CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement between governments aimed at ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species.[1] Adopted on 3 March 1973 in Washington, D.C., the treaty entered into force on 1 July 1975 after ratification by ten countries, and it currently has 185 Parties representing over 99 percent of global trade in wild species.[1][2] CITES regulates trade through a system of three appendices: Appendix I prohibits commercial trade in species threatened with extinction; Appendix II requires export permits for species not necessarily threatened but where trade must be controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with survival; and Appendix III allows unilateral listings by countries seeking cooperation in monitoring trade.[3] The Convention lists approximately 38,000 species, subjecting international trade to strict controls including permits and documentation to verify legality and sustainability.[4] While CITES has achieved notable successes in reducing overexploitation for certain species through enforced trade restrictions—empirical analysis indicating wildlife populations in compliant countries can increase by about 66 percent after two decades of listing—its overall effectiveness remains contested due to uneven enforcement, persistent illegal trade, and debates over whether blanket bans hinder sustainable management incentives in range states.[5] Controversies often center on high-profile cases like African elephants and rhinos, where proponents of regulated trade argue that prohibitions exacerbate poaching by eliminating legal markets and conservation funding, contrasting with evidence of sustainability in ranching systems for species like crocodiles.[6][7] Administered by the United Nations Environment Programme with its secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, CITES Conferences of the Parties periodically review listings and policies to adapt to emerging threats and scientific data.[8]Historical Development
Origins and Drafting
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) originated from mid-20th-century concerns over the depletion of wildlife populations driven by unregulated international commerce, particularly in species like African elephants and big cats whose hides, ivory, and other parts were heavily traded.[1] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), established in 1948 as a coalition of governments and non-governmental organizations focused on species preservation, identified trade as a primary causal factor in extinctions and overhunting, prompting early advocacy for binding international rules.[9] At its 8th General Assembly in Nairobi, Kenya, in September 1963, IUCN adopted Resolution 14, which explicitly called for "an international convention on regulation of international trade in certain species of wild animals and plants" to prevent over-exploitation through commerce.[10] [11] IUCN took the lead in drafting, producing an initial version of the convention text in 1964, which was distributed to member states and stakeholders for review and proposed revisions. This draft emphasized permitting systems, species listings by threat level, and enforcement mechanisms, drawing on empirical data from field surveys documenting trade volumes—such as annual exports of over 100,000 leopard skins—and causal links to population declines.[10] Over the subsequent decade, iterative consultations refined the document, incorporating feedback from governments, scientists, and trade experts while addressing challenges like verifying non-detriment to wild populations and accommodating developing nations' economic reliance on exports; these efforts were supported by IUCN's Survival Service Commission, which compiled the first provisional lists of vulnerable species by the late 1960s.[12] The drafting culminated in a plenary diplomatic conference convened by the United States government in Washington, D.C., from 24 February to 3 March 1973, where delegates from 80 countries negotiated the final text amid debates on appendix structures (I for banned commercial trade, II for regulated trade) and implementation feasibility.[13] [1] Agreement was reached on 2 March 1973, with the convention opened for signature the following day by 21 initial states, establishing CITES as a multilateral treaty administered initially through IUCN and later formalized under its own secretariat.[2] This process reflected first-principles prioritization of evidence-based trade controls over laissez-faire markets, substantiated by contemporaneous reports of species like the vicuña nearing extinction due to poaching for wool.[11]Adoption and Entry into Force
