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Eisenstein integer

In mathematics, Eisenstein integers are complex numbers of the form a + b\omega, where a and b are integers and \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3} = -\frac{1}{2} + i\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} is a primitive cube root of unity satisfying \omega^2 + \omega + 1 = 0.^[1] They form the ring \mathbb{Z}[\omega], which is the ring of integers of the quadratic number field \mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{-3}), and they generate a triangular (hexagonal) lattice in the complex plane, analogous to the square lattice formed by the Gaussian integers \mathbb{Z} in \mathbb{Q}(i).^[2] Named after the German mathematician Gotthold Eisenstein (1823–1852), who contributed significantly to their study in the context of algebraic number theory during the 1840s,^[3] these integers possess rich algebraic structure: the ring is a Euclidean domain with respect to the norm N(a + b\omega) = a^2 - ab + b^2, enabling unique prime factorization up to units, and it is both a principal ideal domain and a unique factorization domain.^[1] The units of the ring are the six elements \{\pm 1, \pm \omega, \pm \omega^2\}, corresponding to rotations by multiples of 60 degrees.^[2] Eisenstein integers play key roles in number theory, including analogs of Fermat's theorem on sums of squares (primes congruent to 2 modulo 3 remain prime, while those congruent to 1 modulo 3 factor nontrivially),^[4] cubic reciprocity laws,^[5] and modern applications in coding theory, cryptography, and signal processing due to their optimal lattice packing properties.^[1]

Introduction

Definition

The Eisenstein integers form the ring \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega denotes a primitive cube root of unity, explicitly given by \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3} = -\frac{1}{2} + i\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}. This \omega satisfies the relation \omega^3 = 1 and \omega \neq 1, distinguishing it as a root of the cyclotomic polynomial for the third roots of unity.^[6]^[7] Any Eisenstein integer can be expressed in the form a + b\omega with a, b \in \mathbb{Z}. These elements are algebraic integers, as they lie in the ring of integers of the quadratic number field \mathbb{Q}(\omega), which coincides with the third cyclotomic field \mathbb{Q}(\zeta_3) where \zeta_3 = \omega. The field \mathbb{Q}(\omega) is generated by adjoining \omega to the rationals \mathbb{Q}, yielding a degree-2 extension.^[6]^[8] The minimal polynomial of \omega over \mathbb{Q} is the irreducible quadratic x^2 + x + 1 = 0, obtained as the third cyclotomic polynomial \Phi_3(x) = x^2 + x + 1. This polynomial confirms that \mathbb{Z}[\omega] consists precisely of the algebraic integers in \mathbb{Q}(\omega).^[9]^[10]

History

The concept of numbers involving cube roots of unity traces its origins to the 18th century, where Leonhard Euler explored their role in solving cubic equations and related problems in number theory. In his work on the imaginary roots of equations, Euler utilized the non-real cube roots of unity to express solutions to cubics, laying foundational ideas for handling expressions like a + b\omega, where \omega is a primitive cube root of unity. This approach appeared in his investigations around the 1760s, including a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for exponent 3 via infinite descent involving such roots. Euler's contributions, detailed in his 1770 treatise Vollständige Anleitung zur Algebra, highlighted the arithmetic potential of these structures without fully developing them as a ring.^[11]^[12] The formal introduction of what are now known as Eisenstein integers occurred in 1844, when Gotthold Eisenstein developed the ring \mathbb{Z}[\omega] in the context of proving the law of cubic reciprocity. Motivated by analogies to quadratic reciprocity and the need to study factorization in cyclotomic fields, particularly the 3rd cyclotomic field \mathbb{Q}(\omega), Eisenstein analyzed arithmetic operations and prime factorization within this ring to establish reciprocity for cubic residues. His seminal paper, "Beweis des Reciprocitätssatzes für die cubischen Reste," published in the Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik, marked the first systematic treatment of these integers in the context of cubic forms. This work built directly on Euler's earlier insights but extended them to a rigorous algebraic framework for reciprocity laws.^[13]^[14] Eisenstein integers played a pivotal role in the emerging field of algebraic number theory during the mid-19th century, particularly in efforts to resolve Diophantine equations like Fermat's Last Theorem and investigations into ideal class groups. The ring's connection to the class number of \mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{-3}), which is 1, underscored its status as a principal ideal domain, aiding early computations of class numbers in quadratic fields and influencing Kronecker's work on general reciprocity. These advancements positioned Eisenstein integers as a key example in the transition from classical to modern algebraic number theory.^[15] In the 20th century, the ring of Eisenstein integers was formally recognized as a Euclidean domain, confirming its unique factorization and solidifying its foundational importance in number theory. This classification, proven using the norm function as a Euclidean function, appeared in standard treatments by the mid-century, such as in Ireland and Rosen's 1982 textbook, which detailed the division algorithm and its implications for unique factorization domains. This recognition highlighted the ring's parallels to Gaussian integers and facilitated broader applications in algebraic geometry and coding theory, though its historical roots remained tied to 19th-century reciprocity.^[5]

