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Complex conjugate

In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i = \sqrt{-1} is the imaginary unit, is defined as the complex number \overline{z} = a - bi, which retains the same real part but negates the imaginary part.^[1] This operation, often denoted by an overbar or asterisk as z^*, transforms the number while preserving its magnitude, since |z| = |\overline{z}| = \sqrt{a^2 + b^2}.^[2] The complex conjugate exhibits several key algebraic properties that make it indispensable in complex number theory. It is an involution, satisfying \overline{\overline{z}} = z, and distributes over addition and multiplication: \overline{z + w} = \overline{z} + \overline{w} and \overline{zw} = \overline{z} \, \overline{w} for complex numbers z and w.^[1] Notably, the product z \overline{z} yields the real-valued squared modulus |z|^2 = a^2 + b^2, which is always non-negative and facilitates computations like division by rationalizing the denominator—multiplying numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the divisor.^[3] These properties extend to polynomials with real coefficients, where non-real roots occur in conjugate pairs, ensuring the coefficients remain real.^[4] Beyond pure mathematics, the complex conjugate finds broad applications across disciplines. In complex analysis, the real and imaginary parts of a complex-valued function f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) can be expressed using the function and its conjugate, and it plays a role in the study of analytic functions through concepts like Wirtinger derivatives, which are linked to the Cauchy-Riemann equations.^[5] In physics and engineering, particularly electrical engineering, it is crucial for phasor analysis in alternating current (AC) circuits, where impedances are represented as complex numbers and conjugates compute power dissipation.^[6] Additionally, in quantum mechanics, the conjugate appears in inner products of wave functions to ensure observables are real-valued Hermitian operators.^[7]

Basic Concepts

Definition

In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit satisfying i^2 = -1, is defined as \bar{z} = a - bi.^[2]^[8] This operation preserves the real part a while negating the imaginary part b, effectively flipping the sign of the coefficient of i.^[9]^[10] The concept of the complex conjugate arises naturally in the context of polynomials with real coefficients, where non-real roots must occur in conjugate pairs to ensure the coefficients remain real.^[11]^[12] For instance, it plays a key role in solving quadratic equations that yield complex roots, as the roots of such equations with real coefficients are either both real or a complex number and its conjugate.^[11] A representative example is the complex number $3 + 4i, whose conjugate is $3 - 4i. For a real number, such as $5 + 0i, the conjugate is the number itself, $5, since the imaginary part is zero.^[2]^[13]

Notation

The primary notation for the complex conjugate of a complex number z is \bar{z}, where the horizontal overline, or vinculum, is placed directly above the variable to indicate the operation of changing the sign of the imaginary part while keeping the real part unchanged.^[1] This notation has become standard in mathematical literature, distinguishing it from other uses of overlines, such as denoting repeating decimals or arithmetic means, by its precise positioning over a single symbol or short expression.^[1] An alternative notation, z^*, employs a superscript asterisk and is commonly used in physics and engineering contexts, particularly for denoting Hermitian conjugates in quantum mechanics and linear algebra.^[1]^[14] In pure mathematics, the overline \bar{z} prevails, while the asterisk form z^* dominates in applied fields to align with conventions for adjoint operators and complex-valued functions.^[1] Historical variants, such as a prime symbol z', have appeared in early 20th-century texts but are now largely obsolete in favor of these two dominant forms.^[9] For typesetting, especially in digital mathematical documents, the overline is rendered in LaTeX using the command \bar{z} for a single variable, ensuring the bar spans appropriately without extending unnecessarily, which helps prevent ambiguity with broader overlines used for other purposes like grouping or limits.^[15] For expressions involving multiple terms, such as \overline{3 + 4i}, the full overline \overline{\cdot} is applied to the entire complex number, yielding \overline{3 + 4i} = 3 - 4i, illustrating how the notation visually and operationally reflects the conjugation process.^[1]

