[21]

Notable species including toxic and psychoactive examples

Conocybe tenera, the type species of the genus, is a widespread saprobic fungus typically encountered in grassy habitats, featuring a small, fragile fruitbody with a conical to bell-shaped cap; it is generally regarded as innocuous but not recommended for consumption due to uncertainties in edibility and risks from similar-looking congeners.^[3]^[35] Conocybe filaris represents a highly dangerous toxic species, containing amatoxins that inhibit RNA polymerase II, leading to potentially fatal liver and kidney failure with symptoms delayed 6-24 hours post-ingestion.^[36]^[37] Conocybe apala, or milky conecap, is mildly poisonous, harboring phallotoxins that may cause gastrointestinal upset without lethality, often appearing in lawns and prompting avoidance due to the genus's variable toxicity profile.^[38]^[39] Psychoactive species within the genus include the rare Conocybe cyanopus, which produces psilocybin at concentrations up to 0.90% dry weight, alongside trace psilocin, enabling hallucinogenic effects despite its diminutive, grass-dwelling habit.^[40]^[41] Conocybe smithii similarly contains psilocybin and baeocystin, conferring mild hallucinogenic properties, though its scarcity and identification challenges limit recognition.^[42] In 2025, Conocybe alticola was newly described from alpine and subalpine zones of China's Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, highlighting ongoing discoveries of high-elevation specialists that broaden the genus's ecological scope without noted toxicity.^[15] These examples illustrate Conocybe's diversity, from benign decomposers to potent hazards, emphasizing the need for precise identification to mitigate foraging risks.^[43]

Biochemistry and secondary metabolites

Primary chemical composition

The cell walls of Conocybe species, like other basidiomycete fungi, primarily consist of chitin, a β-1,4-linked polymer of N-acetylglucosamine that provides structural integrity, alongside β-glucans such as β-(1→3)- and β-(1→6)-linked polysaccharides that contribute to rigidity and osmotic regulation.^[44]^[45] Ergosterol serves as the predominant sterol in fungal membranes, accounting for up to 80-90% of total sterols in many mushroom species, functioning analogously to cholesterol in animal cells for membrane fluidity and permeability.^[46] Fruiting bodies of Conocybe contain polysaccharides (typically 26-82% of dry weight in related mushrooms), including storage forms like glycogen and mannitol, alongside proteins comprising essential amino acids that support fungal growth and enzymatic functions.^[47] Volatile organic compounds, such as eight-carbon derivatives including 1-octen-3-ol, predominate in the earthy or farinaceous odors characteristic of many Conocybe species, emitted during sporulation and decay processes.^[48] Cap pigments in Conocybe derive from melanins and related polyphenolic compounds, conferring the typical conical, brownish hues that aid in UV protection and ecological signaling.^[49] Nutritionally, Conocybe fruitbodies exhibit low caloric density (primarily from carbohydrates and minimal lipids at 0.4-5.9% dry weight), with polysaccharides potentially offering antioxidant properties through free radical scavenging, though empirical data remain limited due to the genus's general inedibility.^[50]^[51]

