1990
1990 was a year of seismic geopolitical transformations and scientific milestones, highlighted by the reunification of Germany on 3 October after four decades of division, symbolizing the effective end of the Cold War in Europe.[1][2] On 11 February, Nelson Mandela was released after 27 years of imprisonment, accelerating negotiations to dismantle apartheid in South Africa.[3][4] Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on 2 August provoked international condemnation and the buildup to the Gulf War, underscoring tensions over oil resources and regional power; U.S. President George H.W. Bush famously declared on August 5, "This will not stand."[5][6][7] The Hubble Space Telescope was launched into orbit on 24 April, enabling unprecedented astronomical observations despite initial optical flaws later corrected.[8] These events collectively reflected a transition from bipolar superpower rivalry toward multipolar uncertainties, amid economic integrations like the adoption of the Deutsche Mark in East Germany and early signs of Soviet disintegration through republican sovereignty declarations.[9]
Overview
Geopolitical Context
The year 1990 witnessed the rapid unraveling of the Cold War's bipolar structure, with German reunification on October 3 formalizing the absorption of the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Republic of Germany after 45 years of division, following the Two Plus Four Treaty signed on September 12 by the two German states and the Allied powers (United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and France). This event, enabled by the prior fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, shifted Europe's security architecture, as NATO's July London Declaration affirmed the end of East-West confrontation and invited dialogue with former adversaries. The Warsaw Pact's military framework eroded further, with East Germany's withdrawal in 1990 amid reunification preparations, and other members like Poland and Czechoslovakia expressing intent to exit, culminating in the alliance's formal dissolution on July 1, 1991, after its political consultative committee ceased operations.[10] These developments reflected the Soviet Union's waning influence under Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms, though the USSR itself remained intact through 1990, with internal economic strains and nationalist movements foreshadowing its 1991 breakup.[11] A contrasting flashpoint arose in the Middle East when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, deploying over 100,000 troops to seize the emirate's oil fields amid disputes over debt and borders, prompting UN Security Council Resolution 660 to condemn the action and demand immediate withdrawal.[6] This aggression, led by Saddam Hussein, tested the nascent unipolar order dominated by the United States, leading to Operation Desert Shield's multinational buildup and exposing vulnerabilities in post-Cold War collective security mechanisms.[5]Economic Landscape
The global economy in 1990 faced significant headwinds, including a recession in the United States that began in July and lasted until March 1991, characterized by a 1.3% peak-to-trough decline in real GDP.[12] This downturn was triggered by a combination of factors, notably the Federal Reserve's monetary tightening to curb inflation, the savings and loan crisis that eroded financial stability, and a sharp spike in oil prices following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2.[13] Crude oil prices surged from approximately $18 per barrel in July to over $40 by October, contributing to inflationary pressures and reduced consumer spending across oil-importing nations.[14] Unemployment in the U.S. climbed from 5.2% in June 1990 to 7.8% by mid-1992, reflecting job losses particularly in manufacturing and construction sectors vulnerable to higher energy costs and credit constraints.[12] In Europe, German reunification on October 3 integrated the East German economy into the market system, spurring short-term growth in West Germany with GDP expanding by 4.6% amid surging demand for goods and investment in the East.[15] However, this rapid convergence imposed substantial fiscal strains, including transfer payments exceeding DM 100 billion annually and a real appreciation shock that hampered East German competitiveness, leading to factory closures and unemployment rates approaching 20% in the former GDR by year's end.[16] Eastern Europe's broader transition from central planning amplified these challenges, with output contractions in countries like Poland and Hungary as state enterprises collapsed under privatization pressures.[17] Japan's economy, meanwhile, grappled with the initial deflation of its asset price bubble, as the Nikkei stock index, which had peaked at 38,916 in December 1989, declined sharply into 1990, eroding corporate balance sheets and consumer confidence.[18] Land prices, which had inflated land values to four times those of the entire United States despite Japan's smaller territory, began a protracted fall, signaling the onset of banking sector impairments that would stifle growth for the decade.[19] Globally, these events underscored vulnerabilities to commodity shocks and financial imbalances, with emerging markets in Asia and Latin America showing resilience through export-led expansion but facing spillover risks from reduced demand in industrialized economies.[20]Demographic and Social Indicators
The global population in 1990 totaled 5.33 billion people, reflecting a growth rate of 1.82% from the previous year, driven primarily by high fertility in developing regions.[21] [22] The total fertility rate averaged 3.3 births per woman worldwide, with sub-Saharan Africa exceeding 6 births per woman while Europe and North America hovered below 2.1, signaling divergent demographic transitions.[23] [24] Life expectancy at birth reached an average of 64 years globally, up from prior decades due to advances in public health and vaccination programs, though stark disparities persisted: over 50 years in high-income countries versus under 50 in many low-income ones.[25] [26] Urbanization accelerated, with 43% of the population residing in urban areas, concentrated in megacities like Mexico City and São Paulo, amid rural-to-urban migration fueled by industrialization and agricultural mechanization.[27]| Indicator | Global Value (1990) | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Population | 5.3 billion | UN/World Bank[22] |
| Fertility Rate | 3.3 births per woman | UN[23] |
| Life Expectancy | 64 years | UN[25] |
| Urban Population Share | 43% | UN/World Bank[27] |
Events
January
On January 1, David N. Dinkins was inaugurated as the 106th mayor of New York City, becoming the first African American to hold the office.[33] On January 3, Panamanian military leader Manuel Noriega surrendered to U.S. forces after seeking refuge in the Vatican nunciature following the U.S. invasion of Panama on December 20, 1989; Noriega, indicted in the U.S. on drug trafficking and racketeering charges, was transported to Miami for trial.[34][35] On January 4, an overcrowded passenger train collided with a stationary freight train near Sangi in Sindh Province, Pakistan, killing at least 210 people and injuring over 700 in the deadliest rail disaster in the country's history up to that point; the crash occurred when the passenger train, traveling at about 35 mph, failed to stop despite signals.[36][37] Monday demonstrations continued in Leipzig, East Germany, on January 8, with tens of thousands protesting for democratic reforms and German reunification as part of the ongoing peaceful revolution that had begun in late 1989; these nonviolent rallies, emerging from peace prayers at St. Nicholas Church, pressured the East German regime without significant violence on this date.[38] Romania's provisional government banned the Communist Party on January 12, four weeks after the execution of dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, but reversed the decision the following day amid concerns over political stability and calls for a referendum.[39][40] On January 13, L. Douglas Wilder was sworn in as governor of Virginia, becoming the first African American elected to the office in U.S. history.[41] The 14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia convened from January 20 to 23 in Belgrade, where delegates voted to renounce the party's constitutional monopoly on power, endorsing multiparty democracy; however, walkouts by Slovenian and Croatian delegations over reform pace deepened internal divisions, contributing to the federation's eventual fragmentation.[42][43] On January 18, Washington, D.C., Mayor Marion Barry was arrested in a hotel room after FBI agents videotaped him smoking crack cocaine during a sting operation, leading to charges of possession and use; Barry, who had faced prior allegations of substance abuse, was convicted later that year on misdemeanor counts.[44]February
