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Empty calories

Empty calories are those derived from added sugars and solid fats in foods and beverages that supply energy but offer little or no essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, or protein.^[1]^[2] These calories are considered "empty" because they contribute to daily energy intake without providing substantial nutritional benefits, unlike nutrient-dense foods that deliver both calories and vital micronutrients.^[3] Common sources include sugary sodas, candies, cookies, cakes, fried snacks, and certain fatty meats or processed foods high in refined ingredients.^[1]^[4] Overconsumption of empty calories is linked to adverse health outcomes, including weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, as these foods often displace more nutritious options in the diet.^[1]^[5] In the United States, children and adults frequently exceed recommended limits, with average intakes of empty calories from solid fats and added sugars often surpassing 25% of total daily energy as of 2015–2018 data, contributing to broader public health challenges like the obesity epidemic.^[6]^[7]^[8] The 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend limiting added sugars and saturated fats—key sources of empty calories—to less than 10% of total daily calories each for individuals aged 2 and older, to promote balanced nutrition and reduce chronic disease risk.^[9] Prioritizing whole foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins helps minimize empty calorie intake while meeting nutritional requirements.^[10]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Empty calories refer to the energy provided by foods and beverages that contain few or no essential nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, or high-quality protein, while being high in added sugars, solid fats, refined carbohydrates, or alcohol.^[11] These calories derive primarily from macronutrients that offer energy but lack accompanying micronutrients necessary for overall health, distinguishing them from nutrient-dense sources that provide both energy and vital nutrients in balanced proportions.^[12] The term "empty calories" was coined in the mid-20th century by nutritionists to highlight calorie sources with low nutritional density, with its first known use documented in 1955. It gained prominence in public health discussions, including U.S. dietary guidelines, where it was notably referenced in advisory committee reports by the early 2000s to emphasize limiting such calories from added sugars, solid fats, and excess alcohol.^[13] Key attributes of empty calories include their high energy density relative to volume, which allows for rapid calorie intake, coupled with low satiety value due to the absence of fiber and protein that promote fullness.^[12] For instance, a serving of soda provides purely sugar-derived calories with no nutritional benefits, whereas orange juice, despite containing natural sugars, offers some vitamins and thus is not considered entirely empty.^[11]

Key Components

Empty calories are characterized by their primary components, which include added sugars such as high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose, refined starches like those found in white flour, solid fats such as hydrogenated oils and trans fats, and alcohol.^[14]^[15] These elements deliver energy through macronutrients but offer little else in terms of nutritional benefits, as they are often isolated or processed forms that bypass the nutrient-rich structures of whole foods.^[16] A key feature of empty calories is their nutritional voids, marked by the absence or minimal presence of micronutrients (such as vitamins and minerals), dietary fiber, and essential fatty acids. Industrial processing exacerbates this deficiency; for example, refining grains strips away the bran and germ layers, which house the majority of the grain's fiber, B vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals like iron and magnesium, leaving primarily the starchy endosperm.^[17]^[18] Similarly, added sugars and solid fats are extracted or altered to remove associated protective compounds, resulting in isolated energy sources devoid of complementary nutrients. In terms of caloric breakdown, empty calories derive nearly 100% of their energy from macronutrients—carbohydrates, fats, or alcohol—without any significant micronutrient contribution, often equating to zero percent of daily values for essential vitamins and minerals. For instance, a standard 12-ounce serving of soda supplies about 140 calories solely from added sugars like high-fructose corn syrup, providing no measurable daily value for vitamins such as vitamin C or B vitamins.^[19]^[20] This pure energy provision underscores their role in diets as "empty" contributors, particularly in beverages where such components dominate.

Sources and Examples

Beverages

Beverages represent a significant source of empty calories in modern diets, primarily due to their liquid form, which allows for rapid consumption without the satiety provided by solid foods. Common types include sugary sodas, energy drinks, fruit-flavored drinks, sweetened teas and coffees, and alcoholic beverages such as beer or cocktails. These drinks typically derive their calories from added sugars or alcohol, with little to no accompanying nutrients.^[21]^[22] In terms of caloric contributions, U.S. adults consumed an average of 145 calories daily from sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) during 2011–2014, accounting for a notable portion of overall empty calorie intake. For instance, a 20-ounce serving of a typical sugary soda, such as Coca-Cola, contains approximately 240 calories, almost entirely from added sugars. Alcoholic beverages also contribute substantially; a standard 12-ounce beer provides about 153 empty calories from alcohol and carbohydrates, while cocktails with sugary mixers can exceed 200 calories per serving. These beverages often feature added sugars as a primary component, amplifying their empty calorie density.^[21]^[23]^[24] Processing plays a key role in maintaining the empty calorie profile of these beverages, as fortification with vitamins or minerals is rare and generally discouraged for high-sugar or alcohol-based drinks. Regulatory guidelines, such as those from the FDA, deem fortification inappropriate for sugars and snack-like beverages to avoid misleading consumers about their nutritional value. This results in products that deliver calories without essential nutrients, reinforcing their classification as empty.^[25] Globally, consumption of sugary beverages rose by 15.9% from 1990 to 2018, with the highest intakes observed in regions like Latin America and parts of the Western world. This trend reflects broader dietary shifts toward processed liquids, particularly in urbanized populations, though increases have decelerated in recent years.^[26]