Psychoactive compounds in select species

Several species within the genus Conocybe produce the psychoactive tryptamine alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin, which exert hallucinogenic effects through agonism of serotonin 5-HT2A receptors. These compounds are present in approximately 5-10 species, with the gene cluster for their biosynthesis occurring sporadically across the genus, in contrast to the more consistent presence in dedicated genera like Psilocybe.^[49]^[52] Conocybe cyanopus (synonym Pholiotina cyanopus) is the most documented species containing these compounds, with psilocybin levels ranging from 0.33% to 1.01% of dry weight and psilocin from 0.004% to 0.17%, alongside minor amounts of related alkaloids such as baeocystin and norbaeocystin. Concentrations exhibit significant intraspecific variability, differing by up to a factor of seven across collections, influenced by factors including environmental conditions, specimen age, and genetic strain. Cultivated mycelia of C. cyanopus have yielded 0.25% psilocybin by dry weight, underscoring lower and less stable production compared to Psilocybe species, which can reach up to 2.4%.^[53]^[54]^[55] Biosynthesis of psilocybin in Conocybe proceeds via the tryptamine pathway, where a conserved gene cluster of four enzymes—tryptophan decarboxylase, 4-hydroxytryptamine O-methyltransferase, tryptamine 4-monooxygenase, and PsiM (a phosphatase)—converts tryptophan to psilocin, which is then phosphorylated to psilocybin. This cluster shows homology to that in Psilocybe but has likely spread horizontally across fungal lineages, explaining its patchy distribution in Conocybe rather than vertical inheritance within the genus. Empirical analyses confirm enzymatic functionality in these species, though yields remain modest due to regulatory variability and substrate limitations under natural or lab conditions.^[49]^[52]

Toxic compounds and their effects

Certain species of Conocybe, notably C. filaris, produce amatoxins such as α-amanitin, a bicyclic octapeptide that inhibits RNA polymerase II, thereby halting mRNA transcription and inducing apoptosis primarily in hepatocytes and renal cells.^[56]^[57] This mechanism leads to severe hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, with symptoms manifesting in a delayed fashion: initial gastrointestinal distress (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) 6–24 hours post-ingestion, followed by liver enzyme elevation, coagulopathy, and potential fulminant hepatic failure within 48–72 hours.^[58]^[36] The oral LD₅₀ of α-amanitin is approximately 0.1 mg/kg in humans, rendering even small quantities (e.g., from a single cap of C. filaris) potentially lethal without prompt intervention like extracorporeal detoxification.^[59]^[60] No specific antidote exists; treatment relies on supportive measures including activated charcoal, silibinin, and hemodialysis, as amatoxins exhibit enterohepatic recirculation and prolonged detectability in urine up to 72 hours.^[56] Analytical detection of amatoxins in Conocybe specimens or biological fluids employs high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with UV or mass spectrometry, enabling quantification at ng/mL levels critical for forensic and clinical confirmation.^[61]^[62] While some Conocybe species may contain muscarine or related cholinergic compounds inducing early-onset symptoms like salivation and bradycardia, these are less documented and typically overshadowed by amatoxin dominance in fatal cases.^[63]

Toxicity and edibility

Poisonous species and mechanisms

Conocybe filaris is among the most hazardous species in the genus, containing amatoxins that produce poisoning syndromes akin to those from Amanita phalloides. Ingestion leads to delayed gastrointestinal symptoms—nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and watery diarrhea—appearing 6 to 24 hours post-consumption, followed by apparent recovery and subsequent acute liver failure with elevated transaminases, coagulopathy, and potential hepatorenal syndrome.^[56]^[36] Without prompt supportive care, including activated charcoal, silibinin, or liver transplantation, amatoxin poisonings carry a 10-30% fatality rate due to hepatocellular necrosis.^[36] Documented human cases specifically attributable to C. filaris remain rare, with North American registries reporting few confirmed incidents amid broader amatoxin exposures, underscoring the toxin's lethality despite infrequent foraging encounters. Other Conocybe species, such as certain C. lactea variants, have tested positive for amatoxins or phallotoxins, yielding similar clinical outcomes in experimental assays extrapolated to potential ingestions: initial enteric distress escalating to organ failure.^[64] Empirical poisoning data for these remain sparse, with overall Conocybe incidents comprising a minor fraction of mushroom toxicities—less than 1% of reported exposures—but characterized by high severity when occurring, often necessitating intensive care.^[5] No Conocybe species are verifiably edible, and mycological authorities advise universal avoidance owing to inconsistent toxin distribution and misidentification risks, as edibility claims lack substantiation from controlled consumption trials.^[65] In veterinary contexts, Conocybe toxicities affect grazing animals like cattle on contaminated pastures, manifesting as acute enteritis and hepatic insult, though case reports are anecdotal and outnumbered by exposures to more common genera like Amanita.^[66] Limited empirical livestock data highlight low incidence but emphasize rapid progression to dehydration, hypovolemia, and death in untreated cases, mirroring human amatoxin effects.^[67]