On February 2, South African President F. W. de Klerk announced the lifting of a 30-year ban on the African National Congress (ANC) and more than 60 other anti-apartheid organizations, while also pledging to release Nelson Mandela from imprisonment.[45] This move marked a significant concession amid mounting domestic unrest, international sanctions, and economic pressures that had eroded the apartheid regime's sustainability.[45] Nine days later, on February 11, Mandela was freed from Victor Verster Prison near Cape Town after 27 years of incarceration on charges including sabotage and conspiracy against the state.[46] His release, greeted by massive crowds, accelerated negotiations to dismantle apartheid's legal framework of racial segregation and propelled the ANC toward a role in multiparty talks, though violence persisted between rival factions.[46] [45] In space exploration, NASA's Voyager 1 probe, at the suggestion of astronomer Carl Sagan, captured the iconic 'Pale Blue Dot' photograph of Earth on February 14 from about 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles) away, showing our planet as a tiny, fragile mote of dust suspended in a sunbeam.[47] This photograph, part of the spacecraft's "Family Portrait" series before Voyager 1's cameras were powered down to conserve energy, underscored humanity's shared vulnerability and isolation in the universe, influencing subsequent philosophical reflections on global unity.[47] Further signaling the decline of leftist regimes in Latin America, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro of the 14-party National Opposition Union (UNO) defeated incumbent Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua's presidential election on February 25, securing 54.8% of the vote against Ortega's 40.8%.[48] The outcome ended 11 years of Sandinista governance, which had nationalized industries and aligned with Soviet and Cuban support, amid war fatigue from Contra insurgency and hyperinflation exceeding 12,000% annually; Chamorro's victory facilitated a peaceful power transition despite initial Sandinista control of military and judiciary structures.[48]March
On March 11, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania declared the restoration of the country's independence, asserting that the 1940 Soviet occupation and subsequent incorporation into the USSR had been illegal and marking the first such secession attempt by a Soviet republic.[49] This act renamed the state as the Republic of Lithuania and initiated the transition to full sovereignty, though the Soviet Union responded with economic blockades and military pressure without immediate recognition.[50] On March 15, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected as the first executive president of the Soviet Union by the Congress of People's Deputies, consolidating power in a new office amid ongoing reforms like perestroika and glasnost that had weakened central authority. The position granted him direct control over foreign policy and military matters, separate from his role as General Secretary of the Communist Party, but it failed to stem the rising tide of republican autonomy movements.[51] East Germany's first free and multiparty elections occurred on March 18, with the Alliance for Germany coalition—led by the Christian Democratic Union and backed by West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl—securing a landslide victory with approximately 48% of the vote, reflecting widespread support for rapid reunification with West Germany.[52] Turnout exceeded 93%, and the results shifted the People's Chamber decisively toward unification policies, contrasting with earlier rounds table dominated by former communist allies.[53] Namibia achieved independence from South Africa on March 21, following United Nations-supervised elections in November 1989 where the South West Africa People's Organization won 57% of the vote and 41 seats in the Constituent Assembly.[54] Sam Nujoma was sworn in as the first president during ceremonies in Windhoek, ending over a century of colonial rule by Germany and subsequent South African administration, with the UN Transition Assistance Group overseeing the transition to avert conflict.[55] This event fulfilled Resolution 435 of 1978, resolving a protracted guerrilla war involving Cuban, Angolan, and South African forces.[56]April
On April 7, the MS Scandinavian Star ferry caught fire off the coast of Norway while en route from Oslo to Frederikshavn, Denmark, resulting in 159 deaths, primarily from smoke inhalation, and marking one of the deadliest maritime disasters in Scandinavian history due to inadequate safety measures and crew response.[57] On April 8, King Birendra of Nepal lifted a 30-year ban on political parties, responding to widespread pro-democracy protests that had intensified since February and paving the way for multiparty elections in 1991, though the monarchy retained significant power amid ongoing instability.[57][58] Also on April 8, Ryan White, an 18-year-old hemophiliac who contracted HIV from a contaminated blood treatment in 1984, died from AIDS-related complications in Indianapolis, Indiana; his legal battles against school exclusion highlighted early U.S. stigma and policy failures on the epidemic, influencing subsequent legislation like the Ryan White CARE Act of 1990.[59] The Strangeways Prison riot, which erupted on April 1 in Manchester, England, against overcrowding and poor conditions, concluded on April 25 after 25 days, involving the destruction of much of the facility, one inmate death, and 147 injuries; it prompted UK prison reforms but exposed systemic issues in the penal system.[60][57] On April 16, puppeteer Jim Henson, creator of The Muppets, died at age 53 from a streptococcal infection in New York City, abruptly ending his influential career in children's entertainment and prompting widespread tributes.[57] On April 18, Washington, D.C. Mayor Marion Barry was arrested by FBI agents in a sting operation at the Vista Hotel for smoking crack cocaine, leading to his conviction and a six-month prison sentence, which underscored corruption and drug issues in urban U.S. leadership.[57] The Hubble Space Telescope was deployed into orbit on April 24 by the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-31 mission) from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at a cost exceeding $1.5 billion; despite later discovering a flawed primary mirror causing spherical aberration, it enabled groundbreaking astronomical observations over subsequent decades.[58][57] On April 25, Violeta Chamorro was inaugurated as president of Nicaragua, becoming the first democratically elected female head of state in the Americas and marking the defeat of the Sandinista government after a decade of civil conflict, with U.S. support shifting toward her National Opposition Union coalition.[57] Earth Day observances on April 22 drew millions worldwide, reviving the 1970 initiative to raise environmental awareness amid growing concerns over pollution and resource depletion, though empirical assessments later showed mixed policy impacts.[57]May
