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Darwin's rhea

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata), also known as the lesser rhea, is a large flightless bird native to the open grasslands and shrublands of South America, representing the smaller of the two extant species in the genus Rhea within the family Rheidae.^[1] Named in honor of Charles Darwin for his collections and observations during the HMS Beagle voyage in the 1830s, which helped distinguish it from the greater rhea (Rhea americana), the species is characterized by its ostrich-like appearance, standing 90–100 cm tall at the shoulder and weighing 15–28.6 kg.^[2]^[3] Its plumage is predominantly brown with white tips on the feathers, providing camouflage in its arid habitats, and it possesses strong, three-toed legs adapted for running at speeds up to 60 km/h, as well as large wings used for balance and display despite being flightless.^[1]^[3] Primarily herbivorous, Darwin's rhea feeds on grasses, leaves, seeds, and roots, supplemented occasionally by insects and small vertebrates, and it inhabits open grasslands, shrublands, and high-altitude puna from southern Peru and western Bolivia southward through Chile and Argentina to Patagonia.^[3]^[1] Social and diurnal, it forms groups of 5–30 individuals outside the breeding season, with males exhibiting polygynous behavior by mating with multiple females and incubating clutches of up to 30 eggs for 35–40 days while providing care to the precocial chicks.^[3]^[1] Although classified as Least Concern globally by the IUCN due to its relatively wide distribution, populations face threats from habitat degradation due to agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and hunting for meat, feathers, and eggs, leading to local endangerment in parts of its range such as Patagonia and Peru.^[4]^[5]

Nomenclature and classification

Etymology

The common names for Darwin's rhea reflect its regional distribution and indigenous languages across South America. In Argentina, it is commonly called ñandú petiso, meaning "small rhea," distinguishing it from the larger greater rhea. In the Andean regions of Bolivia, Peru, and Chile, the Aymara name suri is widely used, while other Spanish names include choique and ñandú cordillerano.^[6] The scientific name Rhea pennata originates from classical roots and early ornithological descriptions. The genus Rhea was established in 1752 by Paul Heinrich Gerhard Möhring for South American ratites, named after the Greek Titaness Rhea, mother of the Olympian gods, evoking themes of fertility and parental nurturing that align with the bird's notable paternal care despite the mythological connotation of motherhood.^[7] The species epithet pennata derives from the Latin pennatus, meaning "feathered" or "winged," alluding to the distinctive feathering on the tarsi.^[8] Historically, Darwin's rhea was first described scientifically as Rhea pennata by French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny in 1837, based on specimens from Patagonia, though the work's publication schedule confirms this date over an earlier nominal one.^[9] It was later reclassified under the separate genus Pterocnemia by George Robert Gray in 1871 due to morphological distinctions. However, in 2008, the South American Classification Committee merged Pterocnemia back into Rhea, supported by genetic evidence from DNA hybridization and molecular phylogenies showing close relatedness, as well as morphological and behavioral similarities between the species.^[10]

