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Excepted service

The excepted service consists of those civil service positions in the executive branch of the United States federal government and the government of the District of Columbia that are specifically excluded from the competitive service or the Senior Executive Service by statute, executive order, or regulation.^[1] These roles bypass the standard open competitive examination process mandated for most federal hiring, allowing agencies to appoint individuals based on alternative criteria such as specialized expertise, national security clearances, policy needs, or impracticability of broad competition.^[2] Appointments to the excepted service do not grant employees "competitive status," which restricts their non-competitive transfer to positions in the competitive service and subjects them to agency-specific retention rules during reductions in force.^[3] Excepted service positions are categorized under schedules defined in federal regulations, including Schedule A for hiring individuals with severe disabilities, certain experts, or temporary needs; Schedule B for professional, scientific, or administrative roles where competitive exams are deemed unnecessary; and Schedule C for confidential, policy-influencing aides to high-level officials, often involving short-term political appointments.^[4] Agencies may also establish their own excepted appointing authorities for unique missions, such as intelligence analysis or law enforcement, exemplified by organizations like the Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, and Securities and Exchange Commission, where security vetting and operational urgency preclude standard competitive procedures.^[5] While enabling flexible recruitment for critical functions, the system has drawn scrutiny for potential politicization, particularly in Schedule C expansions that facilitate rapid placement of aligned personnel during administration changes, though empirical data on abuse remains limited and contested across partisan analyses.^[6]

Historical Context

Origins and Pendleton Act

Prior to the Pendleton Act, the federal government operated under the spoils system, whereby appointments were primarily based on political loyalty and patronage rather than merit, fostering widespread corruption, incompetence, and inefficiency as unqualified individuals filled key roles, often prioritizing partisan interests over administrative capability.^[7]^[8] This system, entrenched since the Jacksonian era, culminated in crises such as the assassination of President James A. Garfield on July 2, 1881, by Charles Guiteau, a mentally unstable office-seeker denied a consular post, highlighting the destabilizing effects of patronage-driven expectations.^[9] The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur on January 16, 1883, responded by creating the United States Civil Service Commission to administer open, competitive examinations for fitness in classified positions, mandating merit-based selection and prohibiting political assessments or removals for partisan reasons.^[10]^[11] Initially applied to roughly 13,000 positions—about 10 percent of the federal civilian workforce—the Act targeted clerical roles in large customs districts (over 50 employees) and post offices, as well as subordinate departmental positions, while excluding laborers, non-executive officers, and Senate-confirmed appointees.^[12]^[13] This framework inherently preserved non-competitive appointments for roles where examinations were deemed impracticable or counterproductive, such as those demanding confidentiality, policy determination, or specialized discretion—initially encompassing diplomatic, consular, and certain customs leadership positions exempt from mid-tier exam requirements to maintain executive flexibility.^[14]^[11] By allowing presidential regulations for admissions and exclusions to promote efficiency, the Act laid the foundational distinction between the competitive service for routine, examinable functions and the excepted service for non-routine executive needs, ensuring causal alignment between appointment methods and positional demands without subjecting all roles to standardized testing ill-suited to discretionary governance.^[15] As classified coverage expanded to approximately 46 percent of positions by 1901 under Theodore Roosevelt's expansions, the excepted category retained scope for such targeted exemptions, comprising the majority of appointments into the early 20th century while enabling adaptability in policy and confidential domains.^[16]^[2]

Post-World War II Expansion

Following World War II, temporary appointment authorities implemented during wartime to address urgent personnel shortages in defense and related fields transitioned into enduring excepted service categories, enabling agencies to retain flexibility for national security positions where competitive examinations proved impractical. This evolution was facilitated by the Ramspeck Act of 1940, which empowered the President to revise longstanding exceptions, thereby prioritizing post-war needs for specialized, non-competitive hiring in emerging intelligence and technical domains.^[17]^[17] The 1949 Hoover Commission reinforced this framework by advocating decentralized agency authority over recruitment and examinations, particularly for roles demanding expertise—such as scientific and technical posts—that standard competitive processes failed to evaluate effectively, thus legitimizing excepted service as a targeted tool for administrative efficiency amid Cold War pressures.^[18] Subsequent growth in excepted service positions stemmed causally from expanded federal responsibilities in security and complex operations, rather than unsubstantiated claims of uncontrolled expansion; by June 1996, excepted service personnel approximated 1.4 million (excluding select intelligence agencies), constituting nearly half of the non-SES federal civilian workforce and underscoring adaptations to verifiable agency demands without evidence of systemic policy lapses.^[17]^[17]

Key Legislative Milestones

The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 (Pub. L. 95-454), signed on October 13, 1978, restructured federal personnel categories by creating the Senior Executive Service (SES) as a hybrid tier distinct from both competitive and excepted services, thereby delineating excepted service boundaries while retaining executive authority under 5 U.S.C. § 3302 to exempt positions where competitive exams would impede policy implementation or agency functions. This reform addressed documented rigidities in pre-1978 hiring, such as protracted examinations that delayed staffing for time-sensitive roles, preserving excepted appointments for confidential or policy-influencing positions to facilitate alignment of agency leadership with presidential directives.^[19]^[20]^[2] The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (Pub. L. 107-296), enacted November 25, 2002, granted the newly formed Department of Homeland Security exceptional human resources flexibility, including expanded use of excepted service appointments exempt from certain title 5 requirements, to overcome competitive service delays in filling national security positions post-9/11. By authorizing deviations from standard classification, pay, and adverse action procedures, the act enabled empirical responses to recruitment shortfalls, with DHS leveraging excepted authorities to prioritize operational readiness over procedural uniformity.^[21]^[22]^[23] The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (Pub. L. 108-458), passed December 17, 2004, bolstered excepted service applications in intelligence by mandating reforms to security clearance processes, which historically bottlenecked hiring for national security roles under competitive constraints. Implementing 9/11 Commission findings on systemic delays—where clearance backlogs averaged over a year—the act empowered streamlined vetting reciprocity across agencies, permitting faster excepted placements in policy-sensitive intelligence positions to enhance executive control over threat response capabilities.^[24]^[25]^[26]