Risks of misidentification with edibles

Several species of Conocybe, particularly small, grassland-inhabiting ones like C. apala and C. tenera, pose risks of misidentification with edible fairy ring mushrooms (Marasmius oreades), as both occur in lawns, meadows, and disturbed grassy areas, sharing compact sizes (caps often under 2 cm) and initially conical shapes.^[68] Habitat overlap in urban and suburban settings exacerbates this issue for inexperienced foragers, who may prioritize superficial traits like color and growth pattern over rigorous verification.^[65] Distinguishing features include spore print color—rusty-brown to cinnamon for Conocybe versus pure white for Marasmius oreades—and gill spacing, with Conocybe often featuring closer, more fragile gills that may develop greenish tints from spores.^[68] ^[69] Mycological guidelines stress performing spore prints and noting habitat specifics, such as Conocybe's affinity for manure-enriched soils, but amateurs frequently bypass these steps, leading to erroneous collections.^[70] Further confusions arise with other small edibles like certain Psathyrella species (e.g., P. candolleana), which share fragile stems and pale caps but differ in spore color and ecology; Conocybe often grows on dung or wood debris, intersecting foraging zones.^[71] The genus's variability—exceeding 50 North American species, many inconspicuous—amplifies identification challenges, as field guides warn that gross morphology alone cannot rule out toxicity.^[65] Misidentification incidents contribute to a subset of U.S. mushroom poisonings, with Conocybe linked to cases requiring medical intervention, especially in Pacific Northwest reports where grassland species are prevalent.^[5] Regional data from poison centers highlight that such errors often stem from casual lawn harvesting without expert consultation, prompting societies like the North American Mycological Association to advise against consuming unidentified little brown mushrooms.^[72]

Legal status

United States regulations

Psilocybin and psilocin, the primary psychoactive compounds present in certain Conocybe species such as C. cyanopus and C. smithii, are classified as Schedule I controlled substances under the federal Controlled Substances Act enacted in 1970.^[73] This designation deems them to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, thereby prohibiting the possession, manufacture, distribution, importation, or cultivation of any fungi containing these substances, including relevant Conocybe species. The Drug Enforcement Administration enforces these restrictions, with penalties for violations including up to 20 years imprisonment and fines up to $1 million for first offenses involving trafficking. State laws generally mirror or strengthen federal prohibitions. In Louisiana, psilocybin falls under Schedule I classification with enhanced penalties introduced in the early 2000s, treating possession as a felony punishable by fines up to $5,000 and mandatory minimum sentences of 10 years imprisonment.^[74] Cultivation or intent to distribute incurs even stricter sanctions, including up to 30 years at hard labor and fines reaching $500,000, reflecting the state's designation of hallucinogens as high-risk substances.^[75] Louisiana further bans the sale and possession of spores from psilocybin-producing mushrooms, encompassing Conocybe species, under provisions like State Act 159, which expanded controls beyond federal baselines.^[76] Research involving psilocybin-containing Conocybe requires a DEA registration for Schedule I handling, with no blanket exemptions for academic, therapeutic, or personal use; approvals are granted sparingly and demand rigorous protocols to mitigate abuse risks. Enforcement against Conocybe specifically remains infrequent due to the genus's rarity, small fruiting bodies, and challenges in field identification, though federal preemption ensures uniform prohibition absent state decriminalization, which has not occurred for these species as of October 2025.^[77]

