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Elam Ending

The Elam Ending is a basketball rules format that replaces traditional time-based game conclusions with a target-score system to eliminate late-game fouling, stalling, and clock manipulation, ensuring every contest ends on a made field goal.^[1] Invented by educational leadership professor Nick Elam in 2007 after analyzing over 2,000 professional and college games to address the inefficiency of trailing teams fouling to stop the clock, the format stops the game clock at the first dead ball with under four minutes remaining in the fourth quarter (or at the end of the third quarter in some exhibitions).^[2] A target score is then set by adding a predetermined number of points—typically eight in The Basketball Tournament (TBT) or 24 in NBA All-Star Games, reflecting the average points scored in a standard four-minute span—to the leading team's score at that moment, with play continuing until one team reaches or exceeds it.^[3] First implemented in TBT's single-elimination, $1 million winner-take-all event in 2017, where it has been a core rule ever since, the Elam Ending gained widespread acclaim after its debut in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game in Chicago, where Team LeBron defeated Team Giannis 157-155 by reaching the target score of 157, set by adding 24 points to honor Kobe Bryant's jersey number 24.^[4] Its adoption expanded to leagues including the NBA G League (for overtime since the 2022–23 season, adding seven points, and showcase games adding 25 points, as of the 2025–26 season), the Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL, since 2020 and ongoing as of 2025), and college exhibitions, though it was discontinued for NBA All-Star Games after 2023; it is praised for increasing excitement, promoting continuous play without altering the game's fundamental strategy earlier on.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Format and Rules

Core Mechanics

The Elam Ending is a target-score format designed to conclude basketball games by eliminating the game clock in the final minutes, thereby discouraging stalling and intentional fouling. In this system, the game clock is stopped at the first dead ball with four minutes or less remaining in the fourth quarter, after which teams continue play without a game clock but must reach or exceed a predetermined target score to win.^[8] This approach was first implemented in The Basketball Tournament (TBT) in 2017 to promote continuous action and more decisive endings.^[9] To prevent stalling during the untimed portion, the shot clock remains enforced at the standard 24 seconds, ensuring teams advance the ball and attempt shots promptly.^[8] The target score is typically set by adding eight points to the leading team's score at the moment the clock stops—for instance, if the score is 70-63, the target becomes 78 for both teams.^[8] The first team to score enough points to reach or surpass this target wins the game, regardless of the time elapsed or the margin of victory.^[3] In implementations such as TBT, fouls during the Elam Ending are handled with modifications to further deter intentional disruptions. For non-shooting fouls committed while a team is in the bonus, the offended team receives one free throw and retains possession, avoiding a change of possession that could reward fouling.^[4] This rule was adjusted in TBT's 2020 edition to award only one free throw instead of two, reducing the incentive for trailing teams to foul when an opponent is close to the target score via a potential three-pointer.^[4] Shooting fouls continue under standard basketball rules, awarding the appropriate free throws based on the foul's location.^[8] Other leagues, such as the NBA G League, follow standard basketball foul rules during Elam Ending periods.

Target Score Determination

In the Elam Ending format, the target score is calculated by adding a predetermined margin to the score of the leading team at the moment of activation, with the first team to reach or exceed this total declared the winner.^[3] The activation timing varies by implementation: in regulation games such as those in TBT, it occurs at the first dead ball when the game clock reads under four minutes remaining in the fourth quarter, at which point the game clock is stopped permanently while the shot clock continues to operate; in overtime for the NBA G League, the period begins untimed from the start.^[10]^[5] In certain exhibitions, such as the NBA All-Star Game or G League Winter Showcase, activation may occur at the end of the third quarter.^[11] This timing ensures the format applies to the final stages without disrupting earlier play.^[5] If the score is tied at activation, the target score is set by adding the same margin to the tied score, maintaining symmetry between the teams.^[12] For example, in implementations where the margin is eight points, a 75-75 tie would result in a target of 83.^[3] In overtime scenarios, such as those adopted by the NBA G League starting in the 2022-23 season and continuing as of the 2025-26 season, the target score is determined immediately after the end of regulation by adding seven points to the tied score, with the game clock off from the start of overtime.^[10]^[13] This seven-point margin was selected to extend overtime beyond approximately two possessions on average.^[5] Specific margins vary by league and event to suit game length and context. In The Basketball Tournament (TBT), the margin evolved from seven points in 2018 to eight points starting in 2019, aiming to balance excitement and duration.^[14] The Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL) uses a standard nine-point margin.^[15] Notably, the 2020 NBA All-Star Game employed a 24-point margin added to the leading team's score after three quarters, as a tribute to Kobe Bryant's jersey number.^[11]