Definition and Distinctions

Core Characteristics

The excepted service encompasses federal civil service positions that are exempt from the requirement of open competitive examinations for appointment, as determined by the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) when such exams are deemed impracticable or unnecessary for roles involving confidential, policy-determining, or specialized functions. These appointments remain subject to core provisions of Title 5 of the United States Code, including pay, leave, and basic employment standards, but lack the competitive status granted to employees in the competitive service, meaning incumbents do not automatically qualify for non-competitive transfer to competitive positions or enjoy equivalent protections against arbitrary removal.^[2] This structure enables agencies to fill roles where standardized merit exams cannot reliably evaluate candidates' suitability, such as advisory positions demanding alignment with an administration's policy objectives or handling of sensitive national security matters, where subjective judgment, trust, and rapid onboarding outweigh broad competition. Appointments in the excepted service often occur on indefinite, temporary, or time-limited bases, without the probationary periods or tenure rights that build career protections in the competitive service, allowing greater administrative flexibility to adapt to changing priorities while still adhering to merit system principles where feasible.^[27] The defining rationale reflects a practical acknowledgment that not all federal functions lend themselves to uniform testing; for instance, policy-influencing roles require demonstrated loyalty to executive directives, which exams cannot assess, prioritizing causal effectiveness in governance over rote qualification screening. This exemption avoids the inefficiencies of forcing competitive processes onto positions where they would hinder performance, such as in urgent or niche expertise areas, though it demands rigorous agency justification to prevent abuse.^[28]^[29]

Comparison to Competitive Service and SES

The competitive service encompasses the majority of federal civilian executive branch positions, requiring appointments through open competition, merit-based examinations, and eligibility registers managed by the Office of Personnel Management (OPM).^[3] This process confers competitive status to appointees, enabling noncompetitive movement to other competitive positions after a probationary period, but it frequently results in extended hiring timelines averaging 102 days from vacancy announcement to entry on duty, with some agencies experiencing delays exceeding six months due to procedural requirements.^[30]^[31] In empirical assessments, these rigidities have been linked to inefficiencies, such as understaffing in mission-critical roles, prompting legislative and administrative efforts to streamline processes.^[32] By contrast, the excepted service exempts designated positions from competitive examination and register requirements under statutory authorities, allowing agencies to appoint qualified individuals more expeditiously when open competition is deemed impracticable, such as for confidential or policy-sensitive roles.^[2] Appointments here do not confer competitive status, limiting inter-agency mobility without prior service credit, which prioritizes agency-specific expertise and rapid alignment with leadership directives over broad merit protections.^[2] This flexibility addresses causal bottlenecks in rigid systems, where empirical data show competitive hiring's procedural layers exacerbate vacancies in dynamic environments, enabling excepted service to fill gaps in weeks rather than months.^[31] The Senior Executive Service (SES) operates as a hybrid corps for approximately 7,000 senior leaders, emphasizing performance-based compensation, mandatory mobility across agencies, and protections against removal without cause to foster non-partisan expertise. Unlike the excepted service, SES positions blend competitive and excepted elements but exclude purely political or confidential roles requiring direct elected accountability, instead mandating recertification and executive development to counter agency siloing. Excepted service, however, accommodates top policy influencers—such as advisors or confidential aides—without SES mobility mandates, as these roles demand tight integration with transient administrations rather than career insulation. Structurally, competitive service and SES safeguards, while promoting merit and continuity, can engender inertia against policy shifts, as evidenced by documented bureaucratic delays in implementing executive directives, such as regulatory reforms during the 2017-2021 period where career officials cited procedural hurdles to slow rollbacks.^[33] Excepted service mitigates this by facilitating at-will adjustments in policy-determining positions, enhancing democratic responsiveness to elected leaders without undermining core operational stability in non-policy functions. This distinction underscores excepted service's role in balancing efficiency with accountability, grounded in observations of competitive rigidity's real-world costs.^[34]

Legal and Regulatory Basis

Statutory Foundations

The excepted service encompasses all civil service positions in the executive branch of the United States government that fall outside the competitive service and the Senior Executive Service, functioning as a residual category for roles where competitive examination is impracticable due to the nature of the duties involved.^[1] This definition, codified in 5 U.S.C. § 2103(a), explicitly excludes conferral of competitive status upon appointees, thereby limiting access to certain merit-based protections and transfer rights available in the competitive service.^[2] Positions within this service include those specifically excepted by statute, such as certain national security roles, as well as agency-specific exceptions approved under delegated authorities.^[17] The statutory authority for establishing excepted positions originated with the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of January 16, 1883 (22 Stat. 27), which mandated competitive examinations for classified positions but permitted exceptions for roles incompatible with open competition, such as those requiring confidentiality or specialized expertise.^[10] Section 2 of the Act empowered the President to classify offices and prescribe regulations, laying the groundwork for executive discretion in excepting positions from merit-based hiring. Subsequent codifications in Title 5, United States Code, particularly under chapters 33 and 35, refined this by requiring agency heads to submit justifications to the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) for approving schedules of excepted positions, ensuring exceptions align with demonstrable needs rather than arbitrary preference. Approvals for these exceptions have historically emphasized verifiable justifications tied to operational imperatives, as documented in Government Accountability Office analyses of excepted service usage and legal bases.^[17] For instance, agencies must articulate why competitive processes cannot be applied without hindering efficiency, with OPM oversight preventing unchecked expansion. This structure comports with Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, which grants the President authority to appoint officers with Senate advice and consent, while congressional statutes provide statutory limits and accountability mechanisms to constrain potential abuse.