International variations

Psilocybin and psilocin, the psychoactive compounds present in certain Conocybe species such as C. cyanopus, are classified under Schedule I of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which mandates signatory nations to prohibit production, trade, and non-medical use except under strict licensing for scientific or therapeutic purposes.^[78] This framework underpins stringent controls across most countries, emphasizing enforcement against possession, cultivation, and distribution of psilocybin-containing fungi, with limited exceptions for regulated research.^[79] In Europe, implementations remain largely prohibitive; the United Kingdom, for instance, designates any fungus containing psilocin or its ester psilocybin as a Class A controlled drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, subjecting offenses to penalties including up to 7 years imprisonment for possession and life for supply.^[80] Comparable bans prevail across continental Europe, where the European Union aligns with Schedule I restrictions, treating psilocybin mushrooms as highly controlled substances illegal for recreational or unlicensed use, though some nations like Germany have begun permitting limited psilocybin therapy for treatment-resistant depression under medical supervision as of 2025.^[81] In Asia, enforcement is even more rigorous, with countries such as Japan and Singapore imposing outright prohibitions on psilocybin mushrooms, often resulting in fines, imprisonment, or corporal punishment for possession.^[82] Emerging therapeutic allowances contrast with these baselines but do not extend broadly to Conocybe; Australia, from July 1, 2023, authorizes select psychiatrists to prescribe psilocybin for post-traumatic stress disorder and treatment-resistant depression via the Therapeutic Goods Administration's Schedule 8 reclassification, yet this applies to the isolated substance in controlled settings, excluding raw mushrooms or genera like Conocybe due to unapproved formulations and ongoing harvest bans.^[83] The relative obscurity and infrequent potency of psilocybin-yielding Conocybe species curtail international trafficking concerns, shifting regulatory focus to prohibitions on wild foraging and personal cultivation, where enforcement realities—driven by UN obligations—prioritize deterrence over decriminalization trends observed elsewhere.^[84]

Research and cultivation

Historical and recent scientific studies

The genus Conocybe was established by Victor Fayod in 1889 based on morphological characteristics of saprotrophic species, marking the initial taxonomic framework for the group within the Bolbitiaceae family.^[85] Early 20th-century studies emphasized spore morphology, habitat preferences, and microscopic features, with Robert Kühner proposing subsections like Pilosellae in 1935 to classify species with pilose pilei.^[24] Roy Watling contributed extensively through morphological monographs and observations on developmental traits, such as annulate and volvate species, in works spanning the 1970s and 1980s, including detailed comparisons of basidiospore sizes and habitat associations across European taxa.^[86]^[85] The transition to molecular methods began in the 2000s, integrating phylogenetic analyses to refine infrageneric divisions previously reliant on classical morphology, though comprehensive phylogenomic datasets for Conocybe lagged behind related genera like Psilocybe.^[19] Recent studies have employed multi-locus approaches, combining ITS, nrLSU, and tef1-α sequences to resolve cryptic diversity and sectional boundaries.^[10] In 2023, a phylogenetic and morphological reconciliation of Conocybe section Pilosellae in China identified 17 species, including seven new ones, highlighting discrepancies between traditional morphology and molecular clades while confirming the section's monophyly within the genus.^[19] Building on this, 2025 research from Jilin Province, China, described three additional new species and a new record in the same section using ITS-nrLSU-tef1-α phylogenies, underscoring regional endemism in northeastern Asia.^[10] Concurrently, multi-locus analyses from southern Punjab, Pakistan, revealed three novel species nested in section Conocybe, emphasizing morphological traits like spore ornamentation alongside genetic data for delimitation.^[87] A separate 2025 study from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, China, documented four new species—including C. yadongensis—via morphology and molecular phylogeny, expanding known diversity in high-altitude habitats.^[15] Despite these advances, genomic investigations into Conocybe ecology remain sparse, with limited integration of full-genome sequencing to elucidate saprotrophic mechanisms or substrate specificity. Potential applications in mycoremediation, leveraging the genus's lignocellulolytic capabilities, have been underexplored relative to other basidiomycetes.^[22]