Properties

Algebraic Properties

The complex conjugate operation on the complex numbers \mathbb{C} satisfies several fundamental algebraic properties that align it with the field structure of \mathbb{C}. For a complex number z = a + bi where a, b \in \mathbb{R} and i^2 = -1, the conjugate is defined as \bar{z} = a - bi. This operation is \mathbb{R}-linear, meaning \overline{z + w} = \bar{z} + \bar{w} for all z, w \in \mathbb{C}, and \overline{c z} = c \bar{z} for all real scalars c \in \mathbb{R} and z \in \mathbb{C}. To see the additivity, expand \overline{(z + w)} = \overline{(a + c) + (b + d)i} = (a + c) - (b + d)i = (a - bi) + (c - di) = \bar{z} + \bar{w}, where z = a + bi and w = c + di. Similarly, for scalar multiplication, \overline{c(a + bi)} = \overline{ca + cbi} = ca - cbi = c(a - bi) = c \bar{z}, confirming \mathbb{R}-linearity.^[16]^[17] The conjugate also respects multiplication: \overline{z w} = \bar{z} \bar{w} for all z, w \in \mathbb{C}. Proof follows from direct computation: if z = a + bi and w = c + di, then z w = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i, so \overline{z w} = (ac - bd) - (ad + bc)i. On the other hand, \bar{z} \bar{w} = (a - bi)(c - di) = (ac - (-b)d) + (-a d + (-b)c)i = (ac + bd) - (ad + bc)i, wait no—correcting the expansion: actually, (a - bi)(c - di) = ac - a di - b c i + b d i^2 = ac - adi - bci - bd = (ac - bd) - (ad + bc)i, matching \overline{z w}. This multiplicative property extends to powers: for positive integer n, \overline{z^n} = (\bar{z})^n. This holds by induction, as the base case n=1 is trivial, and assuming it for n = k, then \overline{z^{k+1}} = \overline{z^k z} = \overline{z^k} \bar{z} = (\bar{z})^k \bar{z} = (\bar{z})^{k+1}.^[18]^[16] A key identity is the expression for the modulus squared: |z|^2 = z \bar{z} for all z \in \mathbb{C}. Expanding, if z = a + bi, then z \bar{z} = (a + bi)(a - bi) = a^2 - a bi + a b i - b^2 i^2 = a^2 + b^2, which is the square of the Euclidean norm \sqrt{a^2 + b^2}, hence |z|^2 = a^2 + b^2 \in \mathbb{R}_{\geq 0}. The conjugate is idempotent: \overline{\bar{z}} = z for all z \in \mathbb{C}, as applying the definition twice yields \overline{a - bi} = a + bi = z. For invertibility, if z \neq 0, the conjugate of the inverse satisfies \overline{1/z} = 1/\bar{z}. To verify, note that $1/z = \bar{z} / |z|^2, so \overline{1/z} = \overline{\bar{z} / |z|^2} = z / |z|^2 = 1/\bar{z}, since |z|^2 is real and \overline{\bar{z}} = z.^[19]^[2] As an example, consider z = 1 + i. Then z^2 = (1 + i)^2 = 1 + 2i + i^2 = 1 + 2i - 1 = 2i, so \bar{z}^2 = \overline{2i} = -2i. Alternatively, \bar{z} = 1 - i, and (\bar{z})^2 = (1 - i)^2 = 1 - 2i + i^2 = 1 - 2i - 1 = -2i, confirming the power rule. These properties underpin the algebraic structure of \mathbb{C} as a field with conjugation acting as an automorphism over \mathbb{R}.^[20]