Properties

Norm and Units

The norm of an Eisenstein integer \alpha = a + b\omega, where a, b \in \mathbb{Z} and \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3} is a primitive cube root of unity satisfying \omega^2 + \omega + 1 = 0, is defined by

N(\alpha) = a^2 - ab + b^2 = \alpha \overline{\alpha} = (a + b\omega)(a + b\omega^2),

where \overline{\alpha} denotes the complex conjugate, which coincides with replacing \omega by \omega^2.^[16] This norm takes non-negative integer values, with N(\alpha) = 0 if and only if \alpha = 0, and N(\alpha) \geq 1 otherwise.^[16] It is completely multiplicative, meaning N(\alpha \beta) = N(\alpha) N(\beta) for all \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega].^[17] The norm endows \mathbb{Z}[\omega] with the structure of a Euclidean domain. Specifically, for any \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] with \beta \neq 0, there exist q, r \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] such that \alpha = q \beta + r and N(r) < N(\beta). To see this, consider \alpha / \beta as a complex number; the Eisenstein integers form a triangular lattice in the complex plane with Voronoi cell a regular hexagon of side length $1/\sqrt{3} centered at 0.^[6] The quotient \alpha / \beta lies within distance \sqrt{3}/3 (the covering radius of the lattice) from some lattice point q \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega], so r = \alpha - q \beta satisfies |r / \beta| < \sqrt{3}/3 < 1. Since N(r / \beta) = |r / \beta|^2 < (\sqrt{3}/3)^2 = 1/3 < 1, it follows that N(r) < N(\beta). This property underpins the division algorithm in \mathbb{Z}[\omega].^[17]^[6] The units of \mathbb{Z}[\omega] are the elements \alpha with N(\alpha) = 1, namely \{\pm 1, \pm \omega, \pm \omega^2\}. These form a multiplicative group isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 6, generated by -\omega (or equivalently by \omega, up to the inclusion of signs).^[16]^[18] Two nonzero Eisenstein integers \alpha and \beta are associates if \beta = u \alpha for some unit u \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega]^\times. Thus, each nonzero element has exactly six associates, reflecting the sixfold rotational symmetry of the lattice.

Arithmetic Operations

Eisenstein integers, denoted as elements of the ring \mathbb{Z}[\omega] where \omega is a primitive cube root of unity satisfying \omega^2 + \omega + 1 = 0, support the standard arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication, forming a subring of the complex numbers.^[6] Addition is performed componentwise: for \alpha = a + b\omega and \beta = c + d\omega with a, b, c, d \in \mathbb{Z}, the sum is \alpha + \beta = (a + c) + (b + d)\omega.^[5] This operation is commutative and associative, inheriting these properties from the complex numbers.^[19] Multiplication utilizes the relation \omega^2 = -1 - \omega: the product of \alpha = a + b\omega and \beta = c + d\omega expands to ac + (ad + bc)\omega + bd\omega^2 = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc - bd)\omega.^[5] This distributive operation yields another Eisenstein integer, and multiplication by the units \pm 1, \pm \omega, \pm \omega^2 simply rotates or reflects elements in the complex plane.^[19] Subtraction follows from addition by taking the additive inverse: -\alpha = -a - b\omega, so \alpha - \beta = \alpha + (-\beta) = (a - c) + (b - d)\omega.^[5] The complex conjugate of an Eisenstein integer \alpha = a + b\omega is \overline{\alpha} = a + b\omega^2, which swaps the roles of \omega and its conjugate \omega^2 = \overline{\omega}.^[19] This conjugation satisfies \overline{\alpha + \beta} = \overline{\alpha} + \overline{\beta} and \overline{\alpha \beta} = \overline{\alpha} \, \overline{\beta}, and relates to the norm via N(\alpha) = \alpha \overline{\alpha}.^[5]