Cultivation challenges and methods

Conocybe species, primarily saprotrophic and often coprophilous, demand sterile substrates like pasteurized horse dung, enriched grain (e.g., milo), or compost mixed with decaying organic matter such as grass clippings or leaf litter to mimic natural habitats.^[88] Cultivation typically involves monotub setups or all-in-one grow bags, with inoculation under sterile conditions followed by incubation at 20-24°C and fruiting under high humidity (90-95%) with indirect light cycles of 12 hours daily.^[89]^[88] Key challenges include pronounced sensitivity to contamination, requiring rigorous sterile technique, and slow colonization phases lasting 2-3 weeks on grain substrates before bulk expansion (1-2 additional weeks).^[89] Fruiting bodies exhibit delicate structures prone to deformation from minor moisture imbalances or air exchange variations, often resulting in low yields and unconventional sporulation patterns.^[88] Pure culture fructification remains elusive for annulate subgroups like Pholiotina, with developmental studies historically dependent on field primordia due to cultivation failures.^[90] Psychoactive taxa, such as Conocybe smithii or cyanopus, amplify these issues through unproven protocols and non-bluing mycelium that resists standard domestication, as evidenced by the first reported mycelial cultivation of C. cyanopus in 1991 after prior unsuccessful attempts.^[55]^[88] Unlike robust Psilocybe species amenable to commercial scaling, Conocybe's short shelf-life post-harvest and expert-level demands preclude economic viability, favoring wild foraging over controlled growth despite associated identification hazards.^[89] Empirical cultivator accounts underscore persistent low success rates for these strains, attributing failures to habitat specificity and environmental fragility.^[88]