Geometric Properties

In the Argand plane, where complex numbers are represented as points with the real part along the horizontal axis and the imaginary part along the vertical axis, the complex conjugate \bar{z} of a complex number z = x + iy is the point obtained by reflecting z across the real axis, resulting in \bar{z} = x - iy.^[9] This reflection symmetry positions \bar{z} as the mirror image of z over the x-axis, preserving the distance from the origin while flipping the sign of the imaginary coordinate.^[21] Visually, if z lies in the upper half-plane (positive imaginary part), \bar{z} appears directly below it in the lower half-plane at the same horizontal position, illustrating the conjugate's role in bilateral symmetry with respect to the real axis.^[22] This conjugation operation acts as an isometry of the complex plane, preserving distances between points such that |z - w| = |\bar{z} - \bar{w}| for any complex numbers z and w.^[23] As a reflection, it maintains the Euclidean metric without distortion, ensuring that geometric configurations remain congruent under conjugation. The real and imaginary parts of z can be extracted geometrically via averages: \operatorname{Re}(z) = \frac{z + \bar{z}}{2} and \operatorname{Im}(z) = \frac{z - \bar{z}}{2i}, where the midpoint between z and \bar{z} lies on the real axis for the real part, and the perpendicular bisector relates to the imaginary part.^[24] The argument of the conjugate satisfies \arg(\bar{z}) = -\arg(z) modulo $2\pi, reflecting the angular reversal across the real axis in polar representation.^[25] Furthermore, the squared modulus |z|^2 = z \bar{z} corresponds to the squared Euclidean distance from the origin to the point z, emphasizing the conjugate's role in computing radial metrics.^[9] For example, consider z = 1 + i, which plots at the point (1, 1) in the Argand plane; its conjugate \bar{z} = 1 - i is at (1, -1), symmetric across the real axis, with both points at a distance \sqrt{2} from the origin.^[9]

Applications

In Algebra

In algebraic contexts, the complex conjugate plays a fundamental role in the study of polynomials with real coefficients. The complex conjugate root theorem states that if a polynomial with real coefficients has a non-real complex root r = a + bi where b \neq 0, then its complex conjugate \bar{r} = a - bi is also a root.^[26] This theorem implies that non-real roots occur in conjugate pairs, ensuring the roots are closed under conjugation. For example, the polynomial z^2 + 1 = 0 has roots i and -i, which form a conjugate pair.^[26] This pairing extends to Vieta's formulas, which relate polynomial coefficients to symmetric functions of the roots. For a quadratic equation a z^2 + b z + c = 0 with real coefficients a \neq 0, b, c, if the roots are the conjugate pair r and \bar{r}, the sum of the roots is r + \bar{r} = 2 \operatorname{Re}(r) = -b/a.^[27] The product of the roots is r \bar{r} = |r|^2 = c/a, which is positive for non-real roots (assuming a > 0).^[27] These relations highlight how conjugation preserves the real structure of the coefficients. The conjugate root theorem also facilitates factoring polynomials over the real numbers. The minimal polynomial over \mathbb{R} for a non-real root r is the quadratic factor (z - r)(z - \bar{r}) = [z - \operatorname{Re}(r)]^2 + [\operatorname{Im}(r)]^2, which has real coefficients and is irreducible over \mathbb{R}. Thus, any polynomial with real coefficients factors completely into linear and quadratic factors over \mathbb{R}, with the quadratics corresponding to conjugate pairs.^[26] In field theory, complex conjugation induces an automorphism \sigma: \mathbb{C} \to \mathbb{C} defined by \sigma(z) = \bar{z}, which fixes the base field \mathbb{R} pointwise.^[28] This \sigma is the unique non-trivial element of the Galois group \operatorname{Gal}(\mathbb{C}/\mathbb{R}), which has order 2 and is isomorphic to \mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}.^[28] Historically, Carl Friedrich Gauss employed complex conjugates in his foundational work on cyclotomic polynomials during the early 1800s, as explored in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801), where they helped analyze the irreducibility and roots of unity.^[29]