Algebraic Structure

Euclidean Domain

The ring of Eisenstein integers \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3}, is a Euclidean domain with respect to the norm N(\alpha) = \alpha \overline{\alpha} = |\alpha|^2.^[20] This norm takes the explicit form N(a + b\omega) = a^2 - ab + b^2 for a, b \in \mathbb{Z}, and it is multiplicative, meaning N(\alpha \beta) = N(\alpha) N(\beta) for all \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega].^[5] The defining property of a Euclidean domain is the existence of a division algorithm: for any \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] with \beta \neq 0, there exist q, r \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] such that \alpha = q \beta + r and either r = 0 or N(r) < N(\beta).^[20] Here, q is chosen as the lattice point in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] nearest to \gamma = \alpha / \beta when viewed in the complex plane.^[5] To establish this, note that \mathbb{Z}[\omega] forms a triangular lattice in \mathbb{C} generated by the basis vectors $1 and \omega, with minimum distance $1 between points.^[20] The Voronoi cells of this lattice are regular hexagons, and the covering radius—the maximum distance from any point in the plane to the nearest lattice point—is $1/\sqrt{3}.^[5] Thus, |\gamma - q| \leq 1/\sqrt{3}, so r = (\gamma - q) \beta satisfies N(r) = |\gamma - q|^2 N(\beta) \leq (1/3) N(\beta) < N(\beta).^[20] As a Euclidean domain, \mathbb{Z}[\omega] is necessarily a principal ideal domain, where every ideal is generated by a single element.^[5]

Unique Factorization

The ring of Eisenstein integers \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3} is a primitive cube root of unity, is a Euclidean domain with respect to the norm N(\alpha) = \alpha \overline{\alpha}.^[5] As a consequence, it is a principal ideal domain (PID).^[21] Every PID is a unique factorization domain (UFD), meaning that every non-zero, non-unit element \alpha \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] can be expressed as a product \alpha = u \pi_1^{e_1} \pi_2^{e_2} \cdots \pi_k^{e_k}, where u is a unit, the \pi_i are irreducible elements, the e_i are positive integers, and this factorization is unique up to the order of the factors and the choice of associates (i.e., multiplication by units).^[22] In PIDs such as \mathbb{Z}[\omega], irreducible elements coincide with prime elements, since any irreducible \pi generates a maximal ideal, ensuring that if \pi divides a product, it divides one of the factors.^[5] This unique factorization property parallels that of the Gaussian integers \mathbb{Z}, which form a UFD in the quadratic field \mathbb{Q}(i), but \mathbb{Z}[\omega] arises in the quadratic extension \mathbb{Q}(\omega) with a triangular lattice structure in the complex plane rather than a square one.^[22] The units in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] are \{\pm 1, \pm \omega, \pm \omega^2\}, which play the role of \pm 1, \pm i in \mathbb{Z} by allowing associates in factorizations.^[21] To compute a factorization of an element \alpha \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega], one may employ the Euclidean algorithm, which relies on the division algorithm: for \alpha, \beta \neq 0, there exist q, r \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] such that \alpha = q \beta + r with N(r) < N(\beta).^[5] Iteratively applying divisions reduces the norm until irreducible factors are isolated, mirroring the process for integers or Gaussian integers, though the cubic nature requires care with the norm's quadratic form N(a + b\omega) = a^2 - ab + b^2.^[22] This method guarantees the uniqueness guaranteed by the UFD structure.^[21]