On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, which proclaimed the restoration of the pre-1940 independent state and established the transition period to full sovereignty, with 138 of 198 deputies voting in favor. This move asserted the primacy of Latvian legislation over Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) laws and intensified separatist pressures across the Baltic republics amid Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika reforms.[61][62] From May 2 to 4, the African National Congress (ANC) leadership, including Nelson Mandela, held its first formal discussions with the South African government under President F. W. de Klerk at Groote Schuur in Cape Town, resulting in the Groote Schuur Minute, a commitment to peaceful negotiations and the unbanning of political organizations. These talks represented a critical step toward dismantling apartheid, following de Klerk's February release of Mandela and lifting of bans on opposition groups, though violence persisted amid mutual suspicions.[63] On May 17, 1990, the World Health Organization (WHO) revised its International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) to remove homosexuality per se from the category of mental disorders, reclassifying it as a non-pathological variation of sexual orientation. This decision aligned with accumulating empirical evidence from psychiatric research challenging earlier pathologizations, building on the American Psychiatric Association's 1973 declassification in the DSM-II, and reflected broader shifts in global health policy amid debates over sexual orientation's biological and behavioral determinants.[64][65] In technology, Microsoft released Windows 3.0 on May 22, 1990, introducing improved multitasking, a revamped user interface with Program Manager and File Manager, and support for up to 256 colors in standard mode, which significantly boosted personal computer adoption by enhancing usability over MS-DOS and prior Windows versions. The operating environment sold over 2 million copies in its first three months, driven by compatibility with Intel 80286 and 80386 processors and integration with applications like Microsoft Office precursors.[66] On May 29, 1990, Boris Yeltsin was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) by a vote of 535 to 467, positioning him as de facto leader of the largest Soviet republic in opposition to Gorbachev's central authority. Yeltsin's victory, following his March election as a people's deputy amid anti-corruption campaigns, accelerated republican autonomy demands and foreshadowed the USSR's fragmentation, as he advocated economic sovereignty and resignation from the Communist Party later that year.[67][68]June
On June 4, Dr. Jack Kevorkian assisted in the suicide of Janet Adkins using a machine he designed, marking one of the first publicized cases of physician-assisted suicide in the United States and igniting debates over euthanasia laws.[69] On June 7, South African President F. W. de Klerk lifted a four-year-old state of emergency in most of the country, a step toward easing apartheid restrictions following Nelson Mandela's release earlier in the year.[69] The Peruvian general election on June 10 resulted in Alberto Fujimori, an agronomist and political outsider, defeating renowned author Mario Vargas Llosa with 62.4% of the vote in the runoff, amid economic hyperinflation exceeding 7,000% annually.[69] On June 11, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in United States v. Eichman that federal laws prohibiting flag desecration violated the First Amendment, extending protections for symbolic speech established in the prior year's Texas v. Johnson decision. Nelson Mandela arrived in New York City on June 20 for an 11-day U.S. tour to garner support for ending apartheid, drawing massive crowds and addressing economic sanctions; on June 26, he spoke to a joint session of Congress, emphasizing continued pressure on the South African regime.[70][69] The most devastating event was the Manjil-Rudbar earthquake on June 21 in northern Iran, registering magnitude 7.4 on the moment magnitude scale, which killed between 35,000 and 50,000 people, injured over 60,000, and left approximately 400,000 homeless in the Gilan and Zanjan provinces due to widespread destruction of adobe structures and poor building codes.[71][72] On June 23, the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted a Declaration of Sovereignty, asserting supremacy of its laws over Soviet ones and paving the way for independence amid the USSR's weakening central control.[69] In sports, the Detroit Pistons defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4-1 in the NBA Finals on June 14, securing their second consecutive championship with a 92-90 victory in Game 5.[69]July
On July 1, 1990, the Monetary, Economic, and Social Union between West Germany and East Germany took effect, establishing a unified currency area with the Deutsche Mark replacing the East German ostmark at a fixed exchange rate of 1:1 for wages and social benefits up to specified limits, and facilitating the integration of East Germany's centrally planned economy into West Germany's market system.[73] [74] This step, formalized by a treaty signed on May 18, accelerated the process of German reunification by aligning fiscal, monetary, and social policies, though it imposed immediate challenges on East German enterprises due to the rapid exposure to competitive pressures.[73] On July 2, a crowd crush occurred in the Al-Ma'aisim pedestrian tunnel near Mecca during the Hajj pilgrimage, where overheating, poor ventilation, and a failure in the tunnel's cooling system led to panic and a stampede, killing at least 1,400 pilgrims primarily through asphyxiation and trampling.[75] The incident, one of the deadliest in Hajj history at the time, prompted Saudi authorities to investigate infrastructure shortcomings but resulted in no major policy changes to crowd management protocols immediately afterward.[75] The Oka Crisis, a land dispute standoff between Mohawk protesters and Canadian authorities, began on July 11 near Oka, Quebec, when Quebec provincial police attempted to dismantle a blockade erected by the Mohawk Warrior Society opposing the expansion of a golf course onto disputed territory including sacred burial grounds and unceded land.[76] The confrontation escalated into a 78-day armed blockade involving the Canadian Army, resulting in one police officer's death and heightened national attention to Indigenous land rights claims under the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and subsequent treaties.[76] On July 26, U.S. President George H. W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act into law, prohibiting discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications, and mandating reasonable accommodations by employers and service providers.[77] The legislation, building on the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, established the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce compliance and aimed to integrate approximately 43 million Americans with disabilities more fully into society.[77] On July 27, the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, asserting the republic's supremacy of national law over Soviet legislation, control over natural resources, and right to its own economic and foreign policies, marking a key step in the unraveling of the Soviet Union.[78] This declaration, later elevated to constitutional status, reflected growing nationalist sentiments amid perestroika and contributed to Belarus's full independence in 1991.[78]August
