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FNDC5

FNDC5 (fibronectin type III domain containing 5) is a protein-coding gene located on chromosome 1p35.1 in humans that encodes a transmembrane glycoprotein primarily expressed in skeletal muscle, heart, and brain tissues.^[1] The encoded protein, also known as FNDC5, undergoes proteolytic cleavage to release its C-terminal fragment, a myokine termed irisin, which circulates in the bloodstream and mediates intercellular signaling, particularly in response to physical exercise.^[2] Irisin plays a central role in metabolic regulation by promoting the browning of white adipose tissue and enhancing energy expenditure, thereby linking muscle activity to systemic health benefits.^[3] FNDC5 was first identified in 2002 through bioinformatics analysis of fibronectin type III domain-containing proteins, with its secreted form irisin discovered in 2012 as an exercise-induced hormone derived from PGC-1α-mediated upregulation in muscle cells.^[2] Structurally, the full-length FNDC5 protein consists of approximately 212 amino acids, featuring an N-terminal signal peptide, a fibronectin type III domain, and a transmembrane domain, while mature irisin is a 112-amino-acid peptide that forms a stable homodimer stabilized by β-sheet interactions and glycosylation at specific asparagine residues.^[2] In non-human mammals, translation initiates at a standard AUG codon, but in humans, a non-AUG start codon (ATA) may reduce full-length protein expression, leading to ongoing debates about its circulating levels and bioactivity.^[3] The gene spans 7 exons and produces multiple transcript variants, with basal expression levels notably higher in heart (RPKM 13.5) and liver (RPKM 8.6) tissues, though skeletal muscle is the primary functional source.^[1] Physiologically, FNDC5/irisin exerts pleiotropic effects beyond metabolism, including positive regulation of brown fat cell differentiation via upregulation of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α), which improves insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake in adipose and skeletal muscle tissues.^[1] Exercise acutely elevates circulating irisin levels—typically 3-4 ng/mL in humans as measured by mass spectrometry—activating pathways like AMPK to enhance lipid metabolism and reduce obesity risk.^[3] Additionally, irisin supports bone remodeling by increasing cortical bone mineral density (up to 7% in mouse models) and neuroprotection through brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) induction, potentially mitigating age-related cognitive decline and depression.^[2] Its expression extends to adipose tissue and the central nervous system, where it influences neuroplasticity and stem cell differentiation.^[3] In pathophysiology, dysregulation of FNDC5/irisin is implicated in metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders, with reduced levels correlating to insulin resistance and inflammation; recent studies (as of 2025) highlight its potential in ameliorating cognitive impairment post-stroke and in Alzheimer's models.^[2]^[4] Therapeutic potential includes recombinant irisin for obesity treatment and exercise mimetics, though challenges persist, such as inconsistent measurement across assays (ELISA vs. mass spectrometry) and species-specific differences in human WAT browning efficacy.^[3] Ongoing research focuses on clarifying cleavage mechanisms and resolving controversies over antibody specificity to advance clinical applications.^[2]

History and Discovery

Initial Identification

The FNDC5 gene was first identified in 2002 by Teufel et al. through a computational genomic search for novel human genes encoding proteins with fibronectin type III (FNIII) domains, resulting in the discovery of two related genes, FRCP1 (now FNDC4) and FRCP2 (now FNDC5).^[5] The predicted FRCP2 protein was characterized as a type I transmembrane glycoprotein consisting of 212 amino acids, including an N-terminal signal peptide, a central FNIII domain (residues 31–114), a transmembrane domain, and a short cytoplasmic tail.^[5] This domain structure suggested an initial functional role in cell adhesion or as a receptor for an unidentified ligand, though no secretory processing was observed or proposed at the time.^[5] Independently in the same year, Ferrer-Martínez et al. cloned the murine ortholog of FNDC5, naming it PeP (peroxisomal protein), from a mouse cDNA library, identifying it as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) coactivator 1α (PGC-1α)-responsive gene. The mouse PeP protein shares high sequence homology with human FNDC5 (>95%) and features a similar architecture, with the addition of a C-terminal SKL peroxisomal targeting signal that localizes it to peroxisomes in addition to the plasma membrane. Early expression studies revealed strong mRNA levels in adult skeletal muscle, heart, and brain, with prominent embryonic expression in developing skeletal muscle, hinting at involvement in myoblast differentiation during tissue development. These initial characterizations established FNDC5/PeP/FRCP2 as a transmembrane protein potentially involved in cellular recognition and muscle maturation, without noting any proteolytic cleavage or secretory function.^[5] Subsequent research in 2012 recognized FNDC5 as the precursor to the myokine irisin.