References

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Conocybe Section Pilosellae in China: Reconciliation of Taxonomy ...
Sep 13, 2023 · Pilosellae was first proposed by Kühner (1935) [12], who placed Pilosellae in the subgenus Euconocybe of the genus Conocybe, based on the ...Missing: early Coprinaceae
[20]
Combined morphological and molecular approaches ... - Phytotaxa
Feb 5, 2025 · Combined morphological and molecular approaches reveal Conocybe pakistanensis (Bolbitiaceae), a novel species from Punjab, Pakistan.
[21]
Morphology and multigene phylogeny revealed a new species and ...
Oct 10, 2025 · 2025. Multilocus phylogeny contributes to fungal taxonomy with three novel species of Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae) from southern Punjab, Pakistan.
[22]
Molecular Phylogeny and Morphology Reveal Four New Species of ...
Jan 7, 2025 · Conocybe section Pilosellae in China: Reconciliation of taxonomy and phylogeny reveals seven new species and a new record. J. Fungi. 2023;9:924.
[23]
Conocybe velutipes (MushroomExpert.Com)
Conocybe velutipes is a small, brown, conic mushroom with a fragile stem, cinnamon brown gills, and a cap that fades to yellowish tan. It grows in leaf litter ...Missing: macroscopic | Show results with:macroscopic
[24]
Conocybe Section Pilosellae in China: Reconciliation of Taxonomy ...
Sep 13, 2023 · both have a red-colored pileus and almond-shaped spores. However, C. ochrostraia spores can reach up to 14 μm, and it has four-spored basidia ...
[25]
Catalogue of fungi in China 3. New taxa of macrofungi from southern ...
Sep 12, 2024 · Morphological structures of Conocybe himalayana (HMAS 300535, holotype). ... Pileipellis a cutis of cylindrical hyphae, 3.5–9.9 μm diam ...
[26]
Bolbitiaceae - Alpental
Bolbitius are viscid, pretty little yellow or lilac mushrooms (rarely other colours too). · Conocybe can be told by the presence of capitate cheilocystidia.<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Morphology and multigene phylogeny revealed a new species and ...
Oct 13, 2025 · Conocybe is a large assemblage of small and delicate brown mushrooms, growing saprotrophically in roadsides, lawns, and forest floors.
[28]
Diversity of species of the genus Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae ...
Aug 8, 2025 · The genus Conocybe erected by Fayod (1889), is saprobic and belongs to the family Bolbitiaceae of the order Agaricales. It is distinguished from ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology<|separator|>
[29]
(PDF) The genera Conocybe and Pholiotina (Agaricomycotina ...
Feb 3, 2016 · brooks to dry grasslands on mountain slopes. They occur on a large variety of substrata: rich,. often manured soils, humus, dung, rotten wood,.
[30]
[PDF] The genera Conocybe and Pholiotina (Agaricomycotina ... - eSEIS
The saprotrophic agaric genera Conocybe and. Pholiotina (Bolbitiaceae, Agaricomycotina) are wide-spread in temperate Asia, which, ac- cording to Brummitt ...
[31]
Molecular Phylogeny and Morphology Reveal Four New Species of ...
Jan 2, 2025 · Molecular phylogeny and morphology reveal two new species of Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae, Agaricales) from southwest China. N. Z. J. Bot. 2024,62 ...
[32]
Plant Protection Taxonomic Description of Conocybe telasar Sp ...
Oct 3, 2025 · This research presents a new species in the genus Conocybe collected from the tropical semi-arid District Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
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https://zombiemyco.com/pages/brown-dunce-cap-conocybe-tenera
[34]
Three new species and a new record of ConocybesectionPilosellae ...
Feb 24, 2025 · The main characteristic of Conocybeverna includes a straight to reflexed edge of the pileus after maturity, with no surface pubescence. The ...
[35]
Conocybe tenera - California Fungi - MykoWeb
Conocybe tenera is a relatively small, fragile mushroom with a bell-shaped, hygrophanous, striate cap, rusty-brown, attached gills and spores.Missing: type | Show results with:type
[36]
Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes ...
C filaris contains amatoxins including α-amanitin and on ingestion causes a toxidrome characterized by delayed (6–24 h) onset of gastrointestinal toxicity, ...
[37]
7 of the World's Most Poisonous Mushrooms | List, Death Cap, Web ...
Sep 8, 2025 · Featuring the same mycotoxins as the death cap mushroom, C. filaris is potentially fatal if eaten. The onset of gastrointestinal symptoms often ...Death Cap (amanita... · Conocybe Filaris · Webcaps (cortinarius...
[38]
Milky Conecap: Identification, Habitat, and Lookalikes
Jun 6, 2023 · The milky conecap is mildly toxic, containing a minor toxin similar to that found in death caps, but not as dangerous. It won't kill you, but ...
[39]
Milky Conecap (Conocybe apala) | Mushrooms of Nebraska
Oct 14, 2025 · Although this species isn't known to be poisonous, other species in the genus can be deadly, so it's best to consider this species poisonous as ...
[40]
Detection of psilocybin and psilocin in norwegian species of pluteus ...
The analysis revealed psilocybin and psilocin in two mushroom species: PLUTEUS SALICINUS and CONOCYBE CYANOPUS.
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[42]