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was adopted on March 3, 1973, in Washington, D.C., following negotiations among delegates from 80 countries convened under the auspices of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).[14] The adoption concluded a drafting process initiated by an IUCN resolution in 1963 calling for an international agreement to regulate trade in endangered species, with the final text establishing a framework for controlling international commercial trade in specimens of wild animals and plants threatened by such trade.[2] The convention was immediately opened for signature by eligible states, marking a multilateral effort to address overexploitation driven by international markets.[1] Ratification proceeded on a national basis, with the United States becoming the first country to deposit its instrument of ratification on September 13, 1973.[15] Under Article XXII of the convention, entry into force required ratification by at least ten states; it took effect on July 1, 1975, 90 days after Canada submitted the tenth ratification on April 1, 1975.[2] [1] The initial ten parties, in order of ratification, were the United States, Nigeria, Switzerland, Nepal (now accession), Ecuador (accession), Kenya, Uganda, Botswana, Somalia, and Canada; for these states, the convention applied prospectively to trade after that date.[1] Subsequent ratifications by other parties triggered entry into force 90 days after each deposit of instruments with the depositary government, the Swiss Confederation.[16]Early Implementation and Expansion
CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975, after ratification by its tenth Party, Canada, enabling the initial ten signatories—including the United States, Botswana, and Sri Lanka—to begin regulating international trade in listed species through national permitting systems and enforcement measures.[2][1] Early implementation focused on designating management and scientific authorities in each Party, issuing export/import permits, and aligning domestic laws with the Convention's requirements, such as the United States amending its Endangered Species Act to incorporate CITES prohibitions on trade in Appendix I species without exceptions.[2] The first Conference of the Parties (CoP1), convened in Bern, Switzerland, from 2 to 6 November 1976, marked the foundational step in operationalizing the treaty, with 32 Parties attending and adopting resolutions on permit formats, criteria for amending the Appendices, and procedures under Article XV for species listings.[1][17] CoP1 also established the framework for a permanent secretariat, initially administered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Geneva, to coordinate implementation, though administrative hosting later transitioned to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).[1] Subsequent meetings accelerated expansion: CoP2, held in San José, Costa Rica, in 1979, reviewed trade data and approved additional Appendix amendments, while by 1980 the number of Parties had surpassed the initial CoP1 attendance, reflecting recruitment efforts amid rising awareness of overexploitation in species like leopards, which were transferred to Appendix I at CoP1.[17][18] CoP3 in New Delhi, India, in 1981, further refined enforcement guidelines and expanded listings, contributing to a doubling of Parties from the 1975 baseline by the mid-1980s through accessions by developing nations prioritizing biodiversity conservation.[1] This period saw appendices grow from initial listings of around 350 Appendix I and 600 Appendix II species to include more taxa via consensus-driven proposals, emphasizing empirical assessments of trade threats over political considerations, though challenges persisted in uniform national enforcement due to varying capacities.[19][20]Participation and Legal Framework
Ratifications and Parties
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was opened for signature on 3 March 1973 in Washington, D.C., and remained open until 31 December 1974.[1] Under Article XXII, it required ratification or accession by at least ten states to enter into force ninety days after the deposit of the tenth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession with the depositary government, Switzerland.[16] This threshold was met with Canada's ratification on 4 April 1975, triggering entry into force on 1 July 1975 for those initial ten parties.[21] [1] The first ten parties, in chronological order of their ratification or accession leading to the convention's activation, were the United States of America, Nigeria, Switzerland, Tunisia, Sweden, Cyprus, Ecuador, Chile, Uruguay, and Canada.[21] For signatory states, binding participation occurred through ratification, acceptance, or approval; non-signatories joined via accession.[22] Regional economic integration organizations, such as the European Union (which acceded in 1997), may also become parties under Article XI if authorized by their member states and capable of regulating trade.[22] Switzerland serves as the depositary, managing instruments of ratification and related notifications.[16] As of October 2025, CITES has 185 parties, including 184 sovereign states and the European Union, reflecting broad global adherence to its trade regulatory framework.[22] Membership has expanded steadily since 1975, driven by international recognition of the need to curb unsustainable wildlife trade, with accessions continuing into recent years; for instance, the 184th state party joined prior to 2025.[21] Non-parties, numbering around 11 sovereign states, remain unbound by CITES obligations but may engage through trade partnerships with parties.[22] Parties must implement the convention domestically via national laws, though compliance varies, with the Secretariat monitoring adherence through periodic reports.[1]| Milestone | Number of Parties | Date |
|---|---|---|