On August 2, 1990, Iraqi forces numbering approximately 100,000 troops, led by President Saddam Hussein, launched a full-scale invasion of Kuwait, overrunning the smaller nation's defenses and occupying Kuwait City within hours.[6] The action was motivated by Iraq's economic grievances, including accusations that Kuwait was overproducing oil to flood markets and depress prices, thereby exacerbating Iraq's debt from its recent war with Iran, as well as disputes over the Rumaila oil field where Iraq alleged slant-drilling into its territory.[79][6] The United Nations Security Council responded immediately, adopting Resolution 660 on the same day, which condemned the invasion, declared it a breach of international peace, and demanded Iraq's unconditional withdrawal. By August 6, the Council passed Resolution 661, imposing comprehensive economic sanctions on Iraq, including a trade embargo except for essential humanitarian needs, to pressure compliance. On August 7, U.S. President George H.W. Bush authorized Operation Desert Shield, deploying American troops and aircraft to Saudi Arabia to deter further Iraqi aggression, marking the beginning of a multinational buildup that eventually involved over 500,000 U.S. personnel.[79] Iraq formalized its control on August 8 by annexing Kuwait as its 19th province, prompting Bush to describe the move as "totally unacceptable" and escalating diplomatic isolation of the regime.[6] Throughout the month, Saddam Hussein ordered the detention of foreign nationals in Iraq and Kuwait as human shields against potential military retaliation, with around 9,000 Westerners affected by late August. These developments shifted global attention to the Persian Gulf, raising oil prices from about $18 to over $30 per barrel amid fears of supply disruptions.[6] Elsewhere, on August 27, American blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan died in a helicopter crash shortly after performing at Alpine Valley Music Theatre in East Troy, Wisconsin, alongside musicians Eric Clapton and Robert Cray; the accident killed four others and was attributed to pilot error in foggy conditions. This event marked a significant loss in the music world, as Vaughan had revived interest in blues guitar through albums like Texas Flood (1983).September
On September 2, 1990, Transnistria declared independence from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic amid rising ethnic tensions between the Slavic majority and the Romanian-speaking population, leading to subsequent armed conflict.[80] This self-proclamation by the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic highlighted the fragmenting dynamics within the Soviet Union as nationalist movements gained momentum.[81] From September 1 to 10, Pope John Paul II conducted a pastoral visit to Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ivory Coast, addressing themes of peace, development, and Christian unity in sub-Saharan Africa during a period of post-colonial challenges and ethnic strife.[80] The trip drew large crowds and emphasized reconciliation efforts in regions marked by civil unrest, though it occurred against the backdrop of ongoing regional instability, including Rwanda's precursors to genocide.[81] A pivotal diplomatic milestone occurred on September 12, when the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany—known as the Two Plus Four Agreement—was signed in Moscow by the foreign ministers of the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[82] This accord restored full sovereignty to a unified Germany, regulated the size and role of its armed forces, confirmed the postwar Oder-Neisse line as the eastern border, and facilitated the withdrawal of Soviet troops from East Germany by 1994, marking a key step toward European post-Cold War stability.[82] The treaty's provisions, including limits on German military deployments near borders, reflected compromises to address Soviet security concerns amid the USSR's weakening influence.[83] In the context of the Persian Gulf crisis, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 666 on September 13, modifying sanctions against Iraq to permit the import of foodstuffs and medical supplies under strict humanitarian supervision, in response to worsening civilian conditions following Iraq's August invasion of Kuwait.[80] This measure balanced enforcement of economic pressure on Saddam Hussein's regime with international obligations to avert mass suffering, though implementation faced logistical hurdles and accusations of Iraqi manipulation.[81] On September 24, the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic declared state sovereignty, asserting primacy of republican laws over union-wide decrees and accelerating the Soviet republics' push toward independence amid economic decline and Gorbachev's perestroika reforms.[80] This declaration, part of a broader wave including similar moves in Ukraine and the Baltics, underscored the centrifugal forces eroding central authority in the USSR.[81]October
On October 3, 1990, East Germany officially acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, marking the reunification of the two states after 45 years of postwar division.[84] The process culminated at midnight with the raising of the unified German flag over the Reichstag in Berlin, accompanied by national celebrations including bells, hymns, and fireworks.[85] This event followed the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and rapid political negotiations, dissolving the German Democratic Republic and integrating its five states into West Germany's legal and economic framework.[85] Tensions in the Middle East escalated amid the Gulf Crisis, with Iraqi forces holding foreign hostages; on October 23, Iraq released approximately 65 French nationals in a gesture amid international pressure following its August invasion of Kuwait.[86] Earlier, on October 8, riots erupted at Jerusalem's Temple Mount, resulting in 19 Palestinian deaths and over 100 injuries during clashes between Israeli police and protesters throwing stones at Jewish worshippers below.[87] The Nobel Prizes for 1990 were announced throughout the month, with the Peace Prize awarded on October 15 to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev for his pivotal role in easing East-West tensions, including arms reduction treaties and support for German reunification.[88] The Norwegian Nobel Committee cited Gorbachev's leadership in the radical changes to Soviet foreign policy and withdrawal from the arms race as key factors.[88] Other announcements included the Physics Prize on October 9 to Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor for electron scattering experiments confirming quarks; Chemistry on October 10 to Elias James Corey for retrosynthetic analysis in organic synthesis; and Physiology or Medicine on October 8 jointly to Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas for organ and bone marrow transplants.[89] On October 19, Soviet President Gorbachev secured parliamentary approval to transition the USSR economy toward market mechanisms, addressing severe economic stagnation through measures like price liberalization and private enterprise incentives.[90] In sports, October 27 saw the first-ever intercontinental playoff for the FIFA World Cup, with Argentina defeating Australia 2-1 in Buenos Aires to qualify for the 1990 tournament finals.[87]November