OPM Schedules and Authorities

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) exercises authority over excepted service appointments through Schedules A, B, C, D, and related provisions under 5 CFR Part 213, which codifies agency-specific exceptions approved by OPM to address circumstances where competitive hiring examinations are impracticable or not administratively feasible.^[4] These schedules function as targeted mechanisms, requiring agencies to submit justifications for OPM review and approval, thereby enabling adaptation to specific workforce gaps while imposing limits on scope and duration to align with merit system principles. OPM periodically consolidates and publishes active authorities, as in its annual Federal Register notices, to ensure transparency and prevent unauthorized proliferation.^[6] Schedule A permits indefinite or temporary appointments for positions demanding exceptional qualifications difficult to evaluate via standard tests, including scientific, technical, or professional roles such as researchers in specialized fields or experts in emerging technologies. It also encompasses hires of individuals with severe physical disabilities whose abilities cannot be readily assessed competitively, provided they meet essential job requirements. Agencies must demonstrate the scarcity of qualified candidates through evidence like labor market analyses before OPM grants authority. Schedule B authorizes appointments for professional and administrative positions where competitive service procedures would unduly hinder agency operations, notably including attorneys, economists, and certain regulatory specialists requiring advanced credentials or bar membership. Unlike Schedule A, it emphasizes roles with established qualification standards but logistical barriers to open competition, with OPM stipulating conversion eligibility to competitive service after probationary periods in some cases. Schedule C applies exclusively to confidential or policy-influencing positions directly assisting top agency officials, such as advisors or aides involved in drafting executive directives, limited to roles at or below GS-15 to preserve alignment with political leadership changes. OPM assigns unique identifiers to each approved position and restricts totals through case-by-case evaluation, with temporary variants allowable for up to 240 days to cover transitional needs. This schedule's design prioritizes loyalty and discretion over broad expertise, subject to revocation if the position's character shifts. Schedules D and E facilitate developmental and experimental hiring: Schedule D covers student trainees and recent graduates in pathways like the Pathways Program, offering non-competitive entry for up to two years with potential conversion upon successful completion. Schedule E, though less commonly invoked, supports agency pilots for innovative recruitment models, such as targeted professional development, with OPM-imposed time limits and evaluation criteria to assess efficacy before permanence.^[4] Across these schedules, OPM's delegation framework under 5 CFR Part 213 mandates empirical documentation of need—such as qualification shortages or operational urgency—fostering incremental adjustments rather than expansive exemptions, as evidenced by agency-specific listings refined through ongoing regulatory updates.^[4]

Appointment Mechanisms

Schedules A Through E

Schedule A authorizes appointments to positions where competitive examinations are impracticable due to the specialized nature of the work, such as scientific, technical, or professional roles requiring unique expertise that cannot be readily assessed through standard testing. Agencies use this schedule for hard-to-fill vacancies, including expert positions at agencies like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for reviewing complex pharmaceutical or medical device applications, where delays in hiring could hinder regulatory functions.^[6] This authority enables non-competitive hiring, bypassing the full competitive service process, which typically involves public notices, examinations, and ranking, thereby allowing agencies to onboard qualified specialists more rapidly—often without the months-long timelines associated with competitive announcements.^[3] Schedule B covers positions where competitive service requirements are not feasible owing to specific professional qualifications or training needs, such as certain legal roles, expert consultants, or student trainees in fields like engineering or diplomacy. For instance, it permits appointments of attorneys or subject-matter experts who possess advanced degrees or certifications not easily evaluated via general exams, with initial terms limited to three years to ensure targeted utility without indefinite tenure. This schedule supports agency needs for temporary influxes of specialized advice, such as in policy analysis or legal advisory capacities, where standard competition might deter high-caliber candidates from private sector or academia. Schedule C applies to confidential, policy-influencing, or supervisory roles over confidential staff, requiring Office of Personnel Management (OPM) approval for each position to maintain limited scope. These are often immediate aides or advisors to political appointees, with annual additions government-wide numbering approximately 1,000 to 2,000, predominantly during administration transitions to align staffing with new leadership priorities.^[35] Permanent positions remain capped per agency, while temporary transitional ones are restricted to 50% of the agency's highest permanent count or three slots, lasting up to 240 days, ensuring they serve short-term alignment without embedding permanent political influence. Schedule D facilitates trial or developmental appointments, particularly through Pathways Programs for students, recent graduates, and Presidential Management Fellows, allowing agencies to assess performance over one- to two-year periods before potential conversion to competitive service. Appointments target entry-level talent pipelines, with grade limits (e.g., GS-09 for recent graduates) to focus on potential rather than immediate seniority, providing a structured evaluation mechanism that reduces long-term hiring risks through probationary oversight.^[36] Schedule E encompasses temporary authorities for emergent or limited-duration needs, such as national emergencies or specific trial staffing, with built-in sunset provisions to prevent conversion to permanent roles.^[6] Examples include short-term hires for crisis response or student nurse positions in health agencies, confined to non-renewable terms (often one year maximum) and subject to OPM revocation, emphasizing flexibility for acute demands like disaster recovery without altering core civil service composition.^[4]

Alternative Hiring Pathways

Certain federal statutes grant agencies authority to hire personnel into excepted service positions without adhering to the standard competitive service examination processes administered by the Office of Personnel Management (OPM), enabling tailored recruitment for mission-specific needs. For instance, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949, particularly Section 8(a), empowers the CIA Director to appoint and compensate all agency personnel—excepting only the Director and Deputy Director—without regard to Title 5 civil service laws, thereby bypassing OPM certification and competitive ranking requirements.^[37]^[38] This exemption facilitates rapid integration of specialized expertise in intelligence operations, where delays from standardized procedures could compromise operational tempo. Similarly, demonstration projects authorized under 5 U.S.C. § 4703 permit OPM-approved experiments with alternative personnel systems, including streamlined hiring mechanisms like direct hire authority for technical and acquisition roles.^[39]^[40] The Department of Defense's Acquisition Demonstration Project (AcqDemo), established in 1999 and expanded thereafter, exemplifies this by allowing participating laboratories and organizations to recruit directly for hard-to-fill positions, replacing traditional ranking with simplified evaluation criteria focused on qualifications and mission alignment.^[41] These projects test deviations from rigid competitive mandates, which often extend time-to-hire beyond 100 days in specialized fields, by prioritizing causal factors like candidate expertise over procedural uniformity.^[42] Post-9/11 expansions underscored the practical advantages of such pathways, as agencies like the CIA and DOD leveraged statutory flexibilities to accelerate workforce growth amid heightened national security demands.^[43]^[44] Demonstration initiatives in DOD science and technology reinvention laboratories (STRLs) under this authority have yielded measurable efficiencies, including reduced recruitment timelines and enhanced retention of technical talent through targeted incentives, addressing empirical gaps in competitive service hiring where vacancy durations averaged longer due to mismatched processes for high-stakes roles.^[45] This approach aligns with causal realities of expertise-driven environments, where one-size-fits-all requirements empirically hinder agility, as evidenced by pre-flexibility hiring lags that impeded post-crisis scaling.^[46]