Taxonomy

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata) belongs to the order Rheiformes and the family Rheidae within the superorder Palaeognathae, the group encompassing ratites. It is one of two extant species in the genus Rhea, serving as the sister taxon to the greater rhea (R. americana). Although classified as a ratite, Darwin's rhea is flightless like relatives such as ostriches (Struthio camelus) and emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), using its large wings for balance and display.^[1]^[11]^[5] Three subspecies are currently recognized, differentiated primarily by geographic range, body size, plumage patterns, and subtle genetic variations. The nominate subspecies R. p. pennata inhabits the Patagonian steppes, ranging from the Strait of Magellan in southern Chile across to south-central Argentina (with introduced populations in northern Tierra del Fuego). The subspecies R. p. tarapacensis occupies high-elevation puna grasslands in southern Peru and northern Chile, while R. p. garleppi is distributed across the altiplano of southern Peru, southwestern Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina. Compared to R. p. pennata, the northern subspecies (tarapacensis and garleppi) are smaller in stature and exhibit paler overall plumage with reduced white spotting on the flanks. Genetic analyses, including mitochondrial DNA sequencing, reveal moderate divergence among these subspecies, reflecting isolation in distinct Andean and Patagonian habitats, though inter-subspecies gene flow remains possible in overlapping zones.^[5]^[9]^[12] Taxonomic debates center on the northern subspecies (R. p. tarapacensis and R. p. garleppi), which some researchers propose elevating to a distinct species, the puna rhea (Rhea tarapacensis), citing sufficient morphological distinctions (e.g., tarsal scutellation) and genetic separation evidenced by phylogenetic studies. This split was briefly adopted in classifications like Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993) but was later reversed due to insufficient supporting data on reproductive isolation. The IUCN Red List and BirdLife International maintain the three-subspecies arrangement under R. pennata (assessed as Least Concern overall in 2016, with updates confirming no change by 2025), emphasizing the need for additional genomic research to resolve potential cryptic speciation. As of 2025, the question remains unresolved, with no formal reclassification endorsed by major ornithological bodies.^[5]^[13]^[14]

Physical characteristics

Morphology

Darwin's rhea, or lesser rhea (Rhea pennata), is a flightless ratite characterized by a robust yet streamlined build adapted to open terrains. It measures 90–100 cm in height at the shoulder, with a body length of approximately 90–100 cm, and weighs between 15 and 28.6 kg.^[15]^[16] The bird possesses a long neck and proportionally long legs relative to its body size, contributing to its elevated stance for enhanced visibility over grasses and shrubs. Compared to the greater rhea (Rhea americana), Darwin's rhea is notably smaller overall.^[3] Key locomotion adaptations include strong, muscular hind legs that enable rapid sprints reaching up to 60 km/h, facilitating escape from predators through zig-zag maneuvers. The feet are three-toed, each with sharp claws that provide traction on varied substrates, while the tarsi are feathered—measuring 28–32 cm in length—for thermal insulation in the cold Patagonian and Andean environments.^[3] The rudimentary wings, larger relative to other ratites, function as stabilizers and rudders during high-speed runs rather than for flight, with a cornicified hook at the alula tip aiding in balance and occasional defensive use.^[3]^[16] Hindlimb bones exhibit higher mineral density, supporting the biomechanical demands of sustained terrestrial locomotion.^[16] Sensory features are suited to vigilance in expansive habitats, featuring a small head atop the long neck with large eyes that afford wide-field vision for detecting threats at distance.^[3] Subspecies exhibit minor size variations, with northern forms generally smaller than southern ones; for example, R. p. garleppi individuals can weigh up to 28.6 kg.^[3]^[15]

