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Elephantidae

Elephantidae is a family of large, herbivorous mammals within the order Proboscidea, encompassing the only surviving proboscideans and recognized as the largest extant terrestrial animals.^[1]^[2] The family includes three living species: the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), all characterized by their elongated trunks, tusks derived from incisor teeth, columnar limbs, and complex social structures.^[1]^[3] Elephantidae originated in the late Miocene epoch, approximately 7–5 million years ago, with phylogenetic analyses indicating that the lineages leading to modern African and Asian elephants diverged around 4–6 million years ago, while mammoths branched from the Asian elephant line later.^[3]^[2] Fossil records reveal that Elephantidae once included diverse genera such as Mammuthus (mammoths), Palaeoloxodon, and Stegodon, which were widespread across Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas until the Pleistocene extinctions.^[2] Today, the family's members inhabit varied ecosystems, from savannas and forests in sub-Saharan Africa to grasslands and woodlands in South and Southeast Asia, where they play crucial ecological roles as ecosystem engineers by dispersing seeds, creating water holes, and shaping vegetation through browsing and uprooting trees.^[4]^[1] Physically, elephants in Elephantidae exhibit sexual dimorphism, with males reaching shoulder heights of up to 4 meters and weights exceeding 6,000 kilograms, while females are smaller; their trunks serve multifunctional roles in feeding, drinking, communication, and tool use, and their large ears aid in thermoregulation, particularly in African species.^[4] Known for high intelligence, evidenced by complex problem-solving, long-term memory, and cultural behaviors like tool modification, elephants live in matriarchal herds that foster strong familial bonds and cooperative defense strategies.^[4] Dietarily, they are strict herbivores consuming up to 150 kilograms of vegetation daily, relying on continuously growing molars adapted for grinding abrasive plant matter.^[1] Conservation challenges dominate the current status of Elephantidae, with all three species facing severe threats from habitat loss, human-elephant conflict, and poaching for ivory, leading to population declines of over 50% in the past three generations for African elephants.^[5] The African bush elephant is classified as Endangered, the African forest elephant as Critically Endangered, and the Asian elephant as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with global populations estimated at approximately 400,000 African (as of 2023) and 48,000–52,000 Asian (as of 2025) individuals.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] Efforts to protect them include international bans on ivory trade via CITES Appendix I listings and initiatives for corridor creation and anti-poaching measures, underscoring their vulnerability despite protected status in many regions.^[9]^[10]

Taxonomy and Classification

Living Species

The family Elephantidae encompasses three extant species, divided into two genera: Loxodonta and Elephas. These species are the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana), the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). All three are characterized by their large size, trunk, and tusks, though they exhibit distinct morphological adaptations to their environments.^[9] The African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana), also known as the African bush elephant, is the largest living terrestrial animal, with adult males reaching heights of up to 4 meters at the shoulder and weights exceeding 6,000 kilograms. It inhabits open savannas, grasslands, and woodlands across sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and South Africa in the east. Distinguishing features include large, fan-shaped ears for thermoregulation, outward-curving tusks, and a trunk with two finger-like extensions for grasping vegetation.^[11]^[12] In contrast, the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) is smaller, with shoulder heights typically around 2.5 meters and a more compact build suited to dense vegetation. Its habitat consists of equatorial rainforests in Central and West Africa, including the Congo Basin and parts of Gabon and Cameroon. Key traits include straighter, downward-pointing tusks, smaller and more rounded ears, and a darker skin coloration that aids camouflage in forested undergrowth. The trunk also features two finger-like projections, similar to its savanna counterpart, but the species is adapted for navigating thick foliage and browsing on fruit and leaves.^[13]^[14] The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is generally smaller than its African relatives, with males averaging 3 meters at the shoulder and weights up to 5,000 kilograms. It occupies a variety of habitats, including dry and wet forests, grasslands, and scrublands in South and Southeast Asia, ranging from India and Nepal to Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Notable differences include smaller, rounded ears, a convex back, and a trunk ending in a single finger-like projection for manipulation. Tusks are present only in males and are shorter and more parallel than those of African species.^[12] The genus name Loxodonta, established by French naturalist Frédéric Cuvier in 1825, derives from the Greek words loxos (oblique or slanting) and odous (tooth), referring to the slanted ridges on the molars that distinguish African elephants from Asian ones. Elephas, proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, originates from the ancient Greek elephas, meaning ivory or elephant, a term rooted in earlier Phoenician influences describing the animal's prized tusks. Taxonomically, the split into separate African species (L. africana and L. cyclotis) was formalized by the IUCN in 2021 based on genetic and morphological evidence, elevating the forest elephant from subspecies status.^[15]^[16]