Applications and Positions

National Security and Intelligence Roles

The excepted service predominates in U.S. national security and intelligence agencies, including the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National Security Agency (NSA), and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), due to the exigencies of covert operations, classified information protection, and rapid threat response, which preclude the delays and disclosures inherent in competitive service hiring.^[37]^[4] These agencies rely on excepted authorities to recruit personnel capable of handling highly sensitive duties without public advertisement of vacancies, which could alert adversaries or compromise sources and methods.^[47] The National Security Act of 1947 explicitly established the CIA as an independent agency with all positions excepted from competitive service requirements, enabling flexible appointments, promotions, and reassignments tailored to intelligence missions rather than standardized civil service rules.^[48] This statutory framework, codified in 50 U.S.C. § 3507 and reinforced by 5 U.S.C. § 2302(a)(2)(C)(ii), exempts CIA roles from open competition to prioritize operational efficacy over bureaucratic uniformity. The NSA, operating under Department of Defense excepted schedules, similarly employs broad excepted hiring for cryptologic and signals intelligence positions, as authorized by executive orders and OPM approvals under 5 CFR Part 213.^[6] In the FBI, excepted service covers special agents and intelligence analysts, bypassing competitive exams to focus on specialized skills vetted through background checks and polygraphs, per authorities in 28 U.S.C. § 536 and Schedule B provisions. Excepted hiring facilitates polygraph examinations and security clearances essential for mission-critical roles, ensuring recruits are aligned with national security imperatives without the vetting disruptions of public competitions.^[49]^[50] For instance, CIA and NSA processes mandate polygraphs for most hires, screening for loyalty and undisclosed foreign contacts in ways incompatible with competitive service's emphasis on merit-based anonymity.^[51] This approach mitigates risks of inadvertent leaks from broad applicant pools or prolonged hiring timelines, which historically hampered intelligence responsiveness before post-World War II reforms centralized such flexibilities.^[47] Internal mechanisms, including agency inspectors general and congressional intelligence committees, provide accountability absent in critiques emphasizing unchecked secrecy, as excepted positions remain subject to statutory oversight and performance standards.^[48] Across the intelligence community, these roles number in the tens of thousands, comprising the bulk of federal civilian intelligence personnel exempt from competitive constraints to sustain discreet, agile operations.^[17]

Policy-Determining and Confidential Positions

Schedule C authorizes a limited number of excepted positions characterized by their confidential or policy-determining functions, exempting them from competitive service requirements to permit direct appointment by agency heads or the President for roles demanding trust and alignment with executive directives.^[52] These include confidential assistants to cabinet secretaries, policy advisors in regulatory agencies, and special counsels in the Executive Office of the President, with agency-specific caps—such as up to 75 for White House administrative support—resulting in a total of approximately 1,400 such roles across the federal government as documented in recent listings.^[6]^[35] Schedule C appointees serve at the pleasure of the appointing authority, leading to substantial turnover upon presidential transitions, with data from prior administrations showing near-total replacement to embed the incoming executive's policy vision and counter potential holdover influences from previous tenures.^[53] In practice, this has supported swift advisory input on priority shifts; for example, during efforts to revise environmental regulations at the Environmental Protection Agency, policy-determining aides facilitated deregulatory actions amid documented implementation lags attributable to career staff continuity.^[54] By prioritizing executive discretion in staffing advisory capacities, Schedule C enhances the federal government's capacity to respond to voter-endorsed changes, mitigating the inertia inherent in the competitive service's tenure protections that can perpetuate outdated priorities.^[55] Although concerns exist regarding the potential for unqualified selections or short-term focus, analyses of post-election bureaucratic dynamics indicate that such positions reduce friction in policy execution, outweighing risks when contrasted with evidenced delays in agenda advancement under entrenched career structures.^[56]^[57]

Controversies and Debates

Claims of Reduced Accountability

Critics, including advocacy groups such as Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), have claimed that the excepted service enables patronage and nepotism, particularly through Schedule C appointments for confidential or policy-influencing roles, by bypassing competitive merit-based hiring and allowing political loyalty to influence selections over qualifications.^[58] These allegations, often amplified in reports from left-leaning organizations, assert that such practices erode the merit system established by the Pendleton Act of 1883, potentially prioritizing personal or partisan connections in federal staffing.^[59] However, U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) profiles of the excepted service have not documented systemic abuse, with oversight focusing on distribution rather than prevalent impropriety, and OPM's review processes for conversions from political to career roles identifying isolated issues rather than broad patterns since the early 1990s.^[60] Another set of claims centers on diminished due process for excepted service employees, who typically lack full appeal rights to the Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB) for removals, especially during initial trial periods of up to two years, contrasting with competitive service protections that require notice, response opportunities, and preponderance-of-evidence standards.^[61]^[62] Advocacy from groups like Protect Democracy highlights this as enabling easier dismissals without rigorous justification, raising risks of politicized terminations in roles intended for policy alignment.^[63] Empirical reviews by MSPB indicate that while excepted employees face streamlined removal processes suited to non-routine duties, comprehensive data on appeals show no disproportionate patterns of arbitrary actions attributable to these mechanisms.^[64] Assertions of reduced accountability have included narratives linking excepted service expansion to heightened corruption risks, portraying it as a vector for ideological capture or ethical lapses beyond traditional spoils systems.^[65] Such claims, prevalent in mainstream media and progressive critiques, suggest growth in excepted positions— from specialized schedules like those for national security—fosters unmerited influence. Yet, analyses reveal this expansion aligns with evolving agency missions and technical demands rather than partisan entrenchment, with no verified causal evidence of corruption spikes; GAO and OPM data track increases in categories like cyber or intelligence roles without correlating them to ethical breaches.^[66]^[67] CREW and similar sources, while citing historical precedents like 19th-century patronage, often lack quantitative links to modern excepted service operations, reflecting institutional biases toward viewing executive hiring flexibilities as inherently suspect.^[58]