In Analysis

In complex analysis, the complex conjugate plays a fundamental role in characterizing the differentiability and analytic properties of functions. A function f defined on an open set in the complex plane is holomorphic if it is complex differentiable at every point in its domain. If f is holomorphic, then the composition \overline{f(\bar{z})} is anti-holomorphic, meaning it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations with respect to \bar{z} rather than z, and thus is differentiable with respect to \bar{z} but not with respect to z.^[30] In contrast, the function f(\bar{z}) is generally neither holomorphic nor anti-holomorphic unless f has special symmetry.^[30] For example, consider f(z) = z^2, which is holomorphic everywhere; its pointwise conjugate is \bar{f}(z) = \bar{z}^2, while f(\bar{z}) = \bar{z}^2, showing that the two operations coincide in this case but differ for functions like f(z) = z + \bar{z}, where holomorphy fails.^[31] The Schwarz reflection principle leverages complex conjugation to extend holomorphic functions across the real axis. Specifically, if f is holomorphic in the upper half-plane and continuous up to the real axis with real values on the real axis, then it extends to a holomorphic function in the lower half-plane by defining f(\bar{z}) = \overline{f(z)} for z in the lower half-plane.^[32] This reflection symmetry preserves holomorphy across the boundary and is particularly useful for analytic continuation of real-analytic functions, enabling the study of symmetric domains like the unit disk punctured at the origin.^[32] The principle arises from the identity theorem for holomorphic functions and the fact that conjugation maps holomorphic functions to their reflected versions without introducing singularities on the axis of symmetry.^[32] Complex conjugates also appear in contour integrals, where the integral \int_C \overline{f(z)} \, dz of a holomorphic f is generally not zero, unlike \int_C f(z) \, dz = 0 by Cauchy's theorem, because conjugation disrupts holomorphy.^[33] However, such integrals are valuable for computing real-valued quantities, such as areas enclosed by curves via \int_C \bar{z} \, dz = 2i \times \text{area}, linking complex analysis to Green's theorem and applications in fluid dynamics or electromagnetism.^[33] For power series representations, if f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n z^n with real coefficients a_n, the complex conjugate is \overline{f(z)} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n \bar{z}^n, reflecting the series' convergence in the conjugate variable.^[34] More generally, for complex coefficients, \overline{f(z)} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \bar{a}_n \bar{z}^n, preserving the radius of convergence but altering the analytic continuation properties.^[34] This conjugation rule facilitates the analysis of series solutions to differential equations with real coefficients, where roots come in conjugate pairs. In Fourier analysis on the complex plane or unit circle, complex conjugates ensure the inner product is Hermitian positive-definite, defined as \langle f, g \rangle = \int f(z) \overline{g(z)} \, dz over a suitable domain.^[35] This sesquilinear form, linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear in the second, underpins orthogonality of Fourier basis functions like e^{inz} and enables Parseval's identity for energy preservation in signal processing.^[35] The residue theorem often employs conjugates when evaluating integrals over symmetric contours, such as semicircles in the upper half-plane. If f(\bar{z}) = \overline{f(z)} on the real axis, the contributions from the conjugate contour in the lower half-plane are the complex conjugates of the upper ones, simplifying principal value computations for real integrals like \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{\sin x}{x} \, dx = \pi.^[36] This symmetry reduces the problem to residues in one half-plane, enhancing efficiency for improper integrals with even or odd integrands.^[36]

Generalizations

To Other Number Systems

The concept of conjugation extends naturally from the complex numbers to higher-dimensional hypercomplex number systems, particularly division algebras, where it plays a role in defining norms and facilitating algebraic operations. William Rowan Hamilton introduced quaternions in 1843 as a four-dimensional extension of the complex numbers, motivated by the need to represent three-dimensional rotations while preserving a multiplicative norm.^[37] In this system, a quaternion q is expressed as q = a + bi + cj + dk, where a, b, c, d \in \mathbb{R} and i, j, k are the standard imaginary units satisfying i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = ijk = -1. The conjugate \bar{q} is defined by flipping the signs of the imaginary parts: \bar{q} = a - bi - cj - dk.^[38] This operation ensures that the product q \bar{q} equals the squared norm |q|^2 = a^2 + b^2 + c^2 + d^2, which is a positive real number, analogous to the complex case.^[38] For example, the conjugate of i + j is -i - j, and the norm computation yields (i + j)(-i - j) = i(-i) + i(-j) + j(-i) + j(-j) = 1 + k - k + 1 = 2.^[39] The conjugation map on quaternions acts as an anti-automorphism, meaning \overline{q_1 q_2} = \bar{q_2} \bar{q_1} for any quaternions q_1, q_2, which reverses the order of multiplication and distinguishes it from an automorphism.^[40] This property arises from the non-commutative nature of quaternion multiplication and is essential for inverting elements via q^{-1} = \bar{q} / |q|^2.^[40] The pattern continues with octonions, an eight-dimensional division algebra constructed via the Cayley-Dickson process from quaternions. An octonion o can be written as o = a + b e_1 + c e_2 + d e_3 + e e_4 + f e_5 + g e_6 + h e_7, where a, b, \dots, h \in \mathbb{R} and e_1, \dots, e_7 are imaginary basis units with specific multiplication rules. The canonical conjugate \bar{o} flips the signs of all imaginary components: \bar{o} = a - b e_1 - c e_2 - \dots - h e_7.^[41] As with quaternions, o \bar{o} = |o|^2 yields a real norm a^2 + b^2 + \dots + h^2, enabling division.^[41] However, octonions are non-associative, so (o_1 o_2) o_3 \neq o_1 (o_2 o_3) in general, which complicates the algebraic structure despite the preserved conjugation form.^[42] While conjugation is well-defined in these specific systems, it lacks a universal form in more general structures like Clifford algebras without additional specifications, such as grade involutions or reverses, to ensure compatibility with the quadratic form.^[43] In Clifford algebras, the standard conjugate often involves reversing the order of vector factors, differing from the simple sign flip in division algebras.^[43]