Phylogenetic Relationships

Elephantidae represents a monophyletic family within the order Proboscidea, encompassing the living genera Elephas and Loxodonta, as well as the extinct genus Mammuthus.^[17] Cladistic analyses based on both morphological and molecular data consistently support this monophyly, with Elephantidae diverging from the sister family Mammutidae (mastodons) approximately 25-27 million years ago during the late Oligocene.^[17] This split is evidenced by complete mitochondrial genome sequencing of the American mastodon (Mammut americanum), which serves as an outgroup and highlights the deep phylogenetic separation between the two lineages.^[17] Within Elephantidae, genetic evidence from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies reveals the divergence of the African elephant genus Loxodonta from the clade containing the Asian elephant genus Elephas and the woolly mammoth Mammuthus around 5-7 million years ago in the late Miocene.^[2] This estimate is corroborated by nuclear DNA analyses, which show sequence divergence supporting a basal position for Loxodonta relative to the Elephas-Mammuthus branch.^[2] Further refinement comes from whole-genome sequencing, indicating that the intra-family splits occurred amid environmental changes in Africa, with the Elephas lineage migrating to Eurasia shortly thereafter.^[2] Subspecies within Elephas maximus exhibit notable genetic distinctiveness, as demonstrated by recent genomic studies. For instance, the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) and the Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) form distinct clades with low gene flow, reflecting geographic isolation and adaptation over the past 100,000-200,000 years.^[18] Whole-genome sequencing of wild and captive populations confirms this differentiation, with fixed genetic variants unique to each subspecies, supporting their recognition under the Endangered Species Act.^[18] Molecular clock estimates, calibrated using fossil constraints and advanced genomic data from the 2020s, provide precise timelines for these intra-family events. For example, Bayesian analyses of whole-genome sequences date the Loxodonta-Elephas split to approximately 6.0 million years ago, while subspecies divergences within Elephas are estimated at 0.17-0.5 million years ago based on mutation rates of 0.5-1.0 × 10^{-9} per site per year.^[18] These estimates integrate high-coverage sequencing from multiple individuals, enhancing resolution over earlier mtDNA-only approaches.^[2] In the broader context of Proboscidea, Elephantidae occupies a derived position as the sister group to certain extinct gomphotheres, such as Notiomastodon, with their divergence estimated at around 13.5 million years ago in the middle Miocene.^[19] Total-evidence phylogenetic analyses combining cranial morphology, dental characters, and molecular data from over 400 loci affirm this relationship, resolving Gomphotheriidae as paraphyletic with respect to Elephantidae.^[19] This configuration underscores Elephantidae's evolutionary trajectory toward modern elephant forms amid the diversification of proboscideans.^[19]

Evolutionary History

Origins and Early Evolution

The family Elephantidae traces its origins to Africa during the late Miocene, approximately 7–5 million years ago, evolving from earlier proboscideans within the order Proboscidea, which had diversified since the Eocene.^[20] A significant transition to true elephants occurred around 8 to 6 million years ago, with the appearance of the genus Primelephas in Africa. This genus, often regarded as the earliest member of Elephantidae, exhibited key innovations such as an elongated trunk for grasping vegetation and developing upper tusks for foraging and defense, distinguishing it from more primitive proboscideans like gomphotheres. Primelephas fossils, including P. thomasi and P. gomphotheroides, represent the basal lineage from which modern elephant genera (Loxodonta, Elephas, and Mammuthus) diverged around 4–6 million years ago.^[21] The emergence of Elephantidae coincided with climatic shifts toward drier conditions, prompting adaptations to terrestrial habitats. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the lineages leading to modern African and Asian elephants diverged around 4–6 million years ago, while mammoths branched from the Asian elephant line later. During the late Miocene, Elephantidae underwent rapid radiation initially in Africa before dispersing to Eurasia via land bridges in the mid-Pliocene, approximately 3.5 million years ago, with the genus Elephas leading the expansion, though the family's core diversification remained African-centered. Key fossil evidence comes from sites in Kenya, such as Lothagam and Baringo, where remains dated to approximately 7 million years ago include early elephantid molars and cranial fragments attributable to primitive forms like Stegotetrabelodon or basal Loxodonta, illustrating the family's establishment in open woodland ecosystems.^[22] These sites highlight the biogeographic expansion, with proboscideans adapting to savanna-like environments across eastern Africa. Dietary evolution during this period is evidenced by changes in tooth morphology, shifting from browsing on soft foliage in early proboscideans to mixed feeding incorporating tougher grasses and browse. Early Miocene proboscideans had low-crowned (brachyodont) teeth suited for browsing, but by the late Miocene, Elephantidae developed higher-crowned (hypsodont) molars with increased enamel folding and lophs, allowing efficient processing of abrasive vegetation as woodlands opened to grasslands.^[23] Stable isotope analyses from East African fossils confirm this transition, with carbon signatures indicating a move toward C4 grasses around 7-10 million years ago, correlating with environmental aridification.^[23]