Arguments for Executive Flexibility

Proponents argue that the excepted service enables the executive branch to align administrative implementation with the president's elected mandate, countering the entrenchment fostered by competitive service protections, which empirical accounts document as enabling bureaucratic resistance to policy directives. Civil service safeguards, intended to prevent spoils-system abuses, have evolved to shield career officials from removal for performance or misalignment issues, complicating reforms such as executive orders on regulatory streamlining. For instance, analyses of agency responses to presidential initiatives reveal instances where entrenched personnel delayed or diluted directives, as protections render dismissals arduous absent misconduct findings.^[17]^[33] This dynamic underscores a causal link: without excepted mechanisms for policy-influencing roles, unelected officials can impede voter-accountable governance, necessitating flexible appointments to ensure directive fidelity.^[68] Excepted service authorities demonstrably enhance operational efficiency by expediting recruitment for specialized or urgent needs, bypassing protracted competitive examinations and veterans' preferences that extend timelines. Federal hiring data indicate average processing exceeds 90 days for competitive positions due to structured assessments and appeals, whereas excepted pathways—exempt from such mandates—facilitate selections in weeks to months, per agency practices. OPM evaluations affirm this flexibility aids mission-critical staffing, with usage surging over two decades to address impracticalities in traditional processes, yielding effective outcomes in roles demanding rapid policy execution without compromising qualifications.^[69]^[70]^[71] Safeguards mitigate overreach risks, as Congress statutorily delineates excepted schedules (A-E) with position caps—e.g., Schedule C limited to hundreds of confidential aides—and OPM conducts reviews to verify impracticability of competitive exams, preventing arbitrary expansion. Historical application since the Pendleton Act's residual category has sustained adaptability across administrations without precipitating governance breakdowns, balancing flexibility against permanence.^[4]^[6]^[17]

Schedule F and Bureaucratic Resistance

Executive Order 13957, issued on October 21, 2020, established Schedule F within the excepted service to reclassify certain federal positions characterized by their confidential, policy-determining, policy-making, or policy-advocating nature, thereby removing civil service tenure protections and enabling at-will employment adjustments.^[72] This reform targeted an estimated 50,000 positions across executive agencies, focusing on roles where unelected career officials exert significant influence over policy implementation without direct accountability to elected leadership.^[73] Proponents argued that such reclassification would counteract entrenched bureaucratic inertia, often described as "deep state" sabotage, by aligning policy execution more closely with presidential directives while preserving merit-based hiring processes.^[74] Critics, including the National Treasury Employees Union (NTEU), contended that Schedule F risked politicizing the civil service by eroding due process protections and facilitating arbitrary dismissals based on policy disagreements rather than performance.^[75] The NTEU, representing over 250,000 federal workers, viewed the order as a step toward reinstating patronage systems, potentially subjecting career experts to loyalty tests and undermining institutional expertise in favor of short-term political goals.^[76] Defenders countered that these fears were overstated, noting that Schedule F maintained competitive selection and examination requirements under 5 U.S.C. § 3309, distinguishing it from pure political appointments while addressing real accountability gaps in policy-influencing roles.^[77] They emphasized that the reform did not eliminate expertise but enabled removal of officials demonstrably obstructing executive priorities, without converting positions into Schedule C political slots.^[78] Empirical instances of bureaucratic resistance during the Trump administration underscore the rationale for Schedule F, including documented delays in deregulation efforts at agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy, where career staff cited internal procedural hurdles or interpretive disagreements to slow rollbacks of Obama-era rules.^[33] For example, reports detail career officials withholding data, invoking selective statutory interpretations, or coordinating with external litigants to frustrate executive orders on immigration and energy policy, contributing to only partial implementation of promised reforms despite clear presidential intent.^[33] Such patterns reveal causal links between insulated tenure and policy sabotage, prioritizing abstract job security norms over democratic accountability; evidence from these cases supports reclassification as a pragmatic tool for ensuring policy influencers align with elected mandates, rather than perpetuating unaccountable veto power within the executive branch.^[79]

Recent Reforms and Developments

Trump Administration Initiatives (2020)

On October 21, 2020, President Donald Trump issued Executive Order 13957, establishing a new Schedule F category in the excepted service for federal career employees occupying positions of a confidential, policy-determining, policy-making, or policy-advocating character.^[74] The order specified that such positions, which are not normally subject to changes accompanying presidential transitions, would be reclassified from the competitive service, stripping employees of statutory protections against adverse actions for performance or misconduct while preserving veteran preference in appointments and prohibiting removals based on political affiliation.^[74] Agencies were required to submit lists of potentially eligible positions to the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) within 90 days and to begin reclassifications, with OPM tasked to issue implementing guidance.^[74] The executive order's stated purpose was to improve accountability and performance management among policy-influencing federal employees, whom the administration contended were shielded by civil service rules from effective oversight despite exercising substantial discretion in executing the President's agenda.^[74] It emphasized that while most career civil servants provide continuity and expertise, a subset in non-routine policy roles warranted at-will employment status to align operations with elected leadership, arguing that existing protections—such as those under Title 5 of the U.S. Code—impeded timely removal of underperformers or those obstructing policy implementation.^[74] OPM estimates projected that up to 50,000 positions across the executive branch could qualify for reclassification, primarily targeting mid- to senior-level roles in policy formulation rather than the broader executive workforce.^[80] Implementation proceeded in preliminary stages, with agencies directed to review and propose positions for Schedule F placement, but no actual reclassifications occurred before the order's revocation.^[81]^[82] The Government Accountability Office reported that executive agencies identified potential candidates but halted processes upon President Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, resulting in zero positions moved to Schedule F during the original initiative.^[81] This limited rollout precluded observable operational impacts, such as shifts in policy execution speed or employee turnover rates, though the order's framework anticipated enhanced responsiveness in affected roles without mandating mass dismissals.^[81]