In Higher Dimensions

In higher dimensions, the notion of complex conjugation extends naturally to vectors in \mathbb{C}^n. For a vector \mathbf{z} = (z_1, \dots, z_n) \in \mathbb{C}^n, the conjugate vector is defined componentwise as \bar{\mathbf{z}} = (\bar{z_1}, \dots, \bar{z_n}), where each \bar{z_i} is the complex conjugate of z_i.^[44] This operation preserves the vector space structure over \mathbb{C} and is antilinear, meaning \overline{\alpha \mathbf{z}} = \bar{\alpha} \bar{\mathbf{z}} for \alpha \in \mathbb{C}.^[45] A key application arises in the definition of inner products on complex vector spaces, which are sesquilinear forms. The standard inner product on \mathbb{C}^n is given by \langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w} \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^n z_i \bar{w_i}, which is linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear (antilinear) in the second.^[46] This ensures the inner product is Hermitian symmetric, \langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w} \rangle = \overline{\langle \mathbf{w}, \mathbf{z} \rangle}, and positive definite for norms, \langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{z} \rangle \geq 0 with equality only if \mathbf{z} = \mathbf{0}.^[44] For matrices over \mathbb{C}, conjugation generalizes to the conjugate transpose, also known as the Hermitian adjoint. For an m \times n matrix A = (a_{ij}), the conjugate transpose A^* = \bar{A}^T is obtained by first taking the complex conjugate of each entry to form \bar{A} = (\bar{a}_{ij}) and then transposing to get (A^*)_{ij} = \bar{a}_{ji}.^[47] A matrix A is Hermitian if A = A^*, meaning its entries satisfy \bar{a}_{ji} = a_{ij}, so the diagonal entries are real and off-diagonal entries are complex conjugates of each other across the main diagonal.^[48] For example, consider the matrix

A = \begin{pmatrix} 1+i & 2 \\ 3 & 4-i \end{pmatrix}.

Its conjugate is

\bar{A} = \begin{pmatrix} 1-i & 2 \\ 3 & 4+i \end{pmatrix},

and the conjugate transpose is

A^* = \begin{pmatrix} 1-i & 3 \\ 2 & 4+i \end{pmatrix}.