Major Extinctions and Adaptations

During the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition, the Elephantidae family underwent significant diversification, marked by the emergence and spread of the genus Palaeoloxodon, known as straight-tusked elephants. Originating from African lineages such as Palaeoloxodon recki, this genus dispersed out of Africa into the Near East approximately 780,000 years ago, subsequently radiating into Europe and Asia. This migration contributed to a broader Pleistocene proliferation of proboscidean forms adapted to varying Eurasian environments, with Palaeoloxodon species occupying diverse habitats from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia.^[24] Ice Age conditions during the Pleistocene prompted notable adaptations among Elephantidae members, particularly in the genus Mammuthus, closely related to modern elephants within the family. Increased body size in species like the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) exemplified Bergmann's ecogeographical rule, where larger volumes relative to surface area enhanced thermoregulation by minimizing heat loss in frigid climates. Accompanying traits, such as a thick woolly coat, small ears, and subcutaneous fat for energy storage, further supported survival in glacial steppes. These physiological changes, evident in fossil records from northern latitudes, underscore the family's evolutionary flexibility amid fluctuating Quaternary climates.^[25] The Late Pleistocene witnessed a catastrophic extinction event that decimated most megafaunal Elephantidae, occurring broadly between approximately 50,000 and 10,000 years ago. This Quaternary megafauna die-off, affecting genera like Mammuthus, Palaeoloxodon, and Stegodon, resulted from synergistic pressures of rapid climate warming at the end of the last glacial period and intensified human hunting by expanding Homo sapiens populations. Fossil assemblages indicate overhunting targeted large herbivores, exacerbating habitat loss from shifting vegetation zones, leading to the collapse of proboscidean diversity across continents.^[26] Notably, only the African genus Loxodonta and the Asian genus Elephas persisted, their survival attributed to longstanding co-evolution with human ancestors in Africa and isolated refugia in Asia, respectively. Insular environments during the Pleistocene also fostered unique adaptations within Elephantidae, including dwarfism in Palaeoloxodon lineages on Mediterranean islands. The species Palaeoloxodon falconeri, endemic to Sicily and Malta, evolved to a diminutive size—shoulder height around 1 meter—likely as an energy-conserving response to limited island resources, contrasting with mainland giants. These dwarf forms persisted until the Late Pleistocene but succumbed to the same extinction wave, with evidence suggesting extinction around 10,000 years ago due to climatic shifts and possible human arrival.^[27] Fossil sites like the La Brea Tar Pits in California provide direct evidence of predator-prey dynamics involving Pleistocene Elephantidae, particularly Columbian mammoths (Mammuthus columbi). Asphalt seeps acted as natural traps, ensnaring herbivores and attracting scavengers and predators such as dire wolves (Aenocyon dirus) and saber-toothed cats (Smilodon fatalis), whose overabundant remains reflect attempts to exploit immobilized prey.^[28] Mammoth bones at the site often show bite marks and disarticulation patterns indicative of post-mortem feeding, illustrating the ecological vulnerabilities that contributed to their eventual decline.^[28]