Solid Foods

Solid foods serve as major sources of empty calories, particularly through processed snacks and baked goods that offer energy without substantial vitamins, minerals, or fiber. Common examples include candies, cookies, cakes, potato chips, fried snacks like French fries, and refined-grain products such as white bread and pastries. These items are often ultraprocessed, deriving their caloric content primarily from added sugars, solid fats, and refined starches, which provide little nutritional benefit beyond energy.^[27]^[28]^[29] The caloric density of these foods underscores their role in contributing empty calories efficiently. A standard 1-ounce (28-gram) serving of potato chips typically delivers about 150 calories, with the majority—around 90 calories—coming from refined vegetable oils and potato starches that lack essential nutrients. Baked goods similarly pack empty calories; for example, cookies and cakes frequently incorporate added sugars for sweetness and trans fats for texture and shelf life, resulting in high-energy portions that fail to support overall nutritional needs.^[30]^[31]^[32] In contemporary diets, these solid foods are embedded within ultraprocessed categories that dominate caloric intake. A 2024 Johns Hopkins University study analyzing U.S. household consumption up to 2018 found that ultraprocessed foods, including many such snacks and baked goods, comprised more than 50% of calories eaten at home, increasing from 51% in 2003 to 54% in 2018. The study noted minor demographic variations, including slightly lower proportions among Hispanic and high-income households.^[33]

Health Impacts

Nutritional Deficiencies

Consumption of empty calories, primarily from added sugars and solid fats, displaces nutrient-dense foods in the diet, thereby reducing overall intake of essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber. This mechanism occurs because high-calorie, low-nutrient items like sugary beverages and processed snacks provide satiety with minimal nutritional value, limiting room for fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins that supply these vital components. For instance, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans emphasize that prioritizing nutrient-dense foods is crucial to avoid such caloric displacement and ensure adequate provision of vitamins A, C, and D, as well as minerals like calcium and iron, alongside dietary fiber.^[9] Specific impacts of this displacement include heightened risk of vitamin deficiencies, such as vitamin C shortfall leading to scurvy, characterized by fatigue, gum disease, and poor wound healing. Similarly, deficiencies in vitamins A and D from reduced consumption of nutrient-rich foods can impair immune function, increasing susceptibility to infections. Fiber intake, often below recommended levels in high empty calorie diets, contributes to digestive issues like constipation and irregular bowel movements due to inadequate bulk and motility support in the gut.^[34] Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988-1994) illustrate an inverse correlation between empty calorie consumption and micronutrient adequacy among children and adolescents. Higher intake of low-nutrient-density foods was associated with significantly lower levels of fiber, folate, calcium, iron, and vitamin C; for example, girls in the highest consumption tertile had approximately 25% less folate and 20% less calcium compared to the lowest tertile.^[35] Over the long term, this pattern fosters "hidden hunger," a state of micronutrient undernutrition despite sufficient or excess caloric intake, often from over-reliance on empty calorie sources. Studies indicate that diets where empty calories exceed 25% of total energy—common in U.S. youth, affecting 26-36% of intake across age groups 2-18—correlate with 20-30% reductions in key nutrient levels, exacerbating subclinical deficiencies without overt caloric restriction.^[36]^[37]^[35]