| Entry into force | 10 | 1 July 1975[21] |
| 50th anniversary | ~180 | 1 July 2025[22] |
| Current | 185 | October 2025[22] |
Reservations and Amendments
Parties to CITES may enter specific reservations with respect to species listed in Appendices I, II, or III, thereby excluding or modifying the legal effects of the provisions concerning trade in those species.[23] Such reservations function as unilateral declarations that a Party is not bound by the Convention's trade restrictions for the reserved species, treating the reserving Party as a non-Party in trade interactions with other Parties regarding that species.[24] The Convention explicitly prohibits general reservations, limiting them to these targeted exemptions.[16] Reservations for species in Appendix III may be made at any time after accession.[24] For species newly included or transferred in Appendices I or II via amendment, a Party must enter a reservation either upon depositing its instrument of ratification or accession, or within 90 days following the Depositary's notification of the amendment's adoption.[24][16] Failure to act within this window binds the Party to the listing. Once entered, reservations remain in effect indefinitely unless explicitly withdrawn, with partial withdrawals permitted for specific species or populations.[25] Amendments to the Appendices, which form the core of CITES' regulatory scope, are proposed by Parties and considered at Conferences of the Parties (CoPs).[16] Adoption requires a two-thirds majority of Parties voting in favor, after which the Depositary notifies all Parties of the changes.[26] These amendments enter into force 90 days after notification for Parties that do not enter reservations, enabling periodic updates to reflect evolving conservation needs without altering the Convention's foundational text.[27] For instance, amendments adopted at CoP19 in November 2023 took effect on February 23, 2024, subject to the reservation period.[28] Amendments to the Convention text itself, governed by Article XXX, demand acceptance by two-thirds of Parties and have not been pursued, preserving the original framework adopted in 1973.[16] Reservations to appendix amendments underscore a balance between consensus and flexibility, though CoP resolutions urge Parties to minimize their use to maintain the treaty's effectiveness.[25]Organizational Governance
Secretariat and Leadership
The CITES Secretariat, administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and serves as the primary administrative body responsible for facilitating the Convention's implementation across its Parties.[8] It coordinates activities among the Conference of the Parties (CoP), Standing Committee, and scientific committees; manages official documentation, including resolutions and decisions; and provides technical support, capacity-building assistance, and enforcement guidance to national authorities.[29] The Secretariat also organizes CoP meetings, monitors compliance through national reports, and engages in outreach to promote sustainable trade practices, operating with a staff structured into specialized units such as Implementation and Enforcement Services, Knowledge Management and Outreach, and Corporate Services.[30][31] Leadership of the Secretariat is vested in the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the CoP for a term of four years and reports to UNEP's Executive Director while exercising operational independence in Convention matters.[29] The Secretary-General provides overall strategic direction, oversees budget and resource allocation funded primarily through voluntary contributions from Parties and UNEP, and represents CITES in international forums on wildlife trade issues.[8][29] Since July 2018, Ivonne Higuero, a Bolivian environmental diplomat and Duke University alumna with prior experience in regional biodiversity governance, has held the position as the first woman Secretary-General, focusing on enhancing enforcement against illegal trade and integrating CITES with broader sustainable development goals.[32][33] Her tenure has emphasized data-driven decision-making, including the development of tools for traceability in species trade, amid ongoing challenges like poaching and habitat loss documented in annual reports.[34] The Secretariat's governance integrates with CITES' intergovernmental framework, where the Secretary-General advises the Standing Committee on policy and operational priorities but lacks direct enforcement powers, which remain with national authorities.[8] This structure ensures the Secretariat functions as a neutral facilitator rather than a regulatory enforcer, with accountability maintained through periodic CoP reviews of its performance and budget, as outlined in Convention resolutions.[29]Standing Committee and Advisory Bodies