Here, A \neq A^*, so A is not Hermitian.^[49] More generally, sesquilinear forms on a complex vector space V extend the bilinear forms of real vector spaces by incorporating conjugation. A sesquilinear form B: V \times V \to \mathbb{C} is linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear in the second, satisfying B(\alpha \mathbf{u} + \beta \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) = \alpha B(\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{w}) + \beta B(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) and B(\mathbf{u}, \alpha \mathbf{v} + \beta \mathbf{w}) = \bar{\alpha} B(\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}) + \bar{\beta} B(\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{w}) for \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{C}.^[50] Hermitian inner products are a special case of positive-definite sesquilinear forms.^[51] Geometrically, when viewing \mathbb{C}^n as \mathbb{R}^{2n} via the identification (x_1 + i y_1, \dots, x_n + i y_n) \mapsto (x_1, y_1, \dots, x_n, y_n), complex conjugation corresponds to reflection across the real hyperplane \mathbb{R}^n \times \{\mathbf{0}\}^n. This is an isometry that fixes real vectors and reverses the imaginary components, analogous to reflection over the real axis in the plane for n=1.^[52] In quantum mechanics, from a mathematical perspective, state vectors in a complex Hilbert space use conjugation in inner products to compute probabilities: the probability of measuring outcome corresponding to state \mathbf{w} from state \mathbf{z} is |\langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w} \rangle|^2 = \langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w} \rangle \overline{\langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w} \rangle}, ensuring real, non-negative values between 0 and 1.^[53]

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[PDF] Quaternions∗ - Iowa State University
Sep 24, 2024 · The development of quaternions is attributed to W. R. Hamilton [5] in 1843. ... The inverse of a quaternion q is defined as q−1 = q∗. |q|2.
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[PDF] Quaternionic groups
Nov 5, 2014 · There is an algebra anti- automorphism of the quaternions given by a + bi + cj + dk = a − bi − cj − dk, h1h2 = h2h1. (0.1e). A right ...
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Octonions - Oregon State University
Octonionic conjugation is given by reversing the sign of the imaginary basis units. ... (b*a + a*b)/2. Finally, the norm of an octonion is just |a|2 = aa* which ...
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octonion in nLab
Oct 16, 2025 · Octonions are a non-associative real star-algebra, similar to complex numbers and quaternions, with seven imaginary units, and are the Cayley- ...Definition · Properties · Left multiplication by imaginary... · Basic triples
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[PDF] Math 210C. Clifford algebras and spin groups
Hence, conjugation on the Clifford algebra also restricts to an anti-automorphism of the Clifford group. On the classical Clifford algebras C1 = C and C2 ...
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[PDF] Complex inner products (6.7 supplement) - UMD MATH
Recall that if z = a + bi then z = a − bi is the complex conjugate of z. We alter the definition of inner product by taking complex conjugate sometimes.Missing: Fourier | Show results with:Fourier
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[PDF] Norm and inner products in Cn, and abstract inner product spaces
In summary, complex inner products are not bi- linear, but they are linear in the first argument and conjugate linear in the second argument. Abstract linear ...
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[PDF] Complex Inner Product Spaces 1 The definition
A complex inner product ⟨x|y⟩ is linear in y and conjugate linear in x. Definition 1 A complex inner product space is a vector space V over the field C of.
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[PDF] unitary-and-hermitian-matrices.pdf
Nov 24, 2014 · Definition. If A is a complex matrix, A∗ is the conjugate transpose of A: A∗ = AT . Note that the conjugation and ...
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[PDF] Chapter 9. Complex Scalars
Apr 13, 2018 · (1) The conjugate of A is the m × n matrix A = [aij]. (2) The conjugate transpose (or Hermitian adjoint) of A is the n × n matrix A∗ = [aij]T .
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[PDF] 8.7 Complex Matrices
Jul 8, 2020 · The so-called funda- mental theorem of algebra ensures that every polynomial of positive degree with complex coefficients has a complex root.
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[PDF] Inner Product Spaces - Branko Curgus
Mar 7, 2017 · A function [·,·] : V × V → F is a sesquilinear form on V if the following two conditions are satisfied. (a) (linearity in the first variable) ∀ ...
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[PDF] Lecture 5.9: Complex inner product spaces
Just like how we abstracted the dot product to a real inner product, we can abstract the complex dot product to a complex inner product.Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis<|separator|>
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246A, Notes 0: the complex numbers - Terence Tao - WordPress.com
Sep 18, 2016 · Geometrically, complex conjugation is the operation of reflection in the complex plane across the real axis. It is clearly an involution in ...
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[PDF] 1 Vectors over the complex numbers - University of Oregon
Oct 5, 2011 · For quantum mechanics, we use a vector space V over the complex numbers that has an inner product. For any two vectors ψ and φ, the inner ...