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Anatomy

Elephantidae, the family encompassing modern elephants, exhibit distinctive morphological adaptations that support their massive size and specialized lifestyles. The trunk, a defining feature, represents a fusion of the elongated nose and upper lip, forming a multifunctional proboscis devoid of bones but richly supplied with vascular, neural, and muscular elements. This structure enables precise manipulation, olfaction, and respiration, with its prehensile tip featuring finger-like extensions for grasping. Recent anatomical reconstructions reveal the trunk's musculature as a dense array of thousands of fine fascicles—approximately 3,187 in each hemi-trunk at the tip alone—allowing for extraordinary dexterity and strength without rigid skeletal support.^[29] The tusks of elephants are elongated upper incisors that continue growing throughout life, composed primarily of dentin overlain by enamel and serving structural roles in their anatomy. In African elephants (Loxodonta), both sexes develop tusks, while in Asian elephants (Elephas), they are typically present only in males, with pronounced sexual dimorphism resulting in longer tusks in males across species. Internally, tusks feature a pulp cavity for innervation and vascularization, extending from the root to support continuous growth.^[30]^[31]^[32] Elephant dentition is adapted for processing abrasive vegetation, featuring high-crowned molars with transverse enamel ridges that facilitate grinding. These molars replace horizontally in a unique "conveyor belt" mechanism, with new teeth emerging from the back of the jaw to push forward and displace worn ones; elephants possess six sets over their lifetime—three deciduous premolars and three permanent molars—one per quadrant at a time. This serial replacement ensures prolonged functionality despite extreme wear.^[33] Skeletal features in Elephantidae are engineered to bear immense loads while permitting mobility. The legs function as pillar-like columns with straight, robust long bones to distribute weight evenly and prevent collapse under body mass exceeding several tons. The spine maintains flexibility for trunk and tail movement, contrasting with the rigid thoracic region, while the skull is disproportionately large and lightweight due to extensive pneumatic cavities and air sinuses. A key adaptation is the posterior shift of the nasal opening to the top of the skull, accommodating the trunk's attachment and elongation.^[30]^[33]^[34] The skin of elephants is notably thick, reaching up to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in areas like the back and rump, providing protection against injury and parasites while remaining sensitive to tactile stimuli. Its wrinkled texture increases surface area to retain moisture for thermoregulation, and a sparse covering of coarse, dark hairs diminishes with age, aiding in heat dissipation across species with varying body sizes.^[30]

Size, Weight, and Sexual Dimorphism

Elephantidae exhibits significant variation in size and weight among its three species, with pronounced sexual dimorphism. The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest, with adult males typically reaching a shoulder height of 2.9–3.7 meters and weighing between 4,000 and 6,000 kilograms, while females are smaller, with shoulder heights of 2.5–3.0 meters and weights ranging from 2,000 to 3,500 kilograms. The African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) is smaller, with males averaging 2.0–2.5 meters in shoulder height and 2,000–4,000 kilograms in weight, and females around 1.8–2.3 meters tall and 1,800–3,000 kilograms. In contrast, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) shows averages of 2.7 meters in shoulder height and 3,500–5,000 kilograms in weight for males, with females measuring about 2.4 meters tall and weighing 2,000–3,500 kilograms, reflecting less extreme size differences between sexes.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[35] The largest recorded African bush elephant, a historical specimen from Angola in 1955, stood at approximately 4 meters at the shoulder and weighed 12,240 kilograms, underscoring the potential upper limits of growth in optimal conditions. Sexual dimorphism in Elephantidae is evident from an early age, with males growing 10–20% larger than females by maturity, featuring bulkier heads, longer tusks in males, and a body mass that can approach double that of females in African species. In Asian elephants, this dimorphism is subtler, with males only about 20–30% heavier on average, though both sexes display robust builds adapted for their environments.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] Growth patterns in elephants are protracted, with calves born weighing around 100–120 kilograms and standing about 1 meter at the shoulder, dependent on the mother for years. Sexual maturity is reached between 10 and 15 years, though full physical development continues into the third or fourth decade, during which males often leave family groups while females remain to lead matriarchal herds.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Behavior and Ecology

Elephantidae exhibit a complex matriarchal social structure, where female elephants and their offspring form stable core family groups typically consisting of 2-10 individuals for African forest elephants and 10-20 or more for African savanna and Asian elephants, led by the oldest female known as the matriarch.^[47]^[48] Group sizes and structures vary by species and habitat; for example, African forest elephants often form smaller, more temporary units of 2-8 individuals adapted to dense forests, while savanna elephants maintain larger clans.^[49] These groups provide protection and facilitate cooperative behaviors, with the matriarch guiding decisions on movement and resource access based on her accumulated experience.^[50] Male elephants, after reaching puberty around 12-15 years, generally leave the family group to live solitarily or join loose bachelor herds, occasionally associating with family units during mating seasons.^[47] Communication within Elephantidae is multifaceted, enabling coordination over distances and intimate interactions. Elephants produce infrasonic rumbles—low-frequency vocalizations below 20 Hz—that travel up to several kilometers through the air and ground, allowing family members to maintain contact across savannas or forests.^[51] For close-range exchanges, they employ tactile signals such as trunk touches, caresses, and entwining, which reinforce social bonds and convey reassurance, particularly among females and calves.^[52] Reproductive strategies in Elephantidae are adapted to their long lifespans and environmental challenges, with males entering a periodic state called musth characterized by elevated testosterone levels, temporal gland secretions, and aggressive behavior to enhance mating success.^[53] Females reach sexual maturity at 10-12 years and give birth to a single calf after a gestation period of 18-22 months, the longest among mammals, followed by an interbirth interval of 3-5 years to ensure calf survival.^[49] Their flexible trunks and acute senses, physical traits supporting social cohesion, further aid in detecting mates and protecting newborns during vulnerable early stages.^[52] In the wild, elephants typically live 60-70 years, though maximum recorded lifespans reach up to 74 years, with social structures contributing to longevity through mutual support.^[54] Allomothering, where non-maternal females such as aunts and sisters assist in calf care by providing protection, grooming, and guidance, significantly enhances juvenile survival rates and herd stability.^[47] Indicators of high intelligence in Elephantidae include exceptional long-term memory for locating water sources during droughts, even after decades, and recognition of social bonds with distant relatives, which strengthens kinship networks across expansive ranges.^[55]