Biden Reversal and 2025 Reinstatement

On January 22, 2021, President Biden issued Executive Order 14003, titled "Protecting the Federal Workforce," which explicitly revoked Executive Order 13957 and eliminated the Schedule F category in the excepted service.^[83] The order described Schedule F as a mechanism that could enable arbitrary dismissals of career civil servants, thereby threatening the merit-based, nonpartisan framework of the federal workforce and restoring prior protections against politicization.^[83] To further insulate positions from reclassification, the Office of Personnel Management under the Biden administration finalized regulations on April 9, 2024, amending 5 CFR part 212 to entrench competitive service status for employees transferred to excepted service roles, imposing procedural hurdles such as documentation requirements and appeal rights to prevent mass shifts like those envisioned under Schedule F.^[15]^[84] These measures faced reversal following the 2024 election, as persistent challenges with bureaucratic inertia and resistance to executive policy directives—evident in delayed implementations across agencies—prompted renewed emphasis on accountability. On January 20, 2025, President Trump signed Executive Order 14171, "Restoring Accountability to Policy-Influencing Positions Within the Federal Workforce," which immediately reinstated Executive Order 13957 with amendments, redesignating Schedule F as Schedule Policy/Career to cover confidential, policy-determining, and policy-influencing career positions while preserving nonpartisan recruitment.^[78] The order directed federal agencies to expeditiously review and nominate positions for the new schedule, aiming to facilitate removal of employees obstructing presidential priorities without broadly affecting operational staff.^[78]^[85] Implementation advanced with Office of Personnel Management guidance issued on January 27, 2025, requiring agencies to submit position reviews by April 2025, followed by a proposed rulemaking published in the Federal Register on April 23, 2025, to codify Schedule Policy/Career regulations.^[85]^[86] This proposal rescinded the 2024 Biden regulations and targeted an estimated 50,000 positions across policy-related roles, enabling at-will termination for poor performance or misalignment with administration goals while retaining veterans' preference and other hiring merits.^[87]^[84] As of October 2025, agency-led identifications have proceeded on a targeted basis, with official directives emphasizing performance-based accountability over wholesale purges, though final rulemaking and broader effects remain under review amid ongoing public comments.^[86]^[88]