History and Development

Invention in The Basketball Tournament

The Elam Ending was refined and pitched by Dr. Nick Elam, an assistant professor of educational leadership at Ball State University, during 2016 and 2017. Elam, a lifelong basketball enthusiast and Mensa member, developed the format to address late-game issues in basketball, such as intentional fouling and clock manipulation, which he believed disrupted the natural flow and excitement of play. Drawing from data analysis of NBA and college games, Elam proposed a hybrid duration model where timed play transitions to a target score finish, ensuring games conclude with made shots rather than free throws or buzzer-beaters tied to the clock. He pitched the idea via email to Jon Mugar, founder of The Basketball Tournament (TBT), who recognized its potential to enhance the event's single-elimination intensity.^[16]^[17] The format debuted in TBT's 2017 play-in Jamboree games, a preliminary round to determine final qualifiers, where it was tested in six contests. These initial implementations replaced the final four minutes of timed play with a target score set at the leading team's score plus seven points, eliminating deliberate fouls and resulting in more dynamic endings. Encouraged by the positive reception, including dramatic finishes like uKnighted's comeback against Silver Spring's Willows Runners, TBT adopted the Elam Ending league-wide starting in 2018 for all 64 games in its $1 million winner-take-all tournament.^[18]^[19] In TBT, the Elam Ending is integrated into 9-minute quarter games, with the clock stopping at the first dead ball under four minutes remaining in the fourth quarter to set the target score at the leader's total plus eight points (adjusted from plus seven in 2018 to promote quicker resolutions after 2018 data showed games averaging over 3.5 minutes post-Elam). This structure scales with tournament progression: early rounds like the Round of 64 often see targets around 64-70 points based on typical scores at the switch, while later stages build higher due to escalating intensity. As of the 2025 edition, TBT continues to feature the format prominently, with alumni teams from programs like Louisville (The Ville), Indiana (Assembly Ball), and Wichita State (Aftershocks) competing under these rules.^[14]^[3]^[20] The Elam Ending has significantly boosted TBT's appeal, contributing to a 17% increase in TV ratings since its full adoption and fostering high-stakes excitement without clock-related stalling. Notable dramatic finishes, such as the 2025 championship where the Aftershocks secured the $1 million prize with a buzzer-beating Elam Ender against Eberlein Drive, exemplify how the format delivers walk-off moments that captivate audiences. By prioritizing continuous play and strategic scoring, it has solidified TBT's reputation for innovative, edge-of-your-seat basketball.^[17]^[21]

Expansion to Professional Leagues

The Elam Ending gained prominence in professional basketball with its debut in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game, where the National Basketball Association implemented the format as a tribute to Kobe Bryant by setting the target score at plus 24 points to the leading team's total after three quarters.^[17]^[3] This untimed fourth quarter aimed to eliminate late-game fouling and promote competitive play, and the format was retained for the All-Star Games from 2020 to 2023. The NBA discontinued the Elam Ending after 2023, reverting to a traditional East vs. West format for the 2024 All-Star Game. For 2025, the league opted for a new mini-tournament format featuring four teams in semifinal and final matchups, each played to a target of 40 points without the Elam structure.^[7]^[22]^[23]^[24] The Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL) became the first professional league to adopt the Elam Ending league-wide during its 2020 Summer Series, a condensed tournament held amid the COVID-19 pandemic, using a target score of plus 9 points to the leader at the final stoppage under four minutes in the fourth quarter.^[25] In 2021, the CEBL made the format permanent for all regular-season and playoff games, rebranding it as "Target Score Time" while maintaining the plus-9 target to foster dramatic finishes.^[26] The league continued this implementation through the 2025 season, with teams like the Winnipeg Sea Bears hiring Elam Ending creator Nick Elam as a strategist to optimize end-game tactics under the rules.^[6]^[27] The NBA G League introduced the Elam Ending for overtime periods in the 2022-23 season, setting a target score of plus 7 points to the leading team's total at the end of regulation to extend play beyond typical short overtimes and reduce fouling incentives.^[10]^[28] The format expanded to the league's Winter Showcase in 2023, where games after three quarters used a target of plus 25 points in an untimed final period to heighten intensity in the annual event.^[5]^[29] In women's professional basketball, the inaugural 2025 season of the Unrivaled 3-on-3 League adopted the Elam Ending for all games, establishing a target score of plus 11 points to the leader after three periods in its fast-paced, half-court format co-founded by WNBA stars Napheesa Collier and Breanna Stewart.^[30]^[31] This implementation emphasized continuous action without a game clock in the final period, contributing to engaging finishes throughout the January-to-March schedule.^[32] Beyond these adoptions, the Elam Ending saw limited trials in college basketball exhibitions during the 2019-2020 season, such as experimental games among NCAA teams, but no major conferences implemented it for regular play.^[17] As of 2025, discussions persisted regarding potential use in the NBA regular season to address end-game strategies, though no implementation occurred.^[33]