Diet, Foraging, and Habitat Use

Members of the Elephantidae family are strict herbivores, relying on a diverse plant-based diet that includes grasses, leaves, bark, roots, and fruits to meet their high energy demands. An adult elephant consumes between 100 and 300 kilograms of vegetation each day, representing approximately 1.5-3% of its body weight, which supports their massive size and metabolic needs. African elephants (Loxodonta spp.) exhibit a greater propensity for grazing on grasses, particularly in savanna habitats, while Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) predominantly browse on leaves, twigs, and bark from trees and shrubs, reflecting adaptations to their respective environments.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59] Foraging occupies 12 to 18 hours of an elephant's day, during which they use their versatile trunk to pluck foliage, strip bark, and uproot plants with precision. This behavior not only sustains the individual but also positions elephants as key ecosystem engineers; by felling trees and breaking branches while feeding, they create clearings that promote biodiversity and nutrient cycling in forests and grasslands. Additionally, elephants facilitate seed dispersal over vast distances—up to 65 kilometers in some cases—through their dung, aiding forest regeneration and plant propagation across landscapes.^[56]^[60]^[61] Elephants inhabit a range of ecosystems suited to their dietary needs, with African species favoring savannas, open woodlands, and tropical forests across sub-Saharan Africa, while Asian elephants occupy grasslands, deciduous and evergreen forests, and scrublands in South and Southeast Asia. Their altitudinal range extends from sea level up to approximately 3,000 meters, though individuals near the Himalayas may venture higher seasonally. Water is critical to their survival, with daily requirements of 100 to 200 liters influencing movement patterns; elephants often migrate tens to hundreds of kilometers to access reliable sources, sometimes traveling over 100 kilometers in response to seasonal availability.^[62]^[11]^[38]^[63] In arid periods, elephants demonstrate remarkable adaptations by using their tusks, feet, and trunks to excavate dry riverbeds and locate underground water sources, accessing moisture unavailable to other species and thereby sustaining themselves through the dry season. This dental adaptation, including robust molars for grinding abrasive vegetation, further enables efficient processing of their fibrous diet.^[64]^[65]

Conservation and Human Interaction

Threats and Population Status

Elephantidae populations face severe threats that have led to significant declines across both African and Asian species. Estimates from 2016 placed the global population of African elephants (Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) at approximately 415,000 individuals, but recent 2024 surveys indicate significant declines, with new comprehensive assessments forthcoming in 2025.^[66]^[67] A 2024 study analyzing 53 years of survey data confirmed declines of approximately 70% in savanna elephant populations and 90% in forest populations at surveyed sites since the 1970s.^[67] While Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) numbered between 40,000 and 50,000 as of 2024 estimates, recent 2025 data from India indicate a decline to about 22,000 individuals.^[68]^[69] These figures reflect ongoing declines, particularly in Central Africa, where poaching and habitat pressures have reduced numbers by over 60% in some savanna populations since the 1970s.^[70] Poaching for ivory remains a primary driver of mortality, with an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 African elephants killed annually as of 2024 data, representing a significant portion outpacing reproduction in some populations.^[71]^[72] This illegal trade targets tusks, exacerbating declines in forest elephant subspecies, which have lost up to 90% of their populations in certain sites over recent decades.^[67] Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural expansion has significantly reduced elephant ranges, with losses exceeding 80% in some Central African forest areas since 2000 and ongoing fragmentation across Asia.^[73]^[74] In Asia, human activities have converted vast tracts of forest and grassland, confining elephants to isolated patches that increase vulnerability to local extinctions.^[75] Human-elephant conflict, particularly crop raiding, intensifies these pressures, leading to retaliatory killings of elephants and affecting over 500 people annually through injuries or deaths in Asia alone.^[76] In regions like India and Sri Lanka, expanding agriculture encroaches on elephant corridors, resulting in hundreds of human fatalities and elephant deaths each year, with 176 human deaths reported in Sri Lanka in 2023.^[77] Disease also poses a critical threat, notably elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV), which causes hemorrhagic disease with calf mortality rates up to 85% in affected captive populations, and similarly high fatality in wild juveniles.^[78] This virus has contributed to the loss of up to 20% of young elephants in some herds, hindering population recovery.^[79]