Prime Elements

Classification of Primes

In the ring of Eisenstein integers \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega is a primitive cube root of unity satisfying \omega^2 + \omega + 1 = 0, the classification of prime elements builds on the behavior of rational primes under extension to this ring, which is a Euclidean domain and thus a unique factorization domain. Rational primes factor according to their residue class modulo 3. The prime 3 ramifies, factoring as $3 = -\omega^2 (1 - \omega)^2 up to units, where $1 - \omega is a prime element with norm N(1 - \omega) = 3.^[5] For odd rational primes p \neq 3, if p \equiv 2 \pmod{3}, then p remains inert, meaning it is a prime element in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] with norm N(p) = p^2.^[23] If p \equiv 1 \pmod{3}, then p splits completely as p = \pi \overline{\pi} up to units, where \pi and \overline{\pi} are distinct prime elements (associates only if \pi = \overline{\pi}, which does not occur here) each with norm N(\pi) = p.^[5] The splitting behavior for primes p \equiv 1 \pmod{3} is determined by the solvability of the congruence x^2 + x + 1 \equiv 0 \pmod{p}, which has discriminant -3 and thus solutions if and only if -3 is a quadratic residue modulo p.^[23] By quadratic reciprocity, this holds precisely when p \equiv 1 \pmod{3}.^[5] Equivalently, one can check the Legendre symbol \left( \frac{-3}{p} \right) = 1. Prime elements in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] (up to associates, i.e., multiplication by units \pm 1, \pm \omega, \pm \omega^2) are precisely the non-unit elements \pi whose norm N(\pi) is a prime number in \mathbb{Z}.^[5] Such elements are irreducible because if \pi = \alpha \beta, then N(\pi) = N(\alpha) N(\beta), so one of N(\alpha) or N(\beta) must be 1, implying that factor is a unit; in a Euclidean domain, irreducibles are prime. The classification above identifies all such primes: associates of $1 - \omega, associates of inert rational primes p \equiv 2 \pmod{3}, and the splitting primes \pi with N(\pi) = p \equiv 1 \pmod{3}.^[23]

Examples of Eisenstein Primes

Eisenstein primes encompass rational primes congruent to 2 modulo 3, which remain prime in the ring, as well as associate classes of non-real elements whose norm is a rational prime congruent to 1 modulo 3.^[4] For instance, the rational prime 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3) is inert and thus an Eisenstein prime.^[19] Similarly, 2 ≡ 2 (mod 3) remains prime in the Eisenstein integers.^[5] In contrast, rational primes congruent to 1 modulo 3 split into a product of two distinct Eisenstein primes. The prime 7 factors as $7 = (3 + \omega)(2 - \omega), up to units, where each factor has norm 7.^[19] Likewise, 13 factors as $13 = (3 - \omega)(4 + \omega), up to units, with each factor having norm 13.^[5] The real Eisenstein primes—those of the form a + 0 \cdot \omega with a > 0 a rational prime congruent to 2 modulo 3—include 2, 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, and so on (OEIS A003627).^[24] As of October 2025, the largest known such prime is $2524190^{2^{21}} + 1, a generalized Fermat prime with 13,426,224 digits discovered by PrimeGrid.^[25]

Applications

Geometric Lattice and Quotient

The Eisenstein integers \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega = -\frac{1}{2} + i \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} is a primitive cube root of unity, form a triangular lattice in the complex plane \mathbb{C}. This lattice is generated by the basis vectors $1 (along the positive real axis at $0^\circ) and \omega (at a $60^\circ angle to the real axis), producing equilateral triangular tiling with points at all integer linear combinations a + b\omega for a, b \in \mathbb{Z}.^[16]^[19] A fundamental domain for this lattice can be chosen as either an equilateral triangle with vertices at $0, $1, and \omega, or a regular hexagon centered at the origin with side length $1, both of which tile the plane without overlap. The hexagonal domain highlights the sixfold rotational symmetry of the lattice.^[16] The quotient space \mathbb{C} / \mathbb{Z}[\omega] is a complex torus, topologically equivalent to an elliptic curve of genus 1 and real dimension 2. This torus arises by identifying opposite sides of the hexagonal fundamental domain via parallel translations, yielding a compact Riemann surface with the lattice points acting as the period lattice. Among all complex tori, this one exhibits maximal discrete symmetry, as the automorphism group of the underlying Eisenstein lattice—consisting of linear transformations preserving the lattice—is the dihedral group of order 12, generated by rotations by multiples of $60^\circ and reflections across lattice axes.^[26]^[27]^[28] Functions on this quotient space are periodic, meaning they remain invariant under translations by elements of the lattice \mathbb{Z}[\omega], which ensures well-defined behavior on the torus.^[27]