Plumage and coloration

Darwin's rhea possesses soft, fluffy plumage typical of ratites, with contour feathers (teleoptiles) lacking aftershafts, which contributes to their loose, non-interlocking structure and fluffy appearance.^[16]^[17] These feathers cover the entire body, extending to the proximal portion of the tarsi on the legs.^[16] The coloration consists of mottled brown upperparts with white flecking or spotting, providing effective camouflage against the shrub steppes and grasslands of its range.^[16] Juveniles exhibit lighter, more uniformly grayish-brown plumage without white spotting that aids in concealment, gradually acquiring the adult coloration.^[15] Sexual dimorphism in plumage is minimal, though females tend to be duller overall with fewer white spots on the back compared to males.^[16] This plumage serves key functional roles, including insulation through the trapping of air in the downy bases of contour feathers, which helps protect against the cold Patagonian winters and Andean winds.^[18] Rheas undergo continuous molting throughout the year, with no distinct seasonal replacement, unlike many other birds; however, intensified feather loss may occur post-breeding.^[17] The subdued, non-iridescent coloration reflects the species' lack of elaborate visual displays, relying instead on behavioral cues during courtship.^[16] Subspecies such as R. p. garleppi exhibit paler overall plumage adapted to higher-altitude, arid environments.^[16]^[15]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata), also known as the lesser rhea, occupies a discontinuous range across the southern Andes and Patagonia in South America. Its current distribution spans southern Peru, western and central Bolivia, Chile from the northern Atacama region through to Patagonia, and Argentina from the Andean foothills eastward to the Patagonian steppes. The species' extent of occurrence is approximately 2,600,000 km², though populations are fragmented and declining overall.^[5] Three subspecies exhibit geographically distinct ranges. The nominate subspecies R. p. pennata inhabits the southern Patagonian lowlands, extending from the Strait of Magellan northward through southern Chile (Aysén and Magallanes regions) and southern Argentina (Chubut to Santa Cruz provinces), including a small introduced population in northern Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. The highland subspecies R. p. garleppi is distributed across the Andean plateaus of southern Peru (Puno region), western and central Bolivia (Oruro and Potosí departments), northern Chile (Arica y Parinacota to Atacama regions), and northwestern Argentina (Jujuy to Mendoza provinces). The rare subspecies R. p. tarapacensis is confined to the high-altitude Andean plateau of northern Chile's Tarapacá region.^[19] Historically, Darwin's rhea was more widespread across open South American landscapes prior to intensive human colonization and expansion in the 19th and 20th centuries, which led to significant range contraction through overhunting for meat and feathers, as well as habitat conversion for agriculture and grazing. No natural range expansions have been documented in recent decades, but targeted conservation translocations have occurred, including a 2025 binational effort that moved 15 wild individuals from Patagonia Park in Argentina across the Andes to Patagonia National Park in Chile to reinforce local populations.^[20]^[21]

Habitat preferences

Darwin's rhea, also known as the lesser rhea (Rhea pennata), primarily inhabits open, arid to semi-arid environments across southern South America, favoring expansive grasslands, shrub-steppes, and steppes while avoiding dense forests and tall, closed vegetation.^[5] These habitats provide the low, open structure essential for the bird's flightless locomotion and visibility for predator detection. The species tolerates a range of climatic conditions, from temperate Patagonian steppes to high-altitude, cold Andean puna, with its dense feathering enabling adaptation to low temperatures in elevated regions.^[5]^[22] Elevation preferences vary by subspecies. The nominate subspecies (R. p. pennata) occurs mainly in lowlands up to 1,500 m in Patagonian grasslands and shrublands, while R. p. garleppi and R. p. tarapacensis are adapted to higher altitudes of 2,000–4,500 m in the Andean Altiplano, including dry puna grasslands, salt flats, and shrub-dominated bogs.^[5]^[23] In these high-elevation zones, the birds exploit semi-arid shrublands with scattered vegetation, demonstrating resilience to harsh, windy conditions but sensitivity to alterations like overgrazing that reduce ground cover.^[5] Microhabitat selection emphasizes open areas for daily activities. Nests are typically scraped into grassy tussocks or bare ground within steppes or shrub-steppes, often near water sources and featuring higher grass cover but lower shrub density compared to random sites to facilitate incubation and chick mobility.^[24] For foraging, the species prefers low shrublands and mallines—wetland meadows with short grasses and scattered shrubs like saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and cacti—particularly during non-breeding seasons when vegetation is abundant.^[23]^[5] Movements are generally minimal, with the species being resident, though local nomadic shifts occur seasonally in Patagonia to access water or avoid snow cover in higher areas.^[5]