References

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5 U.S. Code § 2103 - The excepted service - Law.Cornell.Edu
The “excepted service” consists of those civil service positions which are not in the competitive service or the Senior Executive Service.
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Policy, Data, Oversight - OPM.gov
Excepted Service. Appointments in the Excepted Service are civil service appointments within the Federal Government that do not confer competitive status.
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Jul 30, 2024 · (1) Civilian professors, instructors, teachers (except teachers at the Children's School), Cadet Social Activities Coordinator, Chapel Organist ...
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Spoils System | Definition, Timeline & Significance - Lesson
Some new appointees lacked education and experience, which led to inefficiency and incompetence. Sometimes new appointees were more than merely inefficient and ...
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Pendleton Act (1883) | National Archives
Feb 8, 2022 · Approved on January 16, 1883, the Pendleton Act established a merit-based system of selecting government officials and supervising their work.
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[PDF] FORTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS. SESS. U. CH. 25-27. 1883. 403
-An act to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States. Jan ... First, for open, competitive examinations for testing the fitness of Competitive ...
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What Is Federal Civil Service Like Today? – AHA
Only about 10 percent of the federal jobs were covered at the time the Civil Service Act was passed—1883. But the act gave the president the authority to ...
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[PDF] History of Civil Service in the United States - Granicus
The first comprehensive merit-based civil service system was put in place by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883, which created the United States ...Missing: excepted | Show results with:excepted<|separator|>
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Apr 23, 2021 · Specifically, it targeted employees in mid-tier positions but exempted those below a salary threshold as well as districts' top managers (the “ ...
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Upholding Civil Service Protections and Merit System Principles
Apr 9, 2024 · The Pendleton Act of 1883 ended this patronage system for covered positions and created the competitive civil service. Coverage has grown as a ...
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Competitive service - Ballotpedia
When Roosevelt assumed office in 1901, 46 percent of the positions in the federal civilian workforce were categorized as classified positions. When ...
[17]
[PDF] GGD-97-72 The Excepted Service - Government Accountability Office
Oct 12, 1995 · Almost all of the remaining 48 percent of federal civilian workers—nearly 1.4 million in all—are in the. “excepted service.” They are employed ...Missing: 1900s | Show results with:1900s
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[PDF] Entering Professional Positions in the Federal Government
In 1949, the first Hoover Commission recommended giving primary responsibility for recruiting and examining Federal employees to the agencies. And so it has ...
[19]
S.2640 - Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 95th Congress (1977-1978)
Provides for the conversion of employees serving under career and career conditional and noncareer appointments or similar types of appointment in an excepted ...
[20]
Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 - EEOC
An Act to reform the civil service laws. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled.
[21]
H.R.5005 - 107th Congress (2001-2002): Homeland Security Act of ...
Vests primary responsibility for investigating and prosecuting acts of terrorism in Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies with proper jurisdiction ...P.L. 107-296 · Cosponsors (118) · Committees (13) · Amendments (409)
[22]
Homeland Security Act of 2002
NOTICE: DHS strives to provide equal access to information and data to people with disabilities in accordance with Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ...
[23]
Homeland Security leaders win broad power over civil service rules
Nov 21, 2002 · Civil service laws governing pay and promotions, job classification, collective bargaining, performance appraisals, discipline and firing ...<|separator|>
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S.2845 - Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 ...
Requires the Director to have extensive national security expertise. Prohibits the Director from being located within the Executive Office of the President or ...
[25]
Security & Suitability Reform Effort - DNI.gov
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA) challenged the Federal Government to address longstanding problems with the timeliness and ...Missing: hiring flexibility
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Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 - GovInfo
Subtitle A--Establishment of Director of National Intelligence Sec. 1011. Reorganization and improvement of management of intelligence community. Sec. 1012.
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[PDF] Chapter 11: Excepted Service Appointments - OPM
When making appointments in the excepted service, certain special conditions may impact the documentation of the personnel actions and. Page 3. Chapter 11: ...
[28]
5 CFR Part 6 -- Exceptions from the Competitive Service (Rule VI)
OPM may except positions from the competitive service when it determines that (A) appointments thereto through competitive examination are not practicable.Missing: rationale | Show results with:rationale
[29]
5 U.S. Code § 3304 - Competitive service; examinations
... impracticable, which certification shall include— ... the employee was appointed initially under open, competitive examination under subchapter I of this chapter ...
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[PDF] Reforming Federal Hiring - Beyond Faster and Cheaper
After a disappointed office-seeker assassinated President Garfield, the Pendleton Act established a competitive civil service that removed 10 percent of Federal ...Missing: early 1900s
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[PDF] GAO-25-106658, FEDERAL WORKFORCE: OPM Needs to Take ...
Mar 20, 2025 · Excepted service hiring authorities enable agencies to hire when it is not feasible or not practical to use traditional competitive hiring ...
[32]
Defense Workforce: Efforts to Address Challenges in Recruiting and ...
Sep 3, 2025 · DOD relies on its blue-collar workforce to perform and support a variety of work. GAO's prior work found that DOD has faced long-standing ...Missing: hiring delays
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Tales From the Swamp: How Federal Bureaucrats Resisted ...
Jan 8, 2025 · This report documents cases of career bureaucrats resisting presidential policies in the first Trump Administration.
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[PDF] GGD-90-105 Federal Recruiting and Hiring: Making Government ...
Also, at two sites GAO found that agencies, following OPM'S procedures, made selections without documenting the rating and ranking of applicants even though ...
[35]
Plum Reporting - Position Descriptions - OPM
Schedule C positions are excepted from the competitive service because of their confidential or policy-determining character. Most such positions are at grade ...<|separator|>
[36]
5 CFR § 213.3402 - Entire executive civil service; Pathways Programs.
(1) Agencies may make initial appointments of Recent Graduates at any grade level, not to exceed GS-09 (or equivalent level under another pay and classification ...
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[PDF] STATUTORY EXCEPTIONS TO THE COMPETITIVE SERVICE - CIA
Section 8(a) of the CIA Act of 1949, as amended (50 U.S. C.. 403j). The exception covers all positions and all personnel of CIA except the Director and the ...
[38]
The Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949, 20 June 1949
Jul 26, 2022 · The Central Intelligence Agency Act (Public Law 81-110, 63 Statute 2018) authorizes the CIA to secretly fund intelligence operations and conduct personnel ...
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[PDF] g:\comp\intel\central intelligence agency act of 1949.xml - GovInfo
(2) hire personnel for the purpose of any detail under para- graph (1). INTELLIGENCE OPERATIONS AND COVER ENHANCEMENT AUTHORITY. SEC. 23. ø50 U.S.C. 3523¿ (a) ...
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Personnel Demonstration Project; Alternative ... - Federal Register
Title VI of the Civil Service Reform Act, now codified in 5 U.S.C. 4703, authorizes the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) to conduct demonstration projects ...
[41]
Welcome to AcqDemo | www.dau.edu
AcqDemo is a Congressionally-mandated project designed to show that the DoD acquisition workforce can be improved by providing employees with a flexible, ...Missing: efficiency vacancy
[42]
[PDF] Federal Civilian Workforce Hiring, Recruitment, and Related ... - RAND
7 U.S.C, Title 5, Section 4703. 8 The OPM puts the number at 18, but the now-expired Federal Bureau of Investigation demonstration project was not authorized ...
[43]
[PDF] Workforce Planning in the Intelligence Community - RAND
After 9/11, the intelligence community rebuilt a downsized workforce, faced criticism, and developed a more strategic approach to workforce planning.
[44]
The Civil Defense Acquisition Workforce: Enhancing Recruitment ...
Nov 22, 2016 · To help rebuild the workforce and enhance recruitment, DOD has used several hiring flexibilities authorized by Congress, the President, and OPM ...
[45]
Personnel Demonstration Project at the Army Futures Command ...
Feb 22, 2024 · The resulting Mod Demo includes personnel flexibilities that optimize the ability to hire, retain, train, and engage a high-performing workforce ...<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] Direct-Hire Authority Under 5 U.S.C. § 3304: Usage and Outcomes