Conocybe smithii - Bionity
Mildly hallucinogenic, containing psilocin, psilocybin, and baeocystin. Most mycologists recommend against eating this mushroom because it is difficult to ...
[43]
The amatoxic group - MykoWeb: Toxic Fungi of Western North America
The amatoxic group includes fungi with amanitin as their major toxin, such as Amanita, Lepiota, Galerina, Conocybe, and possibly Cystolepiota.The Amatoxic Group · The Amanitas · The Lepiotas
[44]
Mushroom-Derived Bioactive Molecules as Immunotherapeutic Agents
Chitin and β-glucans are two major constituents of the mushrooms' cell wall, and out of these, the β-glucan, β-(1 → 3), β-(1 → 4), and β-(1 → 6) make mushrooms ...
[45]
Lessons on fruiting body morphogenesis from genomes and ...
Chitin is also a scaffold for the modification of cell wall structure either by cross-linking, incorporation of glycoproteins or chemical modifications to the ...
[46]
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Sep 7, 2022 · The carbohydrate content of mushrooms ranges from 26 to 82%. Their crude fiber is made up of partially digestible polysaccharides and chitin.
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Fungal VOCs used as signals are of broad chemical nature. Eight-carbon compounds including 1-octen-3-ol as the typical mushroom odor are appointed by many ...
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Psilocybin is a natural secondary metabolite produced by several fungal species. · When utilizing in vivo whole organism-based psilocybin production, it becomes ...
[50]
Nutritional Composition and Biological Properties of Sixteen Edible ...
Mushrooms have protein (13.8-38.5 g/100g), carbs (32-61.4 g/100g), and fat (0.4-5.9 g/100g), with 15-30% daily vitamin/trace element recommendations per 100g. ...
[51]
Chemical composition of wild edible mushrooms and antioxidant ...
Mushrooms contain many different dietary nutrients with strong antioxidant capacities, such as phenolic compounds and vitamins (Ferreira, Barros, & Abreu, 2009 ...
[52]
Horizontal gene cluster transfer increased hallucinogenic mushroom ...
Feb 27, 2018 · Patterns of gene distribution and transmission suggest that synthesis of psilocybin may have provided a fitness advantage in the dung and late ...
[53]
Pholiotina cyanopus, a rare fungus producing psychoactive ...
The content of psilocybin was found to be high (0.90±0.08% of dry weight) ... Keywords: Conocybe cyanopus; section Cyanopodae; woodinhabiting fungi ...
[54]
Detection of Psilocybin and Psilocin in Norwegian Species of ...
The analysis revealed psilocybin and psilocin in two mushroom species: Pluteus salicinus and Conocybe cyanopus. ... contain 0.33-0.55% psilocybin and 0.004-0.007% ...Missing: scientific studies
[55]
[PDF] Ann. Mus. civ. Rovereto
Psilocybin was also found to be contained in the cultivated non bluing mycelia of Conocybe cyanopus (0,25% dry weight). No other alkaloids were detected in the ...
[56]
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Jun 26, 2023 · Amatoxin mushrooms cause acute liver failure by interfering with protein synthesis, leading to liver failure. The toxin is heat stable and ...
[57]
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The amatoxins cause a delayed gastroenteritis at least 4-8 hours after ingestion, often followed by liver and kidney failure 24-48 hours after ingestion of the ...
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C filaris contains amatoxins including α-amanitin and on ingestion causes a toxidrome characterized by delayed (6–24 h) onset of gastrointestinal toxicity ...Missing: LD50 | Show results with:LD50
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alpha-Amanitin (T3D2450) - T3DB
Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of digestive enzymes, including several proteases. Toxicity Values, LD50: 0.1 mg/kg (Oral, ...
[60]
Toxin Latent Period >6 Hours After Ingestion of Mushrooms
These mushroom species can contain a number of highly toxic cyclopeptides: amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins. Whereas the amatoxins are reported to be ...
[61]
Analytical methods for amatoxins: A comprehensive review
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[62]
[PDF] Amanitins in Wild Mushrooms: The Development of HPLC-UV-EC ...
Dec 5, 2022 · Identification of amatoxins by was performed by high-performance liquid chromatog- raphy, diode array, and mass spectrometry detection. The ...Missing: onset | Show results with:onset<|control11|><|separator|>
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Conocybe - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Conocybe refers to a genus in the Tricholometaceae family, which includes species that produce hallucinogenic substances. AI generated definition based on: ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy<|separator|>
[64]
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Conocybe lactea was examined as part of a larger study on the distribution of amatoxins and phallotoxins in fungi, and the taxonomic relationships between ...Missing: poisonous mechanisms empirical
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Common Conecap Mushroom: Identification and Lookalikes