Behavior and ecology

Diet and foraging

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata) is primarily herbivorous, with its diet consisting of approximately 94% leaf matter from shrubs and forbs, 6% seeds, and less than 0.1% insects, based on fecal analyses from arid regions in Argentina.^[25]^[26] Preferred plants include broad-leaved shrubs such as Chuquiraga hystrix and Lycium chilensis, forbs like Hoffmanseggia aff. glauca and Lecanophora ameghinoi, seeds from Prosopis alpataco and Ephedra ochreata, as well as saltbush (Atriplex spp.), cacti fruits, and grasses when available.^[27]^[3] Occasionally, it consumes small vertebrates such as lizards and rodents as an opportunistic supplement.^[3] To aid digestion in its toothless beak, Darwin's rhea ingests small stones (gastroliths), which make up 0.2-2.24% of dry fecal weight.^[25]^[27] Foraging occurs diurnally, with individuals employing a selective strategy that favors high-quality, nutrient-rich vegetation over abundant but lower-value grasses, aligning with optimal foraging theory in resource-scarce environments.^[27]^[28] Birds peck and graze while wandering in open areas, often in small groups, and exhibit opportunistic behavior by targeting new plant growth following rainfall events that stimulate vegetation in arid steppes.^[3] Water requirements are minimal, as most hydration is derived directly from moisture-rich foods like succulent cacti (Maihuenopsis glomerata), enabling survival in water-poor habitats.^[26]^[27] Dietary composition shows seasonal variation without significant differences across subspecies: spring features more shrub leaves and cacti, summer emphasizes forbs and certain seeds, autumn increases seed intake (e.g., Ephedra spp.), and winter relies on forbs and low shrubs, with occasional upticks in insect consumption during drier periods to supplement protein needs.^[25]^[27] The short, broad beak is adapted for efficiently stripping and consuming foliage, supporting this generalist yet selective herbivory that sustains the species across its Patagonian and Andean range.^[29]^[30] Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata), also known as the lesser rhea, lives in loose, non-breeding groups typically consisting of 5 to 30 individuals, including mixed sexes and juveniles. These flocks form primarily for predator vigilance, allowing individuals to spend less time scanning for threats and more time foraging, as supported by the "many-eyes" hypothesis where per capita vigilance decreases with increasing group size (R² = 0.41, P = 0.010).^[31] Groups are often observed in open habitats like grasslands and vegas, where larger aggregations reduce perceived predation risk through enhanced detection and the species' reliance on a "watch and run" escape strategy enabled by their speed. Occasionally, solitary individuals or pairs are seen outside breeding, reflecting flexible social organization influenced by habitat and resource availability. During the breeding season, social structure shifts, with males becoming territorial and defending areas to attract females. Communication occurs via booming calls, deep resonant vocalizations used to signal presence and deter rivals, often accompanied by wing displays. Agonistic interactions include kicking, chasing, and posturing among males competing for territories, though aggression is minimal outside this period.^[32] Interactions emphasize predator avoidance, with groups relying on collective alarm responses—though specific calls are not well-documented—and rapid flight in zigzags to evade threats like foxes or humans. Outside breeding, conflicts are rare, promoting stable social bonds.

Reproduction

Breeding behavior

Darwin's rhea employs a polygynous mating system in which a dominant male forms a harem by attracting and defending 2–12 females, with whom he copulates multiple times during the breeding period.^[3] This arrangement incorporates elements of sequential polyandry, as females often mate with and contribute eggs to several males' nests across the season.^[33] The breeding season is seasonal and aligns with southern hemisphere spring and summer, typically spanning August or September to January or February, though it may vary regionally with local climate conditions in southern Patagonia versus northern altiplano populations.^[33] No long-term pair bonds form between males and females. Courtship begins with males separating from flocks to compete aggressively for territories through brief physical confrontations, after which successful males perform elaborate displays to assemble their harems.^[3] These displays include running toward females with wings outstretched, vigorous wing-flapping and shaking, bowing postures, and a series of low booming calls to stimulate female interest and receptivity.^[3] Dominant males attract the largest harems, while subordinate males or yearlings may join groups opportunistically but rarely secure matings; females select and approach the most vigorous displaying males.^[34] Once the harem is established, the male selects a nesting site and constructs a simple shallow scrape in open grassy areas, typically 80–120 cm (0.8–1.2 m) in diameter and lined with vegetation for camouflage and insulation.^[35] He leads the females to this communal nest, where each contributes eggs over a period of 10–14 days, laying one every 48 hours until the clutch reaches 10–30 eggs (up to 50) from multiple contributors.^[33] ^[35] After laying, the females depart as a group to seek additional mates, leaving the male to manage the nest.^[3]