Chronic Disease Risks

Consumption of empty calories, primarily from sources like added sugars, refined carbohydrates, and trans fats, is associated with an elevated risk of obesity due to their provision of excess energy without promoting satiety, leading to overconsumption and caloric surplus.^[38] High intake of these calories contributes to type 2 diabetes through mechanisms such as insulin resistance induced by rapid blood sugar spikes from sugars and refined carbs.^[39] Cardiovascular disease risk increases with trans fats found in many empty calorie foods, as they raise LDL cholesterol levels and promote atherosclerosis.^[31] Emerging evidence also links high empty calorie intake, particularly from free sugars, to potential mental health issues including fatigue and mood disorders like depression and anxiety.^[40] The underlying mechanisms involve multiple pathways: a caloric surplus from low-satiety foods drives adipose tissue accumulation and weight gain, while refined carbohydrates trigger chronic low-grade inflammation by elevating postprandial glucose and oxidative stress.^[41] Specifically, fructose in sugary empty calorie sources bypasses regulatory steps in hepatic metabolism, promoting de novo lipogenesis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which exacerbates metabolic dysfunction.^[42] These processes collectively heighten vulnerability to chronic conditions, with nutrient displacement from empty calories further compounding risks by limiting intake of protective micronutrients.^[43] Epidemiological data underscore these associations; higher intake of free sugars is associated with increased odds of obesity in children, with consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages linked to a 55% higher odds (OR 1.55) compared to non-consumption.^[44] A 2024 systematic review of ultra-processed foods, major sources of empty calories, found that high intake is linked to increased colorectal cancer risk, with sugary drinks alone raising odds by 16% per daily serving through inflammation and gut dysbiosis. A 2025 study further linked high ultra-processed food intake to a 45% increased risk of precancerous colorectal polyps in women under 55.^[45]^[46]

Scientific Research

Historical Studies

The recognition of empty calories—calories derived primarily from added sugars and solid fats with minimal nutritional value—emerged from early investigations into the roles of dietary sugars and fats in chronic diseases during the 1970s. The U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, chaired by Senator George McGovern, conducted hearings and issued the 1977 Dietary Goals for the United States, which highlighted excessive intake of refined sugars and saturated fats as contributors to heart disease, obesity, and other conditions, recommending reductions in these components to improve public health.^[47] This report marked a pivotal shift in U.S. nutrition policy, emphasizing the need to moderate "empty" energy sources lacking essential nutrients like vitamins and fiber.^[48] In the 1980s, research by Ancel Keys further solidified the link between dietary fats and cardiovascular risk, building on his earlier Seven Countries Study. Keys' 1980 analysis of long-term data from multiple cohorts demonstrated that populations with higher saturated fat consumption experienced elevated rates of coronary heart disease, influencing global recommendations to limit such fats, which are often calorie-dense and nutrient-poor.^[49] This work underscored the health implications of fat-heavy diets, paralleling concerns about sugars and laying groundwork for understanding empty calories as drivers of metabolic imbalances. By the 2000s, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) guidelines began formalizing limits on added sugars, with the 2005 Dietary Guidelines advising that added sugars and solid fats should constitute less than 25% of total calories, though subsequent iterations refined this toward a 10% cap to address nutrient deficiencies from empty sources. Methodological advancements during this period transitioned nutrition research from primarily observational cross-sectional designs to robust cohort studies, enabling better causal inference on diet-disease links. A key exemplar is the 2010 World Health Organization (WHO) Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases, which synthesized cohort data to attribute a significant portion of cardiovascular disease and diabetes burden to diets high in energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods like those providing empty calories. This report advocated for policy interventions targeting such diets, reflecting the evolving evidence base established in prior decades.

Recent Findings

A 2024 analysis by researchers at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health revealed that ultraprocessed foods, which are typically high in empty calories, accounted for more than 50% of calories consumed at home in the United States, increasing from 51% in 2003 to 54% in 2018.^[33] This trend has been associated with elevated risks of obesity and colorectal cancer, among other conditions, due to the nutrient-poor nature of these foods.^[33] A 2025 review published on ResearchGate examined the health impacts of processed and ultraprocessed foods, finding strong links to type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and mental disorders such as depression and anxiety.^[50] The review highlighted how these foods contribute to chronic inflammation and metabolic disruptions, exacerbating these conditions beyond traditional obesity pathways.^[50] Similarly, a 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis on ResearchGate confirmed that higher ultraprocessed food intake correlates with increased odds of depressive and anxiety symptoms.^[51] Emerging research has addressed challenges in reformulating solid foods to reduce empty calories, particularly added sugars. A 2025 National Institutes of Health article outlined limitations in sugar substitution for solid products like baked goods and snacks, noting difficulties in maintaining texture, flavor, and consumer acceptance without increasing other unhealthy components such as fats or artificial additives.^[52] These efforts often fall short in preventing overconsumption, as reformulated items may still promote insatiety and fatigue due to rapid glycemic spikes.^[52] Global trends indicate rising empty calorie intake among adolescents, with 2023 data showing that 41% of US adolescents derive more than 15% of their calories from added sugars, often through sweetened beverages and desserts.^[53] This pattern contributes to non-obesity effects like persistent hunger and energy crashes, as evidenced in recent cohort studies.^[51] Longitudinal data from European cohorts, such as the Spanish DRECE study, demonstrate that for every 10% increase in energy intake from ultraprocessed foods, all-cause mortality risk rises by about 15%, with similar elevations in cardiovascular and mental health risks.^[54] These findings underscore the broader implications of empty calories for mental well-being, including heightened fatigue and emotional dysregulation, filling gaps in prior research focused primarily on physical outcomes.^[54]