Eisenstein Series

Eisenstein series are analytic functions arising from sums over the Eisenstein lattice \mathbb{Z}[\omega], where \omega = e^{2\pi i / 3} is a primitive cube root of unity. They are defined for positive even integers $2k by

G_{2k}(\tau) = \sum_{(m,n) \in \mathbb{Z}^2 \setminus \{(0,0)\}} \frac{1}{(m + n \tau)^{2k}},

where \tau lies in the upper half-plane, and specialized to the Eisenstein case with \tau = \omega. These series converge absolutely for k > 1 and are holomorphic functions on the upper half-plane.^[29] Due to the six-fold rotational symmetry of the triangular lattice generated by $1 and \omega, the Eisenstein series G_4(\omega) vanishes: \sum_{z \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] \setminus \{0\}} z^{-4} = 0. This property reflects the equilateral nature of the lattice and corresponds to the vanishing of the Weierstrass invariant g_2 = 60 G_4 = 0 for elliptic curves with complex multiplication by \mathbb{Z}[\omega].^[30] In contrast, higher-weight series are non-zero; for example, G_6(\omega) = \sum_{z \in \mathbb{Z}[\omega] \setminus \{0\}} z^{-6} \approx 5.86303. This value can be expressed in closed form using the relation to Bernoulli numbers B_{2k} and the gamma function via the Fourier expansion of the normalized Eisenstein series E_{2k}(\tau) = G_{2k}(\tau) / (2 \zeta(2k)), where \zeta(2k) = (-1)^{k+1} B_{2k} (2\pi)^{2k} / (2 (2k)!). These series are modular forms of weight $2k for the full modular group \mathrm{SL}_2(\mathbb{Z}), transforming under \gamma = \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix} by G_{2k}(\gamma \tau) = (c\tau + d)^{2k} G_{2k}(\tau). At \tau = \omega, they connect to key invariants in the theory of elliptic curves: the j-invariant j(\omega) = 0, constructed as j(\tau) = 1728 E_4(\tau)^3 / \Delta(\tau), where \Delta(\tau) = (E_4(\tau)^3 - E_6(\tau)^2)/1728 is the discriminant, related to the Dedekind eta function by \Delta(\tau) = (2\pi)^{12} \eta(\tau)^{24}. These properties highlight the role of the Eisenstein lattice in complex multiplication and class field theory. Named after the mathematician Gotthold Eisenstein, these series were introduced in the mid-19th century as part of his investigations into elliptic functions, where they facilitated proofs of addition theorems and other fundamental properties.