The Standing Committee functions as the principal governing body of CITES between meetings of the Conference of the Parties (CoP), offering policy guidance to the Secretariat on Convention implementation and supervising its administration, including budget oversight and coordination with other committees and working groups.[35] It executes tasks assigned by the CoP, such as drafting resolutions and decisions, and may form intersessional working groups to address ongoing priorities.[35] The Committee convenes typically once annually, with additional sessions before and after CoP meetings, and permits observers from non-member Parties, intergovernmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations to participate without voting rights.[35] Compositionally, the Standing Committee includes Party representatives from the six geographical regions—Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Central and South America and the Caribbean, and Oceania—with seats allocated according to the number of Parties per region as specified in Resolution Conf. 18.2 (Annex 1).[35][36] It also incorporates the depositary government (Switzerland), which holds a non-voting seat except to break ties, alongside non-voting representatives from the host countries of the previous and next CoPs.[35] Regional representatives are elected at each regular CoP for terms ending at the subsequent CoP; post-election, they select the Committee's Chair, Vice-Chair, and alternate Vice-Chair to lead proceedings.[35] The primary advisory bodies are the Animals Committee (AC) and Plants Committee (PC), instituted by Resolution Conf. 9.21 at the sixth CoP in Ottawa in July 1987 to furnish scientific and technical expertise on animal and plant species, filling gaps in biological knowledge for trade regulation.[37] Each comprises elected members from the six regions, with allocations weighted by Party count and regional biodiversity diversity, plus one non-voting nomenclature specialist per committee (added at CoP14 in 2007).[37] Regional members elect a Chair and Vice-Chair; alternates support continuity.[37] These committees convene twice per intersessional period, undertaking nomenclature standardization, periodic reviews of Appendix listings for accuracy and sustainability, and evaluations of significant trade volumes under mechanisms like the Review of Significant Trade.[37] They report findings and recommendations directly to the CoP, advise the Standing Committee and Secretariat on request, and may establish joint sessions or working groups for cross-cutting issues such as timber species or identification criteria.[37] Observers, including Parties and invited experts, contribute to deliberations without vote.[37]Conferences of the Parties
The Conference of the Parties (CoP) functions as the supreme governing authority for CITES, enabling Parties to periodically evaluate the Convention's implementation, propose amendments to Appendices I and II, adopt binding resolutions and non-binding decisions, review national compliance and enforcement reports, and allocate funding for the Secretariat.[38] These assemblies convene every two to three years, generally spanning two weeks, with hosting duties rotating among Party states to promote equitable participation.[38] Voting occurs among accredited Party delegates, favoring consensus but permitting a two-thirds majority of attending Parties when consensus eludes; observers from non-Parties, international bodies, and non-governmental organizations attend without vote.[38] CoPs originated with the inaugural meeting (CoP1) in Geneva, Switzerland, from 22 June to 5 July 1976, soon after the Convention's entry into force, establishing foundational procedures for species listings and trade monitoring.[38] Over succeeding decades, these conferences have incrementally refined CITES mechanisms, incorporating scientific data on population trends and trade volumes to adjust protections, while addressing emerging challenges such as illegal wildlife trafficking and capacity-building in developing nations.[38] Decisions from CoPs bind all Parties, influencing domestic laws and international trade permits, though implementation varies due to national sovereignty and resource disparities.[39] The following table enumerates select CoPs, highlighting their chronological progression and geographic diversity:| CoP Number | Location (Host Country) | Dates |
|---|---|---|
| CoP1 | Geneva (Switzerland) | 22 June – 5 July 1976 |
| CoP18 | Geneva (Switzerland) | 17–28 August 2019 |
| CoP19 | Panama City (Panama) | 14–25 November 2022 |
| CoP20 | Samarkand (Uzbekistan) | 24 November – 5 December 2025 (scheduled) |
Core Regulatory Mechanisms
Appendices Classification
The appendices under CITES provide a tiered system for regulating international trade in wild fauna and flora, with species assigned to Appendix I, II, or III according to the assessed risk of over-exploitation and the requisite controls to ensure sustainability.[3] This classification determines the permitting requirements, with Appendix I imposing the strictest prohibitions on commercial trade, Appendix II requiring export controls and non-detriment findings, and Appendix III facilitating cooperative monitoring through unilateral listings by Parties.[43] As of May 2023, the appendices encompass over 40,000 species, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, plants, and timber, with periodic amendments reflecting new scientific data or trade patterns.