Conservation Efforts and Challenges

Conservation efforts for Elephantidae have focused on establishing and expanding protected areas to safeguard habitats amid ongoing threats. Reserves such as Amboseli National Park in Kenya, home to a significant population of African elephants and supported by long-term research and anti-poaching initiatives, exemplify successful expansions that integrate community involvement for sustainable management.^[80] Similarly, Kaziranga National Park in India serves as a critical refuge for Asian elephants, with enhanced patrolling and habitat restoration efforts contributing to population stability in the region. Collectively, these protected areas now encompass approximately 20% of the historical range of elephants, though this coverage remains insufficient to fully mitigate habitat fragmentation.^[81] International regulations have bolstered anti-poaching measures, with both African and Asian elephants listed under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) since 1989, prohibiting commercial trade in ivory and other derivatives.^[9] Since the 2010s, technological advancements including drone surveillance for real-time monitoring of poaching activities and DNA analysis of seized ivory to trace origins and disrupt supply chains have been widely adopted, enabling more targeted enforcement in high-risk areas.^[82]^[83] Community-based programs have played a vital role in reducing human-elephant conflicts through economic incentives. In Namibia, compensation schemes funded by conservation revenues reimburse farmers for crop damage caused by elephants, fostering tolerance and participation in habitat protection.^[84] In Thailand, eco-tourism initiatives around protected areas provide alternative livelihoods for local communities, decreasing reliance on land use that encroaches on elephant corridors and promoting coexistence.^[85] Despite these advances, significant challenges persist in implementing effective conservation. Corruption within enforcement agencies undermines anti-poaching operations, allowing illegal activities to continue in some regions.^[86] Climate change exacerbates droughts, reducing water and forage availability and forcing elephants into human-dominated landscapes, as evidenced by mass die-offs in East Africa.^[87] Illegal ivory trade endures despite global bans under CITES, with ongoing discussions at the upcoming CoP20 in 2025.^[88] Reintroduction efforts have aimed to restore populations in fragmented habitats, particularly in South Africa where over 200 elephants have been translocated since the 1990s to bolster numbers in small fenced reserves and larger ecosystems.^[89] These operations, often involving family groups to maintain social structures, have successfully established viable herds but require ongoing monitoring to address overpopulation risks.^[90]