DoD Laboratory Demonstration Project DHA: Public Law 103-337, granted in May 1996, allows DoD labs covered under approved demonstration projects to use direct ...
[47]
[PDF] CIA-RDP82-00357R000200060070-1
Background: The CIA is an "excepted" agency--exempted from the. Civil Service rules concerning appointments, promotions, reassignments and related personnel ...
[48]
National Security Act of 1947 - DNI.gov
converted to the excepted service. (3) In this subsection, the term “covered department” means the Department of Energy, the Department of Homeland Security,
[49]
CIA Requirements
... Polygraph Interview. Polygraph interviews are mandatory, with no exceptions. Our polygraph examiners are highly trained security professionals. We keep all ...
[50]
Suitability Process - U.S. Intelligence Community careers
The in-person security processing includes a polygraph and, in some cases, a one-to-two-day security interview. Background investigation. In cases where an ...
[51]
National Security Agency Careers | Apply Now
NSA offers challenging career opportunities in a variety of career fields to produce national security outcomes. Join the Mission - Apply Now!
[52]
5 CFR Part 213 Subpart C -- Excepted Schedules - eCFR
Positions filled under this authority are excepted from the competitive service and constitute Schedule A.
[53]
[PDF] Executive and Schedule C System (ESCS) - OPM
Sep 12, 2025 · Agencies that are statutorily exempt from having Senior Executive. Service (SES) staff fill their executive positions with SL staff. These.
[54]
[PDF] Reversing Trump Environmental Rollbacks: - UC Berkeley Law
May 1, 2021 · The White House is responsible for the bulk of the fully reversed rollbacks, while the EPA has the most actions currently under review as well ...
[55]
SES Desk Guide - Ch. 1 - Executive Resources Management - OPM
The SES is designed to give greater authority to agencies to manage their executive resources and hold executives accountable for individual and organizational ...
[56]
Elections, Ideology, and Turnover in the US Federal Government
Abstract. A defining feature of public sector employment in the United States is the regular change in elected leadership. We describe how these changes al.
[57]
Bureaucratic 'Churn' after Presidential Elections | NBER
Jan 30, 2017 · Turnover rates for career federal employees are higher in the first few years of a new administration than at other times, particularly among senior executives.
[58]
FAQ: The conservative attack on the merit-based civil service - CREW
Jan 25, 2024 · The spoils system fostered corruption, as officials often felt indebted to the political party or individuals who helped them secure positions ...
[59]
Trump's New Executive Order on the Civil Service Poses a Grave ...
Oct 27, 2020 · It's not yet clear whether Trump's new Executive Order, if implemented, might bring back some form of spoils system, and the corrupt practices ...Missing: spikes evidence
[60]
The Excepted Service: A Research Profile | U.S. GAO
GAO provided information on the excepted service, focusing on: (1) the distribution of excepted service employees across government organizations.Missing: growth post World War
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[PDF] What is Due Process in the Federal Civil Service Employment?
The U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly held that, when a cause is required to remove a public employee, due process is necessary to determine if that cause has ...
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[PDF] Adverse Actions: The Rules and the Reality
In competitive service, probation allows termination without notice. Excepted service allows termination in first two years. The standard of proof is " ...
[63]
[PDF] Termination of Probationary employees - Protect Democracy
Many excepted service employees who are serving probationary periods have no right to file MSPB appeals. Important exceptions to this general rule are discussed ...
[64]
Making Sense of Excepted Service, Trial Periods, and Appeal Rights
5 CFR 213.101 states that excepted service positions are those Executive Branch positions defined by statute, by the President, or by OPM which are not in the ...<|separator|>
[65]
NARFE: OPM Scheme to Remove Merit-Based Civil Service ...
Apr 22, 2025 · NARFE: OPM Scheme to Remove Merit-Based Civil Service Protections Threatens Rule of Law, Greater Corruption, and Failure of Government ...Missing: spikes evidence
[66]
[PDF] Excepted Service Hiring Authorities Their Use and Effectiveness in ...
GAO found that of the 105 hiring authorities available, agencies used 20 hiring authorities to fill 91 percent of job vacancies in. FY14, and the remaining nine ...
[67]
The Excepted Service: A Research Profile - GovInfo
... complexity of the excepted service raises various methodological difficulties. ... reasons for continuing agencies' exceptions to the competitive service. For ...
[68]
Bureaucratic Management and the Limits of Presidential Power
Apr 6, 2021 · It explains the key role of management in the presidential skill set, detailing how bureaucratic resistance can stall and even prevent actions ...
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[PDF] Federal Hiring Flexibilities Resource Center - OPM
• Excepted Service Employment. – Excepted service hiring authorities provide alternatives when traditional competitive hiring procedures are impractical ...
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[PDF] Navigating USAJOBS to Land a Federal Role
On average, it takes over 90 days to complete the hiring process which is double the time as the private sector. Applicants have reported in the past that they ...
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[PDF] OPM Special Study – Excepted Service Hiring Authorities
Jul 18, 2018 · It provides analysis of how agencies have been using the various excepted service hiring authorities available to them, with a special emphasis ...
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Creating Schedule F in the Excepted Service - Federal Register
Oct 26, 2020 · Executive Order 13957 of October 21, 2020. Creating Schedule F in the Excepted Service. By the authority vested in me as President by the ...
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Trump's Schedule F plan, explained - Protect Democracy
Jun 11, 2024 · The Trump official credited with the idea to create Schedule F estimated that it could apply to as many as 50,000 federal workers. Some Trump ...
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Executive Order on Creating Schedule F In The Excepted Service
Oct 21, 2020 · Faithful execution of the law requires that the President have appropriate management oversight regarding this select cadre of professionals.<|control11|><|separator|>
[75]
OPM Establishes Safeguards Against Schedule F - NTEU
Apr 4, 2024 · Schedule F has been rightly criticized as an effort to resurrect the corrupt political patronage system and was rescinded by President Biden ...
[76]
NTEU to OPM: Don't Politicize the Federal Workforce
May 27, 2025 · The administration's proposal to strip due process protections from federal employees violates their constitutional rights and opens the door to politicizing ...
[77]
AFPI Supports OPM's Proposed Rule to Restore Accountability in ...
Jun 30, 2025 · The proposed rule is both necessary and legally justified. It would make policy-influencing roles at-will positions, restoring the President's ...Missing: influencers | Show results with:influencers
[78]
Restoring Accountability To Policy-Influencing Positions Within the ...
Jan 20, 2025 · Only 41 percent of civil service supervisors are confident that they can remove an employee who engaged in insubordination or serious misconduct ...
[79]
Restoring Accountability To Policy-Influencing Positions Within The ...
Jan 21, 2025 · The Order is intended to restore accountability in career civil service, reinstating a prior administration policy.
[80]
Trump administration estimates 50,000 federal employees will lose ...
Apr 18, 2025 · OPM estimated that 50,000 federal employees would be converted into Schedule Policy/Career, a number on the lower end of previous estimates.
[81]
[PDF] Agency Responses and Perspectives on Former Executive Order to ...
Sep 28, 2022 · The Schedule C category of excepted service allows for the hiring of positions that are policy- determining or which involve a close and ...Missing: prerogative | Show results with:prerogative
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FAQ: Schedule Policy/Career (formerly Schedule F) - FedSupport Hub
The executive order creating Schedule Policy/Career directs agency leaders to identify all employees in competitive service positions or in other schedules ...
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Executive Order on Protecting the Federal Workforce
Jan 22, 2021 · Revocation of Schedule F. (a) The creation of a new Schedule F excepted service category in Executive Order 13957 of October 21, 2020 ...
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Document (OPM-2025-0004-0001) - Regulations.gov
Positions moved from the excepted service will continue to be filled using the procedures that applied to their prior excepted service schedule. As further ...
[85]
[PDF] Guidance on Implementing President Trump's Executive Order - OPM
Jan 27, 2025 · It creates a new Schedule Policy/Career in the excepted service for positions that are of a confidential, policy-determining, policy-making, ...
[86]
Improving Performance, Accountability and Responsiveness in the ...
Apr 23, 2025 · Transfers into the excepted service are not adverse actions covered by subchapter II. Unlike the Lloyd-La Follette Act, nothing in the CSRA ...
[87]
OPM proposes rule to formally revive Schedule F
Apr 18, 2025 · The federal government's dedicated HR agency estimates that 50,000 federal workers will be stripped of their civil service protections and ...
[88]
OPM-2025-0004 - Regulations.gov
The proposed rule lets policy-influencing positions be moved into Schedule Policy/Career. These positions will remain career jobs filled on a nonpartisan ...Missing: F April