Guidelines and Thresholds

Dietary Recommendations

Major health organizations provide evidence-based guidelines to limit empty calories, primarily from added sugars and solid fats, to support nutrient-dense diets and reduce chronic disease risks. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that free sugars—defined as monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages, plus those in honey, syrups, and fruit juices—should comprise less than 10% of total energy intake for adults and children, with a further reduction to below 5% for additional health benefits.^[55] This guideline, originally issued in 2015 and reaffirmed in subsequent updates through 2023, aims to prevent non-communicable diseases by curbing excessive intake from sources like sugary drinks and processed foods.^[56] In the United States, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025, advise limiting added sugars to less than 10% of daily calories for individuals aged 2 and older, while avoiding them entirely for children under 2, and minimizing solid fats such as saturated and trans fats to stay within overall calorie needs. As of November 2025, the 2020-2025 edition remains in effect, with the 2025-2030 guidelines expected by the end of the year based on the submitted scientific report.^[9]^[57] The American Heart Association (AHA) endorses a stricter limit of no more than 6% of total calories from added sugars to promote cardiovascular health, translating to about 25 grams (6 teaspoons) per day for most women and 36 grams (9 teaspoons) for most men on a 2,000-calorie diet.^[58] These recommendations align with broader efforts to cap combined empty calories from added sugars and solid fats at under 20% of total intake, ensuring room for nutrient-rich foods while maintaining energy balance.^[9] Practical strategies for adhering to these limits emphasize prioritizing whole, unprocessed foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy, which provide essential nutrients without added empty calories.^[9] Consumers are encouraged to read nutrition labels carefully, selecting products with less than 5 grams of added sugars per serving to keep intake low, and to check for hidden sources in ingredients lists such as high-fructose corn syrup or dextrose.^[59] Globally, variations include the European Union's regulation capping industrially produced trans fats at 2 grams per 100 grams of total fat in foods to minimize cardiovascular risks from solid fats. Implementation of these guidelines is integrated into models like the USDA's MyPlate, which visualizes balanced plates with half fruits and vegetables, a quarter whole grains, and a quarter proteins, while allocating limited "discretionary calories" for empty calorie sources to fit individual needs—typically 120 to 330 calories daily depending on age, sex, and activity level.^[10] This approach, supported by the Dietary Guidelines, promotes sustainable habits by focusing on nutrient density rather than strict elimination, with evidence indicating that keeping empty calories below recommended thresholds enhances overall dietary adequacy.^[9]

Health Impact Thresholds

Health impact thresholds for empty calorie intake refer to quantitative levels beyond which evidence indicates elevated risks for nutritional shortfalls and chronic conditions. According to data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), empty calorie consumption exceeding the discretionary calorie allowance of 8-20% of total daily energy—often observed at 25-40% in U.S. populations—is associated with inadequate nutrient intake and increased likelihood of deficiencies in vitamins, minerals, and fiber.^[2] Similarly, added sugars surpassing 10% of total calories, a component of empty calories, are linked to greater weight gain and a higher incidence of obesity, as evidenced by longitudinal cohort studies and meta-analyses.^[60]^[44] These thresholds vary by individual factors such as age, sex, and estimated energy needs to account for differences in metabolic demands and growth requirements. For children aged 2-18 years, the American Heart Association recommends limiting added sugars to less than 25 grams (100 calories) per day to mitigate risks of excess adiposity and related health issues.^[61] In adults on a standard 2,000-calorie diet, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans suggest capping discretionary calories (primarily from solid fats and added sugars) at approximately 240 calories, or 12% of total intake, to support nutrient adequacy without promoting caloric surplus.^[9] Monitoring empty calorie intake is essential for staying below critical levels, with tools such as food diaries or apps enabling precise tracking of sources like sugary beverages and processed snacks. Exceeding 30% of daily calories from empty sources, as seen in certain dietary patterns analyzed in NHANES-linked research, correlates with heightened prevalence of metabolic syndrome components, including insulin resistance and dyslipidemia.^[62] These thresholds align broadly with dietary recommendations but emphasize personalized risk assessment over general advice.^[9]

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