References

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Eisenstein integers, named after the mathematician Ferdinand Gotthold Max Eisenstein, are complex numbers that can be expressed as α : = a + b ρ , where a and b ...
[2]
https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/2467
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Eisenstein Integer -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Eisenstein integers are complex numbers that are members of the imaginary quadratic field Q(sqrt(-3)), which is precisely the ring Z[omega].
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[PDF] Reciprocity laws and Galois representations: recent breakthroughs
Aug 5, 2015 · The analysis for x3 − 2 is similar, but involves the Eisenstein integers. Z[ω], where ω = e2πi/3. ... For an integer m ≥ 1, we have the cyclotomic ...
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[PDF] Math 6370: Algebraic Number Theory - Cornell University
May 13, 2018 · ... Z[ω] and O×. K= {±εn | n ∈ Z}. 2.2 Complex embeddings. Consider the ... typically called i, and the cyclotomic field in question is Q(i).
[6]
[PDF] 20. Cyclotomic III
Z[ω]/p ≈ (Z[x]/(x2 + x + 1))/p ≈ (Z/p)[x]/(x2 + x + 1). Since x2 +x+1 ... Since we are inside a cyclotomic field, we already know the (proto-Galois.
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[PDF] Morehead-like restrictions on Fermat divisors - Ravi Fernando
Sep 3, 2019 · ... Eisenstein integers Z[ω]; here ω is the cube root of unity e2πi/3 ... down a prime divisor π|p in some suitable cyclotomic field, where π has norm ...
[8]
(PDF) Uniqueness of roots of a cubic and proof of Fermat's last ...
The first, a proof by Leonard Euler, appeared in a book published in 1770. Euler did not establish in full a lemma required in the proof. Rebenboim [1999] ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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The 18th century can thus be truly said to be the age of Euler. Furthermore, large parts of the mathematics of the 19th century flowed out of his work. What is ...
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[PDF] on eisenstein's supplement to the law of cubic reciprocity
elements of Z[w] were used by Eisenstein (1844, 1846), in his work on cubic reciprocity and for this reason are sometimes called Eisenstein integers (for ...
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[PDF] THE 2011 T-SHIRT: CUBIC RECIPROCITY - People
The proof of cubic reciprocity, first published by Eisenstein in 1844, uses Gauss and Jacobi sums. These are examples of a general class of sums called ...
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Sep 9, 2007 · Since every integer n ≥ 3 is divisible either by an odd prime or by 4, the result of Fermat allowed one to reduce the study of Fermat's equation ...
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Feb 11, 2008 · ... Fermat's last theorem using the following ideas. Let p>2 be a prime, and suppose x, y, z are nonzero integers such that x p C yp D zp.
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[PDF] The Eisenstein integers and cubic reciprocity - Uppsala University
The Law of cubic reciprocity is first proven in Section 4.5 but is further gen- eralized throughout Section 4.6 where we also deal with the supplementary.
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Mar 6, 2020 · Analogous to the integer setting we have the following definition. Definition 4.1. ... Rosen, A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory.
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[PDF] τ-NORM-PERFECT AND τ-PERFECT EISENSTEIN INTEGERS FOR ...
Equipped with this norm, the ring of Eisenstein integers is a Euclidean domain and thus a unique factorization domain. Proposition 2.4. N is completely ...
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None
### Summary on Units of Eisenstein Integers and Cyclic Group of Order 6
[18]
None
### Summary of Norms, Units, and Associates of Eisenstein Integers
[19]
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Like the Gaussian integers, the Eisenstein integers also are a Euclidean domain. The valuation is v(a + bω) = a2 − ab + b2. The Euclidean algorithm in ...
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[PDF] Finding Factors of Factor Rings over Eisenstein Integers - m-hikari.com
In this paper we prove a few results related to the factor rings over the Eisenstein integers. In particular we show that the ring Z[ω] fac-.<|separator|>
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May 1, 2016 · These are known as the Eisenstein integers, which form a triangular lattice in the complex plane, in contrast with the Gaussian integers, Z[i] ...
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An Eisenstein integer a+bw is prime if and only if either (i) p = a^2+b^2+ab is prime and p is 0 or 1 modulo 3, or then that (ii) the square root of p is prime ...
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Eisenstein Prime -- from Wolfram MathWorld
In particular, there are three classes of Eisenstein primes (Cox 1989; Wagon 1991, p. 320):. 1. 1-omega . 2. Numbers of the form a+bomega for b=0 , and a ...
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A003627 - OEIS
Primes of this form do not occur in or as divisors of {n^2+n+1}. See A002383 (n^2+n+1 = prime), A162471 (prime divisors of n^2+n+1 not in A002383), ...
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[PDF] The Trefoil - Case Western Reserve University
The torus is abstractly. T2 ≃ C/Z[ω] (quotient of C by Eisenstein integers). 5. The curves γt may be described as images of parallel geodesics of the elliptic.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] 15 Elliptic curves over C (part 1)
Apr 2, 2015 · If we take the quotient of the complex plane C modulo a lattice L, we get a torus C/L. Note that this quotient makes sense not just as a ...
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(iii) If L is the equilateral triangular lattice in the plane, then Aut(L) is the symmetry group of the regular hexagon, which is a dihedral group of order. 12.
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For the three variants of Eisenstein series listed below, we present a definition, verify that it's well-defined and absolutely convergent, and show that it ...
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[PDF] g,_ CwJ ( 3 (8t1 (0)) 2
2 _!!__ • ~ (Eli" (0)) 2 g,_ CwJ ( 3 (8t1 (0)) 2 but for a triangular lattice g2 =0 and a = 0, and when these relations are taken into account we obtain. G ...