On November 1, Geoffrey Howe, deputy prime minister in Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government, resigned and delivered a critical speech in Parliament attacking her opposition to further European integration, which undermined her leadership and prompted a challenge from Michael Heseltine.[91] This event accelerated internal party divisions, leading to a leadership contest within the Conservative Party.[91] On November 7, Mary Robinson was inaugurated as president of Ireland, becoming the first woman to hold the office and the first non-Conservative Unionist candidate elected in the republic's history.[92] Her election reflected shifting social attitudes in Ireland toward greater inclusivity and reform.[92] On November 15, U.S. President George H. W. Bush signed the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 into law, introducing stricter regulations on acid rain, urban air pollution, and toxic emissions, including market-based cap-and-trade provisions for sulfur dioxide and incentives for vehicle fuel efficiency.[93] The legislation aimed to achieve national ambient air quality standards by mandating phase-out of leaded gasoline and establishing programs for ozone-depleting substances.[93] The unfolding crisis in the Persian Gulf intensified when, on November 29, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 678, authorizing member states cooperating with Kuwait to use "all necessary means" to implement prior resolutions demanding Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait, unless Iraq complied by January 15, 1991.[94] This resolution provided the legal basis for the multinational coalition's military action in Operation Desert Storm.[95] In the United Kingdom, the Conservative leadership crisis culminated on November 22 when Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher announced her intention to resign after failing to secure a decisive majority in the first ballot of the party leadership election.[96] She formally tendered her resignation to Queen Elizabeth II on November 28, ending her 11-year tenure, during which she implemented deregulation, privatization, and confronted trade unions; John Major was elected party leader and succeeded her as prime minister.[91] Thatcher's departure marked the end of an era of transformative but polarizing conservative policies.[96]December
On December 1, workers from the British and French sides of the Channel Tunnel project achieved a historic breakthrough when their tunnel boring machines met in the service tunnel approximately 40 meters beneath the seabed, linking the two nations for the first time since prehistoric times.[97] [98] On December 9, Lech Wałęsa, the electrician-turned-dissident who had co-founded the independent trade union Solidarity in 1980 and led strikes against Poland's communist regime, secured a landslide victory in the country's first direct presidential election, defeating Prime Minister Tadeusz Mazowiecki with 74.3% of the vote in the runoff.[99] This outcome reflected widespread public support for Solidarity's role in negotiating the end of one-party rule earlier that year. On December 10, the annual Nobel Prize award ceremonies occurred in Stockholm, Sweden, where Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev received the Peace Prize for his contributions to reducing East-West tensions, including arms control agreements and reforms that facilitated the Soviet Union's withdrawal from the Cold War.[100] Other 1990 laureates honored included Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor for physics (deep inelastic scattering experiments confirming quarks); Elias James Corey for chemistry (development of retrosynthetic analysis in organic synthesis); Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas for physiology or medicine (organ and bone marrow transplants); and Octavio Paz for literature (poetic oeuvre marked by sensuous imagery and intellectual rigor).[101] On December 20, Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist at CERN, developed and accessed the first webpage using the newly implemented World Wide Web protocols, including the first web browser, server, and HTML-formatted document describing the project itself.[102] This internal prototype laid foundational technical elements for hypertext-based information sharing over the internet, though public dissemination occurred later.[103] On December 23, Slovenia held a plebiscite on sovereignty and independence from Yugoslavia, with 88.5% of eligible voters (and 94.8% of participants) approving dissociation from the federal state, amid rising ethnic and political tensions within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.[104] The high turnout of 93.2% underscored broad consensus among Slovenia's population for pursuing separate statehood, setting the stage for formal declaration in June 1991.[105]Science and Technology
Major Achievements
The Hubble Space Telescope was launched on April 24, 1990, aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery, providing astronomers with a space-based observatory free from Earth's atmospheric distortion and enabling high-resolution imaging across ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared spectra.[106] In September 1990, the first approved human gene therapy procedure was performed at the National Institutes of Health, treating four-year-old Ashanthi DeSilva for adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, a severe combined immunodeficiency disorder, by extracting her white blood cells, inserting functional ADA genes via retroviral vectors, and reinfusing them, marking the initial clinical application of somatic gene therapy.[107][108] The Human Genome Project was formally initiated in October 1990 through a collaboration between the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, establishing an international effort to map and sequence the approximately 3 billion base pairs of human DNA over 13 years, with goals including identifying all human genes and developing technologies for genetic analysis.[109][110] By the end of 1990, Tim Berners-Lee at CERN had developed and demonstrated the first functional World Wide Web server and browser software, implementing hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), hypertext markup language (HTML), and uniform resource locators (URLs) to facilitate information sharing among researchers via linked documents over the internet.[111] The 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor for their experimental confirmation of quarks as fundamental constituents of protons and neutrons through deep inelastic scattering experiments conducted in the 1960s and 1970s at SLAC and other facilities.[112] The Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to Elias James Corey for pioneering the retrosynthetic analysis method in organic synthesis, enabling the efficient construction of complex natural products.[113] In Physiology or Medicine, Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas received the prize for developing organ transplantation techniques, including the first successful human kidney transplant in 1954 and bone marrow transplants for leukemia, demonstrating immune suppression and matching to prevent rejection.[114]Inventions and Discoveries
The Hubble Space Telescope, a collaborative project between NASA and the European Space Agency, was launched into low Earth orbit on April 24, 1990, aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery during mission STS-31, providing astronomers with a 2.4-meter aperture reflecting telescope capable of observing ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths without atmospheric interference.[106] Initial images revealed flaws in the primary mirror, later corrected by a 1993 servicing mission, but the telescope's data has since contributed to discoveries including the rate of cosmic expansion and the identification of thousands of exoplanets.[106] In software development, Adobe Photoshop 1.0, developed by brothers Thomas and John Knoll and acquired by Adobe Systems, was released on February 19, 1990, exclusively for Macintosh computers, introducing tools for layers, masks, and color correction that standardized digital photo editing workflows in professional graphics and photography industries.[115] The program's adoption grew rapidly, with version 1.0.7 addressing early bugs by late 1990, establishing it as a cornerstone for raster-based image manipulation.[116] Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, completed development of the first web browser and web server software by late 1990, implementing hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and hypertext markup language (HTML) prototypes on a NeXT computer to facilitate information sharing among particle physicists.