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Structure and innervation of the tusk pulp in the African elephant ...
Introduction. Tusks of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are continuously growing permanent incisors of the upper jaw (Miller, 1890; Raubenheimer, 2000). ...
[30]
Elephas maximus (Asian elephant) - Digimorph
Apr 24, 2003 · The dentition of elephants is unique. The canine teeth are lost so that only the incisors, premolars, and molars are retained. The pattern of ...
[31]
Of tusks and trunks: A review of craniofacial evolutionary anatomy in ...
Oct 8, 2024 · Extant elephant skulls are characterized by uniquely retracted external nares and shortened nasal bones, which provides space for as well as ...
[32]
African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet ...
Oct 15, 2025 · Body measurements ; Shoulder height · Female: 2.5–3.0 m (8.2–9.8 ft)f (but usually no taller than 2.6 m, or 8.5 ft). Male: 2.9–3.7 m (9.5–12 ft).
[33]
All About Elephants - Physical Characteristics | United Parks & Resorts
Each molar tooth is about the size of a brick and weighs between 1.8 and 2.0 kg (4-4.5 lb.). Elephant molar teeth are replaced six times during its lifetime.
[34]
Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Fact Sheet: Summary - LibGuides
Sep 9, 2025 · Shoulder Height. Male: 2.7 m (8.9 ft), on average (up to 3.4 m, or 11 ft) Female: 2.4 m (7.9 ...Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism<|control11|><|separator|>
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Elephas maximus (Asiatic elephant) - Animal Diversity Web
Elephas maximus is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The subspecies Elephas maximus sumatranus is Critically Endangered. Asian Elephants are ...<|separator|>
[36]
Largest mammal on land | Guinness World Records
Its weight was computed to be 12.24 tonnes (26,984 lb). The tallest elephants are those of the endangered desert race from Damaraland, Namibia, because they ...
[37]
Sexual dimorphism in African elephant social rumbles - PMC - NIH
May 10, 2017 · Elephants are among the most size dimorphic of all mammals: males can be twice the mass of a female. Also, secondary sexual characteristics ...
[38]
Loxodonta Anonymous, 1827 - GBIF
Loxodonta is one of two extant genera of the family Elephantidae. The name refers to the lozenge-shaped enamel of their molar teeth. Fossil remains of ...
[39]
Sexual Dimorphism in the Skeletal Morphology of Asian Elephants ...
Jul 24, 2025 · Simple Summary. This early study looked at bones from Asian elephants to see how male and female skeletons differ.
[40]
All About Elephants - Birth & Care of Young - Seaworld.org
On average, newborn calves stand about 1 m (3 ft.) high and weigh 120 kg (264 lb.) at birth. Newborn male African elephants may weigh up to 165 kg (364 lb.).
[41]
African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet ...
Oct 15, 2025 · Sexual maturity · But much variation reported · Some studies find some individuals giving birth as young as 8 to 10 years old (Theuerkauf et al.
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Elephants are long-lived - ElephantVoices
Elephant calves mature slowly. An elephant pregnancy lasts about 660 days, or approximately 22 months. Once an elephant is born it matures slowly and is ...
[43]
Social Giants | San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance
Aug 2, 2021 · Female elephant society is structured as a nested hierarchy of herds. Each herd is composed of closely related females and their offspring.
[44]
Knowledge transmission, culture and the consequences of social ...
May 1, 2025 · In savannah elephants, several adult females group together to form a 'family' or core group, which is typically led by a matriarch (usually ...
[45]
Biologists discover male elephants use infrasonic rumbles to signal ...
Jul 22, 2024 · Scientists from Stanford University and other institutions have documented male elephants using "let's go" rumbles to signal the start of group departures.Missing: trunk sources
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Crack the Code of Elephant Communication | Nature - PBS
Oct 14, 2008 · Researchers have found that elephants also appear to communicate by sensing seismic vibrations through the soft skin on the pads of their feet.Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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(PDF) Musth and sexual selection in elephants: a review of ...
Musth-an asynchronous reproductive state in male elephants-facilitates both inter-and intrasexual selection via indirect benefits, and it is further ...
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Elephant | WWF - World Wildlife Fund
A single calf is born to a female once every four to five years and after a gestation period of 22 months—the longest of any mammal. Calves are cared for by ...African elephants · Asian Elephant · Bornean Elephant · Why are African forest...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
longevity and senescence in wild female African elephants - NIH
Jan 19, 2016 · Maximum lifespan has been estimated at 74 years from tooth wear (Lee et al. 2012) in wild female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and ~80 ...
[50]
Memory-Based Navigation in Elephants: Implications for Survival ...
Mar 30, 2025 · Their ability to remember the locations of water, food, and safe pathways helps them survive in increasingly fragmented landscapes. Older ...
[51]
All About Elephants - Diet & Eating Habits | United Parks & Resorts
Elephants eat between 149 and 169 kg (330-375 lb.) of vegetation daily. Sixteen to eighteen hours, or nearly 80% of an elephant's day is spent feeding.
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How much does an elephant eat in a day? • ElephantsWorld
Elephants are megaherbivores. They eat up to 300 kilograms (5% to 10% of their body weight) of food each day. To meet their needs, they require 50,000 to ...Missing: vegetation | Show results with:vegetation
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African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) as an example of a ...
Feb 1, 2019 · The aim of this review is to consolidate understanding of nutritional drivers for animal movement, especially that of African savanna elephants.
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Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Fact Sheet: Diet & Feeding
Sep 9, 2025 · Generalist herbivores. Feed as browsers (eat shrubs and trees) and grazers (eat grass); Eat a wide variety of trees, shrubs, climbing plants ...
[55]
Elephant rewilding affects landscape openness and fauna habitat ...