Parental care

In Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata), parental care is exclusively provided by the male following egg-laying by multiple females. The male incubates the clutch alone, with incubation lasting 40 days (30–44 days in captivity).^[35] Clutches typically range from 10 to 50 eggs, with an average of 20–25 eggs per nest.^[35] During this period, the male fasts almost entirely, relying on stored fat reserves, and aggressively defends the nest against potential threats, including other rheas and predators.^[32] Disturbances, such as human interference or predation attempts, often lead to nest abandonment, resulting in high rates of clutch failure (up to 36% egg loss in some populations).^[33] Upon hatching, the precocial chicks emerge covered in grayish-brown down and are mobile within hours, capable of following the male immediately.^[3] The male leads the family group, guiding foraging and providing continuous protection for 6–8 months until the chicks become independent.^[3] Adoption of lost or orphaned chicks by unrelated males is common, enhancing chick survival; this behavior was notably observed in wild populations during rewilding efforts in Chilean Patagonia in 2025.^[32]^[36] Chicks fledge around 3 months of age, at which point they can run at speeds up to 60 km/h alongside adults.^[33] Juvenile mortality is high, estimated at 50–70% during the first year, primarily due to predation by foxes and birds of prey.^[33] Males mitigate these risks through vigilant herding, rapid flight responses, and distraction displays, such as zigzagging runs to confuse predators before crouching in cover.^[37]

Conservation

Status and threats

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List at the global level, with the assessment indicating a decreasing population trend as of the 2022 evaluation.^[5] The global population size is unknown, though the nominate subspecies is likely very large and locally fairly common, while precise quantification remains challenging due to the species' wide but patchy distribution across open grasslands.^[4] However, the northern subspecies, R. p. tarapacensis and R. p. garleppi (collectively known as the puna rhea), are assessed as Near Threatened, with their combined mature population preliminarily estimated at 1,000–2,499 individuals, reflecting higher vulnerability in high-altitude Andean regions. Nationally, the species is listed as Critically Endangered in Peru, Vulnerable in Argentina, and Endangered in parts of its range.^[5]^[4] Population trends vary regionally, remaining relatively stable in the Patagonian grasslands of southern Argentina and Chile, where the nominate subspecies R. p. pennata persists at moderate densities despite localized pressures.^[20] In contrast, populations in the Altiplano have experienced ongoing declines, attributed to intensified anthropogenic impacts, leading to low densities and some local extirpations without widespread fragmentation of core habitats.^[5]^[38] The primary threats to Darwin's rhea include habitat degradation from overgrazing by domestic livestock, particularly sheep farming, which affects significant portions of its grassland range and reduces forage availability.^[20] Illegal hunting for meat, eggs, and feathers persists as a major direct mortality factor, especially in rural and peri-urban areas where the bird is targeted for subsistence and commercial use.^[5] Predation by introduced predators such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic dogs has increased pressure on juveniles and nesting sites, exacerbating recruitment challenges in altered ecosystems.^[5] Additionally, climate change contributes to grassland degradation through prolonged droughts and shifting vegetation patterns, indirectly amplifying habitat loss across the species' distribution.^[5]