[44] Species inclusion in Appendices I or II occurs via proposals submitted by CITES Parties, evaluated against biological criteria (such as population decline rates, habitat fragmentation, and intrinsic vulnerability) and trade criteria (including volume of trade, illegal trade incidence, and enforcement capacity), as outlined in Resolution Conf. 9.24 (Rev. CoP17). These proposals undergo technical review by the Animals and Plants Committees for scientific validity before voting at Conferences of the Parties (CoPs), where a two-thirds majority is required for adoption or transfer between appendices; downlisting from I to II demands evidence of improved conservation status, while uplisting follows demonstrations of heightened threat from trade.[43] Appendix III listings, by contrast, are initiated unilaterally by any Party for native species under domestic protection, notifying others to require export documentation without CoP approval, enabling faster response to emerging local threats.[43] Higher taxa (e.g., genera or families) may be listed entirely if data on individual species are insufficient, provided the criterion of "similarly threatened" species within the group is met, though this approach has drawn scrutiny for potentially over-regulating non-threatened subpopulations.[45] Amendments enter into force 90 days after CoP notification unless specified otherwise, with Parties able to enter reservations to exempt themselves from obligations for particular listings within defined timelines.[43] The system prioritizes precautionary principles, mandating that doubt regarding a species' status favors higher protection levels, though periodic reviews every five to ten years assess listing appropriateness based on updated IUCN Red List assessments and trade monitoring data from the UNEP-WCMC database.Appendix I Species
Appendix I encompasses species threatened with extinction that are or may be affected by international trade, necessitating particularly strict regulatory measures in accordance with Article II, paragraph 1, of the CITES Convention to avert further jeopardy to their survival.[16] Listings in this appendix apply to the whole organism, whether live or dead, along with all readily recognizable parts and derivatives, unless annotated otherwise by the Conference of the Parties.[45] As of February 7, 2025, the appendix includes taxa across mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and plants, with periodic amendments reflecting new scientific assessments or conservation statuses.[46] Inclusion criteria, as detailed in CITES Resolution Conf. 9.24 (Rev. CoP17), require that a species meet at least one biological criterion—such as a critically low wild population size (fewer than 2,500 mature individuals), a observed or projected decline exceeding 20% over two generations due to trade or other factors, or high vulnerability to trade impacts—and demonstrate that it is or may be affected by international trade. Proposals for listing or delisting originate from Parties and are evaluated by the Animals or Plants Committees based on peer-reviewed data, IUCN Red List assessments, and trade volume records from the UNEP-WCMC database; final decisions occur by consensus or two-thirds majority vote at Conferences of the Parties.[3] This process prioritizes empirical evidence of extinction risk over economic considerations, though controversies arise when trade-dependent species, such as certain crocodilian populations, receive population-specific annotations allowing limited ranching-based exports under strict quotas. International trade in Appendix I specimens is prohibited for primarily commercial purposes, with exceptions only for non-commercial transactions like scientific research, educational use, or reintroduction into the wild.[45] Authorization demands prior issuance of both an export permit—certifying non-detriment to wild populations and legal acquisition—and an import permit—verifying suitable facilities and non-detrimental purpose—issued by Management Authorities of the respective Parties.[47] Violations, often involving illegally sourced ivory or live parrots, trigger seizures and penalties under national laws implementing CITES, as evidenced by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service records of over 1,000 Appendix I-related enforcement actions annually in recent years.[48] Notable examples span diverse taxa, illustrating the appendix's focus on high-risk groups:- Mammals: All great apes (e.g., Gorilla gorilla), tigers (Panthera tigris), and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), which face poaching for skins, bones, and ivory despite global population declines exceeding 50% in some subpopulations since 1975.[45][46]
- Birds: Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and kakapo (Strigops habroptila), targeted for falconry and pet trade, with wild numbers reduced to under 1,000 breeding pairs in key ranges.[45]
- Reptiles: All sea turtles (Cheloniidae spp.) and Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis), vulnerable to egg harvesting and skin trade, alongside Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) populations in certain African range states under annotated ranching quotas.[45][46]
- Amphibians and Fish: Golden frog (Atelopus zeteki) and shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum), threatened by habitat loss compounded by pet and caviar trades.[45]
- Plants: Many orchids (e.g., certain slipper orchids) and cacti, collected for ornamental trade, with over 300 plant taxa listed due to slow reproductive rates and collection pressures.[47]