Jan 24, 2023 · Our results suggest that trophic rewilding with elephants helps promote a semi-open ecosystem structure of high importance for African biodiversity.
[56]
'This is amazing!' African elephants may transport seeds farther than ...
Apr 10, 2017 · The pachyderms can transport seeds up to 65 kilometers, according to a study of elephant dung in South Africa. That's 30 times farther than savanna birds take ...
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All About Elephants - Habitat and Distribution | United Parks & Resorts
African elephants inhabit a diverse array of habitats including tropical forests, savannas, grasslands, and woodlands.Missing: scrub | Show results with:scrub
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25 Things to Know – International Elephant Foundation
Oct 3, 2024 · Normal daily water consumption is about 25 – 50 gallons per animal, or 100 – 200 liters. An elephant's trunk can hold 2.5 gallons of water.Missing: migration | Show results with:migration
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How do Elephants find water during dry times?
Aug 29, 2023 · An African elephant needs to drink about 70 to 100 litres of water daily, but can easily consume between 100 to 200 litres. Let's look at some ...Missing: liters | Show results with:liters
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How do elephants find water? - Tsavo Trust
The African elephant, due to its immense size and heavily developed brain, is considered water dependent, usually drinking around 100 litres of water a day! In ...Missing: consumption daily liters
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The state of the world's elephant populations - Our World in Data
Sep 10, 2024 · African elephant. (Loxodonta africana). 415,000. By subspecies below ; African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). Critically endangered.
[62]
Shrinking spaces for the world's largest land animal | IUCN
Aug 12, 2021 · This species was in 2021 listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as more than 80% of the population is estimated to have been lost ...
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Stopping elephant ivory demand - World Wildlife Fund
At least 20000 elephants are killed for ivory each year. WWF works to combat the illegal ivory trade, halt poaching, and reduce demand worldwide.
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Survey-based inference of continental African elephant decline | PNAS
Nov 11, 2024 · Forest elephant sites have declined on average by 90%, whereas savanna elephant sites have declined by 70% over the study period. However, ...
[65]
Land-use change is associated with multi-century loss of elephant ...
Apr 27, 2023 · The study reports that 21.5% of elephant habitat was lost overall during this period. The apparent increase in fragmentation is consistent with ...
[66]
Almost two-thirds of elephant habitat lost across Asia, study finds
Apr 27, 2023 · Elephants have lost almost two-thirds of their habitat across Asia, the result of hundreds of years of deforestation and increasing human use of ...
[67]
The human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: history and present status
Jun 17, 2023 · More than 600 humans and 450 elephants are killed annually during crop raiding in Asia, with India and Sri Lanka accounting for more than 80% ( ...
[68]
Death tolls mount as elephants and people compete for land in Sri ...
Mar 19, 2024 · Last year, 176 people died in elephant encounters on the island, and 470 elephants were killed – more than double the number of elephant deaths in 2010.
[69]
[PDF] Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpes Virus - Hemorrhagic Disease
Jun 2, 2021 · The mortality rate is very high (70-85%) and death occurs within a short period of time (2-4 days). The prevalence of EEHV in captive Asian ...
[70]
Hope and a Path Forward - AZA.org
Nov 27, 2024 · Thirty-two Asian elephants and nine African elephants have died from elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in North America.
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Amboseli trust for elephants: ATE
Amboseli Trust for Elephants helps ensure the long-term conservation of Africa's elephants. 8000 km the home of the Amboseli elephants.Contact us · Amboseli · Elephant history · Family historiesMissing: Kaziranga India
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https://www.africanelephantjournal.com/world-elephant-day-2024-elephant-poaching-is-down-but-it-is-by-no-means-over/
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Drones: Protecting and Serving Elephants in Danger - Insights - DJI
Mar 15, 2021 · Poaching and Human-Elephant Conflict are major threats to elephant populations. Drones are being deployed to help anti-poaching efforts and ...Missing: DNA 2010s IUCN<|separator|>
[74]
Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure since ... - NIH
Stopping poaching will also prevent loss of tourism in wildlife-rich countries, along with the disproportionately large amounts of foreign currency it generates ...Missing: drones 2010s
[75]
[PDF] Human Wildlife Conflict Study Namibian Case Study
Namibia does not have large-scale government-run agricultural schemes affected by elephant damage. The main costs as a result of HWC occur at the household ...Missing: Thailand | Show results with:Thailand
[76]
Human-Elephant Conflict in Thailand | Heinrich Böll Foundation
Dec 12, 2023 · A war rages between humans and elephants. The animals are reclaiming areas that were once covered in jungle but are now agricultural lands.Missing: tourism | Show results with:tourism
[77]
A Case for Legal Ivory Trade - 'Ban all ivory trade, and no more ...
Legal ivory trade can be used to “launder” illegal ivory. Corruption is so ... illegally killing a single elephant – if the ivory items are kept expensive.
[78]
The impact of climate change on elephants
Climate change currently threatens the survival of up to one million wildlife species around the world. This includes some of the most recognisable animals.
[79]
[PDF] MONITORING ONLINE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE - CITES
Illegal harvesting also deprives regions of potential revenue from sustainable legal trade, while simultaneously flooding markets with illegally sourced ...
[80]
Elephant reintroductions to small fenced reserves in South Africa
Aug 9, 2025 · By 2001, elephants had been translocated (mainly from Kruger National Park) to 58 small, fenced reserves in South Africa.
[81]
Moving giants: One of the biggest translocation projects in South ...
This colossal effort represented just the beginning of a much larger commitment to translocate around 200 elephants from South Africa to Mozambique.