Variations and Adaptations

Basketball-Specific Variations

In basketball leagues adopting the Elam Ending, variations in target score margins reflect adjustments to game pace and competitive balance. The Basketball Tournament (TBT) sets the target by adding 8 points to the leading team's score at the first stoppage with 4 minutes or less remaining in the fourth quarter.^[3] The Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL) uses a +9 margin under similar timing conditions, as seen in its example where a 77-71 score leads to a target of 86.^[26] In contrast, the NBA G League applies a +7 margin exclusively in overtime, where the target is added to the tied regulation score to extend play beyond typical possessions without a clock.^[5]^[10] These implementations differ in scope to suit league formats and objectives. TBT and CEBL integrate the Elam Ending across full games, transitioning from timed play to target score pursuit late in regulation to eliminate clock manipulation throughout high-stakes contests.^[3]^[26] The G League limits it to overtime periods only, preserving standard rules for regulation while using the format to resolve ties in a more dynamic manner.^[5] The NBA employed it as an exhibition feature in All-Star Games from 2020 to 2023, applying the target score after three quarters to prioritize entertainment over traditional overtime.^[34] Foul rules under the Elam Ending are adapted to discourage intentional infractions while maintaining flow, particularly in modified settings. In the NBA All-Star Games, non-shooting fouls awarded one free throw plus possession to the offended team, with technical fouls granting a bonus free throw to incentivize clean play during the target score phase.^[35] Unrivaled, a 3-on-3 women's league launched in 2025, adjusts for its condensed full-court format by awarding only one free throw per foul—regardless of shot type—during the Elam Ending fourth quarter, reducing stoppages in fast-paced half-court-like transitions.^[36]^[37] As of 2025, Unrivaled has integrated the Elam Ending into its core structure for the "winning score" quarter following three seven-minute periods, setting the target by adding 11 points to the leading team's score and enhancing excitement.^[38]^[30] TBT maintained its established +8 margin and full-game application unchanged for the 2025 edition, even with increased emphasis on college alumni teams competing in the single-elimination bracket.^[8]^[39]

Adaptations in Other Sports

In The Soccer Tournament (TST), launched in 2023 as an extension of The Basketball Tournament by TBT Enterprises, the Elam Ending concept has been adapted into a format called Target Score Time to ensure decisive conclusions without overtime or penalty shootouts.^[40]^[41] TST matches feature 7v7 play on a reduced-size field during two 20-minute halves. Upon the full-time whistle, if no tie exists, a target score is established by adding one goal to the leading team's total—for instance, a 3-2 score sets the target at four goals—while tied games use a predetermined target based on total goals scored.^[42]^[43] The clock is stopped, and teams compete in an untimed period until one reaches the target via a game-winning goal. To escalate intensity and create space on the field, one player per team is removed every three minutes, reducing the matchup from 7v7 to 6v6, then 5v5, 4v4, and further if needed, until the target is met.^[44]^[45] This player-reduction mechanic, absent in basketball's Elam Ending, emphasizes rapid transitions and higher-pressure defending while preserving the core target-score principle to maintain continuous action and eliminate clock manipulation.^[3] Beyond soccer, the Elam Ending has inspired conceptual extensions to sports like baseball and hockey, where target-score finishes could replace ties or extra periods—for example, by setting a run target after mid-innings in baseball or a goal target post-regulation in hockey—but these remain theoretical without formal trials or adoptions as of 2025.^[46] Such ideas highlight the format's potential versatility in promoting conclusive, high-stakes endings across disciplines, though adaptations prioritize sport-specific elements like player numbers in soccer over pure scoring thresholds.