Conservation efforts

Darwin's rhea (Rhea pennata) receives international protection under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with most subspecies listed in Appendix I and the nominate subspecies R. p. pennata in Appendix II to regulate trade and prevent overexploitation.^[39] In Chile, the species is safeguarded by the national hunting law, which prohibits ownership, transport, and trade of any parts, products, or specimens except from authorized sources.^[6] It is also protected within national parks such as Torres del Paine in Chile, where habitat preservation limits human impacts.^[5] In Argentina, Darwin's rhea is covered by provincial laws across its range, effectively banning hunting and promoting conservation.^[20] Similar legal measures exist in Bolivia, where the species is classified as vulnerable and subject to national wildlife protection statutes that restrict hunting.^[5] Key conservation programs focus on captive breeding and reintroduction to restore populations in Patagonia. The Ñandú Breeding Center, operated by Fundación Rewilding Chile in Patagonia National Park (established around 2014), has produced juveniles for release, with over 50 individuals reintroduced since inception, including 14 juveniles in 2021.^[40]^[41] In March 2025, a collaborative translocation effort by Tompkins Conservation, Fundación Rewilding Argentina, and partners moved 15 wild Darwin's rheas from Argentina to Chile's Aysén Region to strengthen local populations and enhance genetic diversity.^[21] These initiatives aim to rewild at least 100 adult individuals in the wild to ensure viable populations.^[40] Monitoring efforts in the Aysén Region of Chile employ camera traps equipped with artificial intelligence for real-time detection of Darwin's rheas and potential threats.^[42] Satellite tracking via GPS collars tracks movement and habitat use, providing data to refine reintroduction strategies.^[43] Community education programs by organizations like Tompkins Conservation engage local stakeholders to reduce poaching through awareness campaigns and alternative livelihood support.^[44]

History of discovery

Darwin's encounter

During the second voyage of HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin first encountered what would later be known as Darwin's rhea in Patagonia, Argentina, while the ship was anchored at Puerto Deseado (Port Desire) in late December 1833. While exploring the arid plains, Darwin learned from local Gauchos of a smaller variety of ostrich, distinct from the larger Struthio rhea common further north, which they called the "Avestruz Petise" or small ostrich. On December 23, the ship's artist, Conrad Martens, shot one such bird to provide meat for the crew's Christmas dinner; Darwin joined the meal but soon recognized its significance upon examining the remains, noting its smaller size—about two-thirds that of the common rhea—darker plumage, and mottled feathers. He hastily collected the head, neck, legs, wings, skin, and feathers from the plates and scraps, preserving them for shipment to England, where they were later assembled into a complete specimen for the Zoological Society of London.^[45] Darwin's field observations of the species highlighted its swift and wary nature, describing it as fleet-footed and capable of outrunning horses across the open pampas, though it did not expand its wings for balance at full speed unlike its northern counterpart. He noted that the birds typically traveled in flocks of 20 to 30 individuals, foraging on grasses, roots, and occasionally fish exposed at low tide, and were easier to capture using bolas due to their more active demeanor. Regarding reproduction, Darwin observed that, similar to the greater rhea, multiple females laid eggs in a single communal nest—averaging 15 eggs for the smaller species—with the male taking sole responsibility for incubation and early parental care; he remarked on finding scattered, unhatched eggs (known locally as "huachos") near nests, suggesting occasional over-laying. These details were supplemented by earlier glimpses during the Beagle's traversal of Patagonia, including stops at the Rio Negro in August 1833, where rumors of the bird's existence first piqued his interest.^[45] This encounter marked the first documented European observation and collection of Darwin's rhea, providing crucial evidence of geographic variation within similar species across isolated regions of South America. In his field notebooks, Darwin reflected on how the replacement of the larger rhea by this smaller form south of latitude 41° suggested transmutation influenced by environmental isolation, an idea he expanded in the published account of his journey. These notes in Journal of Researches (later known as The Voyage of the Beagle, 1839) emphasized the role of geographic barriers in species divergence, laying early groundwork for the evolutionary principles articulated in On the Origin of Species two decades later.^[46]^[45]