Connection to Irisin

The identification of FNDC5 as the precursor to the myokine irisin occurred in a seminal 2012 study by Boström et al., who demonstrated that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) upregulates FNDC5 expression in skeletal muscle in response to exercise, leading to its proteolytic cleavage and secretion of irisin as the C-terminal portion comprising 112 amino acids of the mature protein.^[6] In this work, the researchers showed that irisin, derived from FNDC5, circulates systemically and promotes the browning of white adipose tissue in mice by upregulating uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression, thereby enhancing thermogenesis and mimicking exercise-induced metabolic benefits.^[6] This discovery positioned FNDC5 as a key mediator in exercise physiology, transforming its prior obscurity into a focal point for metabolic research.^[7] The term "irisin" was coined in 2012 by the same group, drawing from Iris, the Greek messenger goddess, to reflect its role as a signaling molecule linking muscle activity to distant tissues.^[6] Following publication, the Boström et al. paper experienced rapid citation growth, amassing thousands of references within years and sparking widespread investigation into exercise-induced myokines.^[8] Early enthusiasm was tempered by controversies regarding irisin's existence and functionality in humans, particularly due to inconsistencies in detection stemming from antibody specificity issues in immunoassays that failed to reliably quantify low circulating levels.^[9] These debates, highlighted in a 2015 analysis questioning irisin as an exercise-inducible factor based on Western blot discrepancies, were largely resolved through advancements in mass spectrometry techniques.^[9] By 2015, tandem mass spectrometry studies confirmed the presence of circulating human irisin at concentrations of approximately 3–4 ng/mL, validating its detection independent of antibodies and affirming FNDC5 as its precursor across species.^[10] Subsequent studies using advanced mass spectrometry have further validated these findings, with circulating levels consistently reported around 3-5 ng/mL in humans as of 2023.^[11]

Gene and Protein Structure

Genomic Organization

The human FNDC5 gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 1 at position 1p35.1, spanning approximately 10 kb of genomic DNA and consisting of 6 exons separated by 5 introns.^[12] The gene's genomic coordinates are from 32,862,268 to 32,872,482 on the reverse strand (GRCh38 assembly).^[12] The primary transcript, designated NM_153756.3, is the reference mRNA variant that encodes the full-length 212-amino acid precursor protein for irisin.^[1] Alternative splicing of FNDC5 generates multiple transcript isoforms, including shorter variants such as NM_001171941.2 and NM_001171940.1, which may lack the signal peptide or portions of the coding sequence; however, only the full-length transcript produces the functional irisin peptide upon proteolytic cleavage.^[7] The FNDC5 gene exhibits strong evolutionary conservation, particularly in the region encoding the irisin domain, with 100% amino acid identity between human and mouse sequences across mammals.^[13] Orthologs of FNDC5 are present in other vertebrates, reflecting its role in metabolic and exercise-related pathways, but the gene is absent in invertebrates.^[14] Regulatory elements in the FNDC5 promoter include binding sites for the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1α, which drives FNDC5 expression in response to exercise and metabolic stimuli.^[15] Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the FNDC5 locus, such as rs16835198 in the promoter region, have been linked to variations in metabolic traits, including increased risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes in certain populations.^[16]

Protein Domains and Processing

The FNDC5 protein is a 212-amino-acid type I transmembrane glycoprotein encoded by the human FNDC5 gene. It features an N-terminal signal peptide comprising amino acids 1–28, which facilitates translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum; an extracellular fibronectin type III domain spanning amino acids 32–125; a hydrophobic transmembrane domain from amino acids 126–146; and a short intracellular cytoplasmic tail encompassing amino acids 147–212.^[17] Irisin, the secreted myokine derived from FNDC5, is produced via proteolytic cleavage by furin-like proprotein convertases at a site proximal to the N-terminus of the fibronectin type III domain, yielding a soluble 112-amino-acid fragment; the mature irisin peptide corresponds to amino acids 29–140 of the precursor.^[18] FNDC5 undergoes N-linked glycosylation at two conserved sites, Asn-36 and Asn-81, located within the extracellular domain; these modifications are crucial for protein folding, stability, and efficient secretion of the irisin fragment.^[19] The fibronectin type III domain exhibits a predicted β-sheet-rich fold characteristic of this protein superfamily, as confirmed by crystallographic studies of the irisin peptide, which reveal a dimeric structure stabilized by an intersubunit β-sheet extension; however, no atomic-resolution structure of the full-length FNDC5 protein has been determined as of 2025.^[20]