Reception and Impact

Advantages and Benefits

The Elam Ending eliminates end-game stalling tactics and intentional fouling strategies, such as the "hack-a-player" approach, by removing the game clock in the final stretch and replacing it with a target score, thereby promoting uninterrupted, continuous play throughout the conclusion of contests.^[14] In implementations like The Basketball Tournament (TBT), deliberate fouling dropped dramatically to just 1.4% of games in 2018 and 0% in 2019, compared to 61.8% in traditional formats the prior year, allowing teams to focus on genuine basketball action rather than clock management.^[14] This shift also reduces clock-related controversies, with zero late-game malfunctions or reviews reported in the Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL) during its 2020 season using the format.^[26] The format significantly heightens excitement by fostering dramatic finishes, as evidenced by TBT data where approximately 20-27% of games from 2018 to 2019 concluded with high-pressure free throws, and 36.6% in 2018 ended on three-pointers, compared to 46% of traditional games stalling out with the leading team in possession.^[14] The 2020 NBA All-Star Game, which adopted the Elam Ending, generated widespread praise for its playoff-like intensity and thrilling conclusion, with players like LeBron James highlighting the format's role in elevating effort and engagement during the exhibition.^[47] In the CEBL, where it is known as Target Score Time, the rule has drawn fans into tension-filled drama, contributing to memorable finishes and about 7% of games featuring comebacks by trailing teams entering the final stretch.^[48] Similarly, the 2025 Unrivaled women's 3x3 league's use of the Elam Ending has been promoted for creating electrifying, no-clock endings that amplify competitive stakes in its short-format games.^[37] The league's inaugural 2025 season, running from January to March, was widely regarded as a success, with strong viewership and social media engagement, though some games ended on free throws, sparking discussions among fans about the drama of such conclusions.^[49] Beyond immediate game flow, the Elam Ending encourages skill-based play over manipulative strategies, enhancing offensive efficiency—such as 1.18 points per possession in TBT 2019 versus 0.21 in traditional late stretches—and enabling more realistic comeback opportunities, with trailing teams winning 7.9% of 2019 TBT games after entering the Elam phase behind.^[14] This focus on merit rather than fouling or stalling holds potential for broader adoption in college and professional leagues like the NBA, where it could shorten overall game lengths by minimizing stoppages while delivering higher-quality, engaging conclusions without altering core rules elsewhere.^[16]

Criticisms and Limitations

One major criticism of the Elam Ending is that it eliminates the traditional drama associated with buzzer-beaters and clock management in the closing moments of basketball games. By turning off the game clock and replacing it with a target score, the format removes the tension of time expiring, which opponents argue diminishes the excitement of potential game-winning shots at the buzzer. For instance, in college basketball contexts, this change is seen as robbing the sport of iconic, spine-tingling finishes that have defined historic moments. Similarly, concerns have been raised that the absence of clock pressure reduces the strategic depth of end-game decisions, such as after-timeout plays under duress. Although the Elam Ending aims to reduce intentional fouling, it has introduced new strategic challenges, including adjusted fouling tactics and defensive packing in trials. This adaptation highlighted potential for defensive teams to pack the paint more aggressively without clock concerns, altering the flow of play in ways that some coaches found disruptive to natural basketball rhythms. Adoption barriers persist, particularly in high-profile leagues like the NBA, where the format has not been implemented for regular-season games as of November 2025 due to entrenched traditions around clock-based endings. In the NBA, resistance stems from preserving the familiarity of buzzer-beater spectacles and concerns over altering the core identity of professional play. College basketball has shown similar hesitation, with critiques focusing on potential inequities in overtime scenarios where team fatigue or home-court advantages might not translate evenly without a clock. Long-term evaluations reveal gaps in data, including limited evidence on fan retention following widespread use post-2023. While some implementations, such as in the Unrivaled league's 2025 season, have received generally positive reception, broader studies on sustained viewer engagement remain scarce. Discussions in sports analytics circles question the format's scalability for ultra-high-stakes environments, where the lack of time-based urgency might not replicate the intensity of playoff or championship games.

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