[117] Named WorldWideWeb (later renamed Nexus to avoid confusion), this browser-editor allowed viewing, editing, and linking documents, marking the operational inception of the World Wide Web system, though public access expanded in 1991.[118] The Human Genome Project, an international initiative led by the U.S. Department of Energy and National Institutes of Health, was formally launched on October 1, 1990, with the goal of sequencing the approximately 3 billion base pairs in human DNA and mapping genes to advance understanding of genetic diseases and biological functions.[110] Coordinated across multiple institutions including Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Wellcome Trust, the project set milestones for 1990-2005 completion, emphasizing ethical considerations like privacy in genetic data, and ultimately enabled technologies such as personalized medicine despite debates over public versus private sequencing efforts.[109] In medicine, the first approved human gene therapy trial commenced in September 1990 at the National Institutes of Health, treating four-year-old Ashanti DeSilva for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) due to adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency by inserting functional ADA genes into her T-cells via retroviral vectors, representing an initial step in somatic gene correction though long-term efficacy required ongoing enzyme replacement.[119] This ex vivo approach built on prior animal models and preclinical data, highlighting both promise and challenges in vector safety and immune response.[119]Culture and Entertainment
Film
In 1990, the film industry produced a mix of commercial blockbusters and critically acclaimed works, with global box office revenues reflecting strong audience interest in romantic dramas, family comedies, and epic Westerns. Ghost, directed by Jerry Zucker and starring Patrick Swayze and Demi Moore, emerged as the year's highest-grossing film worldwide, earning approximately $505 million, driven by its supernatural romance plot and themes of love and redemption.[120] Pretty Woman, a romantic comedy directed by Garry Marshall featuring Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, followed closely with $463 million worldwide, capitalizing on its Cinderella-like narrative and broad appeal to mainstream audiences.[120] Home Alone, directed by Chris Columbus and produced by John Hughes, became a cultural phenomenon as a family holiday film, grossing $476 million worldwide despite its late November release, largely due to repeat viewings and its slapstick humor centered on a child's defense against burglars.[120] Dances with Wolves, Kevin Costner's directorial debut and starring vehicle, achieved $424 million worldwide and garnered significant critical praise for its portrayal of frontier life and Native American relations, winning seven Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director at the 1991 ceremony.[120] Critically influential releases included Goodfellas, Martin Scorsese's mobster epic starring Robert De Niro, Ray Liotta, and Joe Pesci, which earned eight Oscar nominations and acclaim for its kinetic storytelling and authentic depiction of organized crime, though it was overshadowed by Dances with Wolves for Best Picture. Total Recall, Paul Verhoeven's science fiction action film based on Philip K. Dick's story and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, grossed $261 million worldwide and influenced the genre with its mind-bending plot twists and high-octane effects.[120] Other notable films encompassed Misery, Rob Reiner's adaptation of Stephen King's novel starring Kathy Bates, who won the Best Actress Oscar for her intense performance as an obsessive fan, and Edward Scissorhands, Tim Burton's gothic fantasy with Johnny Depp, praised for its visual style and exploration of outsider themes despite modest initial box office of around $56 million domestic.| Rank | Title | Director | Worldwide Gross (approx.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ghost | Jerry Zucker | $505 million [120] |
| 2 | Home Alone | Chris Columbus | $476 million [120] |
| 3 | Pretty Woman | Garry Marshall | $463 million [120] |
| 4 | Dances with Wolves | Kevin Costner | $424 million [120] |
| 5 | Total Recall | Paul Verhoeven | $261 million [120] |
Music
In 1990, the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles chart was topped by "Hold On" by Wilson Phillips, reflecting the dominance of polished pop harmonies and adult contemporary sounds. Other high-ranking singles included "It Must Have Been Love" by Roxette at number two and "Nothing Compares 2 U" by Sinéad O'Connor at number three, underscoring the international appeal of power ballads and introspective tracks. New Kids on the Block claimed the top spot on Billboard's Year-End Top Artists chart, driven by their album Step by Step, which sold over 3 million copies in the U.S. that year and marked their peak as a teen idol phenomenon.[121] Album sales highlighted a mix of pop compilations and genre breakthroughs, with Madonna's The Immaculate Collection leading as the best-selling album of 1990, certified 30 million worldwide by combining hits with new material like "Vogue."[122] MC Hammer's Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em followed, selling 10 million copies in the U.S. alone and popularizing upbeat, dance-oriented hip-hop with tracks like "U Can't Touch This."[122] Garth Brooks' debut No Fences introduced mainstream country crossover success, eventually reaching 17 million U.S. sales through storytelling ballads such as "Friends in Low Places," signaling the genre's commercial resurgence.[122] In alternative and electronic spheres, Depeche Mode's Violator achieved multi-platinum status with synth-pop anthems like "Enjoy the Silence," influencing future electronic music trajectories.[123] Hip-hop gained cultural momentum with Public Enemy's Fear of a Black Planet, a politically charged album addressing racial tensions that peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200 and earned platinum certification.[123] Mariah Carey's self-titled debut introduced her five-octave range via "Vision of Love," topping the Billboard Hot 100 and establishing her as a vocal powerhouse in R&B-pop fusion.[124] The 33rd Annual Grammy Awards, held on February 20, 1991, recognized 1990 releases, awarding Record of the Year to Phil Collins' "Another Day in Paradise" for its socially conscious pop-rock and Album of the Year to Quincy Jones' Back on the Block for its jazz-rap fusion collaborations.[125] Tragic losses marked the year, including blues-rock guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan, who died on August 27 in a helicopter crash after a concert in East Troy, Wisconsin, at age 35, depriving the music world of his influential Stratocaster-driven style.[126] Sammy Davis Jr., versatile entertainer known for jazz standards and Rat Pack performances, passed away on May 16 from throat cancer at age 64.[126] These events contrasted with the era's commercial highs, highlighting music's volatile undercurrents amid rising production values and global distribution.Literature and Arts