Jul 15, 2024 · This unassuming little common conecap is found across northern North America and yet easily overlooked. It looks a lot like other little brown mushrooms.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
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The mushroom species most frequently implicated in human and animal mushroom fatalities globally is Amanita phalloides. Table. Poisonous Mushrooms: Onset of ...
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Mushroom poisonings - a danger to cattle? | Livestock & Range
Dec 13, 2021 · There have been two documented cases of mushroom poisoning in beef calves in California a few years back in 2008 and 2009. In both calves that ...Missing: Conocybe | Show results with:Conocybe
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Conocybe apala - California Fungi - MykoWeb
Marasmius oreades can be distinguished by its larger size, convex cap and well spaced cream-colored gills, while Panaeolus foenisecii has a dark-brown convex ...
[69]
Marasmius oreades, Fairy Ring Champignon mushroom - First Nature
Marasmius oreades, Fairy Ring Champignon, edible mushroom: pictures (images), habitat, identification, synonyms, similar species.<|separator|>
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Fairy Ring Mushroom: Identification, Foraging, and Edibility
May 30, 2023 · Remember to smell the mushrooms and check that stem! And do a spore print! Inocybe species have brown spore prints.Fairy Ring Mushroom... · Fairy Ring Mushroom Lookalikes
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https://zombiemyco.com/pages/conocybe-filaris
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Mushroom Poisoning Syndromes
In humans, there are no reliably documented cases of death from toxins ... (Conocybe) filaris, Galerina marginata (syn. G. autumnalis, G. venenata), G ...
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Psilocybin is a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act, meaning that it has a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in ...Missing: Conocybe | Show results with:Conocybe
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Psilocybin in Louisiana: Magic Mushrooms in LA, USA Legal Guide
Psychadelic mushrooms are extremely illegal in the state of Louisiana. Lawmakers in this state classify psilocybin as a Schedule I (C) controlled substance.Missing: cultivation | Show results with:cultivation
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Louisiana Drug Classifications and Jail Time for Possession
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The Mystery of Why the World's Most Iconic Magic Mushroom ... - VICE
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Psilocybin Legal Status by State and Federal Law 2025
Apr 14, 2025 · Under federal law, psilocybin, along with many other psychedelic substances, is illegal and classified as a Schedule I substance under the ...Missing: Conocybe | Show results with:Conocybe
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The United Nations Conference for the Adoption of a Protocol on Psychotropic Substances met in Vienna from 1 1 January to 21 February 1971. 3. The following 71 ...
[79]
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The Convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations Conference for the Adoption of a Protocol on Psychotropic Substances, held at ...
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[PDF] Debate on access to psilocybin treatments - UK Parliament
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[81]
Germany to allow some depressed patients to try psilocybin amid ...
Jul 31, 2025 · The decision will allow patients with treatment-resistant depression to receive psilocybin therapy in strictly controlled settings.
[82]
What psychedelics legalisation and decriminalisation looks ... - BBC
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Worldwide Psychedelic Laws Tracker
Magic mushrooms containing psilocybin are therefore not considered illegal. Psilocybin mushrooms can be readily obtained from internet-based suppliers ...Missing: Conocybe | Show results with:Conocybe
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New species and new records in the genus Conocybe (Bolbitaceae ...
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Observations on the Bolbitiaceae XYII. Yolvate Species of Conocybe. Roy WATLING. Herbarium, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Scotland. Abstract.Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
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Multilocus phylogeny contributes to fungal taxonomy with three ...
Mar 11, 2025 · Multilocus phylogeny contributes to fungal taxonomy with three novel species of Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae) from southern Punjab, Pakistan. ...Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025
[88]
Tamu (Conocybe Smithii)
### Summary of Conocybe smithii Cultivation
[89]
Tamu (Conocybe Siligineoides)
### Summary of Growing Conocybe siligineoides
[90]
[PDF] Developmental Conocybe particular reference species Garden ...
Conocybe because of difficulties in culture but many observations indicate that in. C. aporos and C. pilaris, as well as. C. coprophila (Kiihner) Kiihner in ...