Scientific description

The specimens collected by Charles Darwin during the HMS Beagle expedition were analyzed by the ornithologist John Gould, who in March 1837 recognized them as a distinct species from the greater rhea (Rhea americana), naming it Rhea darwinii to honor Darwin. This initial scientific description distinguished the smaller bird based on its morphology, including shorter stature and finer plumage, and was formally published in 1841 as Part III (Birds) of The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, edited by Darwin. Independently, the French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny, drawing from his own South American collections during his 1826–1833 expedition, described the species in 1837 as Pterocnemia pennata in his multi-volume work Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, emphasizing its occurrence in high-altitude Andean regions. These concurrent descriptions marked the formal scientific recognition of the species, resolving earlier confusions with the greater rhea reported by European explorers.^[2]^[9] Subsequent 19th-century expeditions built on these descriptions by confirming the species' distribution across the Patagonian steppes and Andean plateaus, with d'Orbigny's detailed accounts from Bolivia and Argentina providing early maps of its range south of approximately 20°S latitude, distinct from the greater rhea's more northern and eastern extent. By the 20th century, genetic analyses using molecular clocks estimated the divergence of the rhea lineage from other ratites at around 40–50 million years ago, situating their evolution within the Paleogene radiation of flightless birds following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction. These phylogenetic insights underscored the ancient Gondwanan origins of ratites, with rheas representing the South American branch.^[47]^[48] The parapatric distributions of Darwin's rhea and the greater rhea, separated by the Andean barrier yet overlapping in transitional zones, profoundly influenced Darwin's biogeographical theories, as detailed in his 1845 Journal of Researches and later in On the Origin of Species (1859), where he cited the rheas as evidence for speciation driven by geographical isolation. The common name "Darwin's rhea" gained widespread adoption in the 20th century through ornithological literature, commemorating Darwin's pivotal collection efforts, while taxonomic revisions of the genus Rhea integrated it into broader studies of ratite evolution and hybridization risks.^[49]^[50]^[16]