In literature, the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz on October 11, 1990, recognizing his impassioned writing with wide horizons, characterized by sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity.[127] Paz's oeuvre, spanning surrealistic verse and social essays, marked the first such honor for a Mexican author.[128] The Pulitzer Prize for Fiction went to The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos, published earlier that year, for its depiction of Cuban immigrant musicians in 1950s New York, highlighting themes of nostalgia and cultural displacement.[129] The Booker Prize was won by A.S. Byatt's Possession: A Romance, a novel intertwining Victorian scholarship with modern literary detection, which sold over 1 million copies following the award announcement on October 30.[130] Other notable publications included Michael Crichton's Jurassic Park, a techno-thriller serializing genetic engineering risks, released on November 12 and topping bestseller lists with sales exceeding 20 million copies worldwide by decade's end. Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried, a collection of linked stories on Vietnam War experiences, drew on metafictional techniques to explore memory and truth, influencing military literature discourse.[131] In the visual arts, 1990 marked a severe downturn in the global art market, dubbed the "Great Massacre" due to plummeting auction prices—contemporary works fetched under 10% of peak values from the late 1980s boom, driven by economic recession and over-speculation.[132] Major exhibitions provided counterpoints, including retrospectives of Diego Velázquez at the Prado Museum in Madrid, drawing over 300,000 visitors for its focus on the Spanish master's technical mastery, and Titian's works across Venice, Washington, and other venues, emphasizing Renaissance color innovation.[133] Monet's series appeared in Boston, Chicago, and London, underscoring Impressionism's enduring appeal amid market volatility.[133] Emerging trends included heightened debates over censorship and artistic freedom, fueled by U.S. culture wars, with institutions like the National Endowment for the Arts facing congressional scrutiny over funding provocative content, leading to policy shifts restricting grants for "obscene" works.[134] Video and installation art gained traction as accessible media for addressing identity and technology, though specific breakthroughs were nascent before the decade's digital surge.[135]Sports
FIFA World Cup
The 1990 FIFA World Cup, the 14th edition of the tournament, was hosted by Italy from June 8 to July 8, featuring 24 national teams competing in 52 matches across 12 stadiums in nine cities. West Germany claimed their third title by defeating defending champions Argentina 1–0 in the final at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with Andreas Brehme scoring from a penalty in the 85th minute. The event drew a total attendance of 2,516,348 spectators, averaging 48,391 per match, marking the fifth-highest average in World Cup history at the time.[136][137][138] The tournament format included six groups of four teams, with the top two advancing alongside the four best third-placed teams to the knockout stages. A total of 115 goals were scored, averaging 2.21 per match, reflecting a defensively oriented style that drew criticism for tactical caution and low-scoring games. Italy, as hosts, finished third after a 1–0 semifinal loss to Argentina on penalties, while England secured fourth place. Unexpected performers included Cameroon, who reached the quarterfinals as the first African team to do so, defeating Argentina 1–0 in the opening match before falling 3–2 after extra time to England.[139][140] Salvatore Schillaci of Italy won the Golden Boot with six goals, all scored after coming off the bench, edging out Czechoslovakia's Tomáš Skuhravý with five. Lothar Matthäus of West Germany earned the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. The United States' participation, despite a group stage exit with one draw and two losses, generated significant domestic interest and contributed to growing soccer popularity in the country, influencing the sport's development there.[141][142] The final was marred by controversy over officiating by Mexican referee Edgardo Codesal, who awarded West Germany's decisive penalty after Rudi Völler went down in the box under challenge from Roberto Sensini; Argentine players and officials contested it as soft or simulated, with some alleging bias given Codesal's heritage and prior decisions favoring Germany earlier. Argentina had earlier benefited from disputed calls, including a non-awarded penalty against them, but the late penalty shifted momentum in a match low on quality and chances. Despite the acrimony, West Germany's victory unified the nation amid impending reunification with East Germany.[143][144]Other Major Events
In American football, the San Francisco 49ers defeated the Denver Broncos 55–10 in Super Bowl XXIV on January 28 at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana, marking the 49ers' fourth NFL championship in the decade and setting a record for the largest margin of victory in Super Bowl history.[145] The XIV Commonwealth Games took place from January 24 to February 3 in Auckland, New Zealand, featuring 2,073 athletes from 55 nations competing in 204 events across 10 sports, with England topping the medal table with 37 gold medals.[146] A historic upset occurred in professional boxing on February 11, when James "Buster" Douglas knocked out undefeated heavyweight champion Mike Tyson in the tenth round at the Tokyo Dome in Japan, ending Tyson's 37–0 record and 11 title defenses amid pre-fight odds of 42–1 against Douglas.[147] In basketball, the Detroit Pistons won their second consecutive NBA championship by defeating the Portland Trail Blazers 4–1 in the Finals, concluding on June 14 with a 92–90 victory in Game 5, highlighted by Vinnie Johnson's buzzer-beating jumper.[148] The Cincinnati Reds swept the defending champion Oakland Athletics 4–0 in the World Series from October 16 to 20, securing the National League's first title since 1976 behind pitching from José Rijo, who earned MVP honors with two complete-game victories.[149]Economy
Global Trends
In 1990, global real GDP growth slowed to 1.7 percent, a deceleration from the 3.2 percent recorded in 1989, reflecting recessions in key developed markets, geopolitical disruptions, and the initial phases of economic liberalization in former communist states.[150] This moderation occurred against a backdrop of persistent inflation in some regions and tightening monetary policies aimed at curbing overheating from the 1980s expansion. Developing economies showed varied performance, with aggregate growth in low- and middle-income countries averaging around 2.5 percent, buoyed by commodity exports but hampered by external debt burdens averaging over 50 percent of GDP in many cases.[20] The United States, the world's largest economy, saw real GDP expand by just 1.9 percent, entering recession in July amid the fallout from the savings and loan crisis—which had already cost taxpayers an estimated $124 billion in resolutions—and a brief but sharp oil price shock.[151][13] Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2 triggered a surge in crude oil prices from about $17 per barrel to peaks exceeding $40, inflating energy costs globally and exacerbating slowdowns in oil-importing nations, though prices moderated later in the year due to increased non-OPEC production. In Europe, the Eurozone achieved 3.6 percent growth, but this masked emerging weaknesses, including high interest rates to combat inflation above 5 percent in several members.[151] German reunification, formalized economically on July 1 through monetary union and politically on October 3, introduced substantial transfer payments—totaling over 1 trillion Deutsche Marks in the decade's first years—to integrate East Germany's lagging infrastructure and productivity, which stood at roughly one-third of West German levels. Japan, meanwhile, posted 5.6 percent growth but exhibited early signs of strain from its asset bubble, with the Nikkei index declining 39 percent from its late-1989 peak. Centrally planned economies, particularly in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, contracted sharply—Soviet GDP fell by about 4 percent—as reforms dismantled inefficient state enterprises, marking the onset of market-oriented transitions amid hyperinflation and supply disruptions. World merchandise trade volume grew modestly at 2.5 percent, signaling subdued demand amid these headwinds.[152]Key Financial Events
The United States economy entered a recession in July 1990, marking the end of the longest peacetime expansion on record, during which real GDP had grown at an average annual rate of 3.3 percent from the previous trough.[13] This downturn was exacerbated by tight monetary policy from the Federal Reserve to combat inflation, the ongoing savings and loan crisis, and weakening consumer confidence, leading to contractions in investment spending and manufacturing output.[13] Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, triggered a sharp oil price shock, with crude oil prices surging from approximately $17 per barrel to peaks exceeding $40 per barrel by late October, as the loss of Iraqi and Kuwaiti supplies—about 4.5 to 5 million barrels per day—strained global markets amid fears of broader Gulf disruptions.[153] [154] The spike contributed to inflationary pressures and slowed economic activity worldwide, particularly in oil-importing nations, while U.S. stock markets reacted with volatility; the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined nearly 18 percent from its July peak to an October low, including a 42.82-point drop to 2,365.10 on October 12 amid rising bond yields and geopolitical uncertainty.[155] In Japan, the asset price bubble deflated further throughout 1990, with the Nikkei 225 stock index falling approximately 39 percent from its late-1989 peak, reflecting the unwind of excessive credit expansion and speculative real estate valuations that had inflated land prices to levels exceeding four times those of the entire United States despite Japan's smaller geographic size.[156] This decline signaled the onset of prolonged stagnation, as banks grappled with non-performing loans tied to overleveraged investments.[156] The Market Reform Act of 1990 empowered the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission to implement emergency measures in response to market disruptions, building on lessons from the 1987 crash by authorizing circuit breakers and other safeguards to prevent excessive volatility.[157] Additionally, the Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 aimed to enhance federal financial management by establishing CFO positions in major agencies and improving accountability in government accounting practices.[158]Awards and Honors
Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, providing fundamental evidence for the quark model of atomic structure.[112] Their experiments at SLAC in the 1960s and 1970s demonstrated that protons and neutrons consist of point-like constituents, quarks, challenging earlier models and advancing particle physics.[159] In Chemistry, Elias James Corey received the prize for developing the theory and methodology of organic synthesis, including the retrosynthetic analysis approach that systematizes complex molecule construction.[113] Corey's work enabled efficient synthesis of numerous natural products, influencing pharmaceutical and chemical industries by prioritizing logical planning over trial-and-error. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine went jointly to Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas for discoveries enabling organ and bone marrow transplantation as treatments for human disease.[114] Murray performed the first successful kidney transplant in 1954 using identical twins, while Thomas advanced bone marrow transplants for leukemia, both overcoming immunological rejection through innovative immunosuppressive techniques and donor matching.[160] Octavio Paz was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his impassioned writing with wide horizons, marked by sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity, spanning poetry, essays, and diplomacy.[127] His works, such as The Labyrinth of Solitude, explored Mexican identity, modernity, and existential themes, blending surrealism with cultural critique.[161] Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize for his leading role in East-West détente, including arms reduction treaties and policies of glasnost and perestroika that facilitated the end of the Cold War without violence.[88] Announced on October 15, 1990, the award recognized his contributions to nuclear disarmament and European security, amid the Soviet Union's internal reforms and withdrawal from Eastern Europe. The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel was shared by Harry M. Markowitz, Merton H. Miller, and William F. Sharpe for foundational contributions to financial economics.[162] Markowitz developed modern portfolio theory, emphasizing diversification; Sharpe formulated the Capital Asset Pricing Model linking risk and return; Miller advanced corporate finance theory on capital structure irrelevance under perfect markets.[163] Their models underpin investment strategies and risk management in global markets.Fields Medal
The Fields Medals, the most prestigious award in mathematics, were conferred in 1990 to four recipients under the age of 40 during the International Congress of Mathematicians held in Kyoto, Japan, from August 21 to 29.[164][165] The medals recognize exceptional achievements in the field, with each laureate receiving a gold medal and a monetary prize equivalent to the Nobel Prize at the time.[166] The 1990 awards highlighted breakthroughs in algebraic geometry, quantum groups, knot theory, and mathematical physics, reflecting the era's advances in unifying disparate mathematical domains.[167] Vladimir Drinfeld, from the Soviet Union, was honored for his profound contributions to algebraic geometry, number theory, and the theory of automorphic forms, including a proof of the global Langlands conjecture over function fields in rank two.[168][169] His introduction of quantum groups, developed independently alongside Michio Jimbo, provided new frameworks for understanding symmetries in mathematical physics and representation theory.[170] Vaughan F. R. Jones, from New Zealand and affiliated with the University of California, Berkeley, received the medal for discovering an unexpected connection between von Neumann algebras and geometric topology, leading to the Jones polynomial as a novel invariant for distinguishing knots.[168][171] This work extended subfactor theory, enabling applications in statistical mechanics and low-dimensional topology.[172] Shigefumi Mori, from Japan and based at Kyoto University, was recognized for extending the classical Enriques-Kodaira classification of algebraic surfaces to three-dimensional varieties, including a proof of Hartshorne's conjecture on the non-existence of certain rational surfaces.[168][173] His minimal model program advanced birational classification in algebraic geometry, influencing subsequent research on higher-dimensional varieties.[174] Edward Witten, from the United States and at the Institute for Advanced Study, became the first physicist to win the Fields Medal for his innovative proofs in topology and differential geometry, particularly a simplified demonstration of the positive energy theorem in general relativity using superstring-inspired methods.[168][175] His integration of quantum field theory with mathematical structures spurred developments in supersymmetric theories and mirror symmetry.[176]Notable People
Births
- February 16: Abel Makkonen Tesfaye, known professionally as The Weeknd, Canadian singer, songwriter, and record producer recognized for albums like House of Balloons and hits including "Blinding Lights."[177]
- April 9: Kristen Jaymes Stewart, American actress noted for portraying Bella Swan in the Twilight film series and roles in films such as Personal Shopper.[178]
- April 15: Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson, British actress and activist best known for playing Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter film series.[179]
- June 13: Aaron Perry Taylor-Johnson, English actor acclaimed for roles in Kick-Ass, Nowhere Boy, and Bullet Train.[180]
- July 2: Margot Elise Robbie, Australian actress and producer prominent in films like The Wolf of Wall Street, Suicide Squad, and Barbie.[181]
- August 15: Jennifer Shrader Lawrence, American actress who won an Academy Award for Silver Linings Playbook and starred in the Hunger Games series.[182]