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[25]
Diet of the Lesser Rhea ( Pterocnemia pennata ) and availability of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Grasses and shrubs dominated the vegetation of the study area, while forbs and cactus (Cactaceae) were present only in low proportions. The main ...Missing: saltbush | Show results with:saltbush
[26]
Diet selection by the lesser rhea (Rhea pennata pennata ... - SciELO
A strong food selection characterized the diet of lesser rheas, dominated by leaves of shrubs and forbs, complemented by dicot seeds and a few insects. This ...
[27]
[PDF] Redalyc.Diet selection by the lesser rhea (Rhea pennatapennata) in ...
May 4, 2013 · Seeds, forbs and soft grasses could be for lesser rheas some key food resources to survive during unfavorable seasons in arid environments.Missing: Darwin's | Show results with:Darwin's
[28]
Diet of the Lesser Rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) and availability of ...
The main dietary component was leaf matter (94.30%), with the rest seeds (5.66%) and a small proportion of insects (0.03%). Stones constituted 2.24% of the dry ...
[29]
Lesser Rhea - Stay connected with nature and your friend - Bird Buddy
The typical lifespan of the Lesser Rhea (Rhea pennata) is around 10 to 15 years in the wild, although they can live longer in captivity. This lifespan is ...
[30]
Diet and Foraging - Lesser Rhea - Rhea pennata - Birds of the World
Jun 18, 2024 · The Lesser Rhea is almost completely herbivorous, taking mainly foliage and seeds, but occasionally takes insects.
[31]
Habitat structure and association with ungulates drive habitat ...
Oct 19, 2020 · Habitat structure and association with ungulates drive habitat selection and grouping behaviour of lesser rhea (Rhea pennata subsp. pennata).
[32]
Lesser Rhea Facts | Patagonia Wildlife Guide
The lesser rhea, also known as Darwin's rhea, stands at about 3 feet in height and weighs between 33 and 55 pounds. With the appearance of a small ostrich, ...Reproduction · See Lesser Rheas On These... · Wild Patagonia: Peaks...
[33]
Analysis of ancient DNA from South American rhea bones
We examine genetic data from 16 archaeological rhea bone samples from four sites located in the Mendoza province, in west-central Argentina, and apply NGS ...Missing: Darwin's subspecies
[34]
(PDF) Reproductive success of wild Lesser Rheas (Pterocnemia
Jun 25, 2008 · ... Rhea population (Pterocnemia -Rhea- pennata pennata) during two reproductive seasons ... Handbook of the birds of the world, vol 1: ostrich to ...
[35]
[PDF] Reproductivity and raising of Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) and ...
High population densities promote excessive encounters and fights among males. This could, in turn, interfere with social interactions, courtship behavior, ...
[36]
Breeding - Lesser Rhea - Rhea pennata - Birds of the World
Jun 18, 2024 · Males are simultaneously polygynous, and females serially polyandrous. Phenology Eggs are laid from September to January in the north of the species' range.Breeding · Eggs · HatchingMissing: broad beak stripping
[37]
The Male Darwin's Rhea of Chile Will Adopt Any Lost Chick - YouTube
Apr 14, 2025 · ... paternal instinct that it will adopt any lost chick. All-new The Americas - watch NBC on Peacock. #NBC #TheAmericas #TomHanks » Subscribe for ...
[38]
Darwin's rhea at Belfast Zoo
The IUCN status of Darwin's rhea is least concern. For more info on classifications visit www.iucnredlist.org (link opens in new window). The IUCN believes ...
[39]
Density and abundance of Rhea pennata garleppi (Struthioniformes
Sep 4, 2014 · This work shows the highest density record for R. p. garleppi so far and highlights changes in population size related to life history ...Missing: physical | Show results with:physical
[40]
Wildlife Other Species - WCS Argentina
... predation and egg consumption by native predators. These large birds ... habitat and refuge from hunting for Darwin's rheas. Beyond protected areas ...
[41]
[PDF] CITES Appendices I, II and III valid from 14.02.2021
Feb 14, 2021 · Rheidae Rheas. Pterocnemia pennata (Except. Pterocnemia pennata pennata which is included in Appendix II). Pterocnemia pennata pennata. Rhea ...
[42]
[PDF] Getting Wild - Fundación Rewilding Chile
ÑANDÚ (Darwin's Rhea) PROGRAM. In 2014, the Ñandú Breeding Center began ... The goal is to reach a population of 100 adult rheas in the wild, to ensure ...
[43]
Reintroduced Rheas Help Restore Patagonia's Grasslands
Apr 13, 2021 · A new season of Darwin's rhea releases in Patagonia National Park is bringing forth a hard-won recovery of this locally endangered flightless bird.
[44]
Cutting-edge technology in Patagonia National Park: Real-time ...
Sep 28, 2023 · Patagonia National Park, located in the Aysén region, has pioneered South America by implementing real-time camera traps supported by cutting- ...
[45]
Patagonia Project - Fundación Rewilding Argentina
By 2022 our team working in Patagonia Park, Argentina, has fitted thirteen lesser rheas with GPS collars that provide important information about the spatial ...
[46]
Rewilding News from the Tompkins Conservation Network
Jun 14, 2021 · We are working hard with local organizations to reduce poaching ... Tags: argentina, Chile, Darwin's rheas, giant otter, huemul deer ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
The Voyage of the Beagle - Project Gutenberg
The Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle includes an account of the Fossil Mammalia, by Professor Owen; of the Living Mammalia, by Mr. Waterhouse; of the Birds, ...
[48]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0803242105
[49]
Systematics - Greater Rhea - Rhea americana - Birds of the World
Apr 2, 2021 · Conservation Genetics 8(2):503–507. Close , 11 SACC (2008). Proposal (#348) to South American Classification Committee: Incluir Pterocnemia ...Missing: reclassification | Show results with:reclassification
[50]
Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds
Sep 9, 2008 · Most recent studies have also strongly supported ratite monophyly (9–12, 14), suggesting a single loss of flight in their common ancestor.
[51]
https://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
[52]
Darwin's rhea | bird - Britannica
Darwin's rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) lives from Peru southward to Patagonia, at the tip of the continent. Both species are considerably smaller than the ostrich.