Expression and Biosynthesis

Tissue-Specific Expression

FNDC5 exhibits its highest basal expression in skeletal muscle, where it accounts for the majority of total expression across tissues, with moderate levels in the heart and certain brain regions such as the hippocampus and hypothalamus, while showing low expression in adipose tissue, liver, and kidney.^[21]^[22]^[3] RNA sequencing data from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project indicate that FNDC5 has its highest median TPM in skeletal muscle (approximately 100-200 TPM), higher than in cardiac tissues like the left ventricle and atrial appendage (median ~50 TPM), and lower in brain regions including the hippocampus (median <50 TPM).^[21] In contrast, expression is low in subcutaneous and visceral adipose (<50 TPM), liver (~10 TPM), and kidney cortex (<50 TPM).^[21] The Human Protein Atlas further confirms cytoplasmic localization of the FNDC5 protein predominantly in heart and skeletal muscle cells, with minimal detection in other organs.^[22] During development, FNDC5 expression is upregulated in skeletal muscle precursors, aligning with myogenesis, and persists into adulthood primarily in type II fast-twitch muscle fibers.^[23] Studies in mouse myoblast models demonstrate that FNDC5 mRNA and protein levels increase progressively during differentiation, peaking in mature myotubes compared to undifferentiated cells, which supports its role in muscle maturation.^[24] In adult tissues, expression is enriched in fast-twitch fibers, as evidenced by higher FNDC5 levels in glycolytic muscles like the tibialis anterior relative to oxidative soleus muscle.^[23] Immunohistochemistry reveals FNDC5 protein localization at the sarcolemma of skeletal muscle fibers, confirming its transmembrane presence in these differentiated cells.^[25] Expression patterns of FNDC5 are conserved across species, with similar tissue distributions in humans and mice, though porcine models reveal multiple alternative transcripts that all encode functional irisin.^[3] In Meishan pigs, five distinct FNDC5 transcripts have been identified in skeletal muscle, each capable of producing intact irisin upon cleavage, mirroring the single primary transcript in rodents and humans.^[26] These findings, derived from RNA-seq and proteomic analyses, underscore the evolutionary consistency of FNDC5 as a muscle-enriched protein, with detection methods like GTEx and the Protein Atlas providing quantitative validation across human samples.^[21]^[22]

Secretion and Cleavage Mechanisms

FNDC5, a type I transmembrane protein, undergoes biosynthesis primarily in skeletal muscle cells through translation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where the N-terminal signal peptide is cleaved to initiate translocation into the secretory pathway.^[2] The protein then receives N-linked glycosylation in the ER and further modifications in the Golgi apparatus before being transported to the plasma membrane as a mature precursor.^[2] At the cell surface, proteolytic cleavage of the extracellular ectodomain releases the C-terminal fragment known as irisin, a process essential for its secretion into the circulation. However, irisin quantification remains controversial due to discrepancies between immunoassays like ELISA (prone to cross-reactivity with FNDC5 precursors) and mass spectrometry (more specific but detecting lower levels).^[3] The cleavage of FNDC5 to generate irisin involves pro-protein convertases such as furin or furin-like enzymes, which recognize specific motifs in the protein's structure, including the fibronectin type III domain that facilitates ectodomain shedding.^[27] Alternative mechanisms implicate ADAM family metalloproteases, particularly ADAM10, in the post-Golgi or plasma membrane-associated processing of FNDC5 in skeletal muscle.^[28] This enzymatic shedding allows the 112-amino-acid irisin peptide to be released, often as a glycosylated dimer, enabling its endocrine function.^[28] Exercise serves as a primary physiological trigger for FNDC5 processing and irisin secretion, with muscle contraction activating PGC-1α, a transcriptional coactivator that upregulates FNDC5 gene expression and promotes its subsequent cleavage.^[2] Aerobic exercise in humans induces a modest increase (~10-20%) in circulating irisin levels, reflecting enhanced transcription and release from skeletal muscle.^[29] AMPK signaling, activated during exercise, further supports this process by phosphorylating PGC-1α and enhancing overall FNDC5 maturation and secretion efficiency.^[30] Circulating irisin exhibits a short half-life of approximately 1 hour (estimated from animal models), contributing to its transient dynamics following stimuli like exercise.^[31] Baseline plasma concentrations vary by assay method, typically 100-200 ng/mL by ELISA but 3-4 ng/mL by mass spectrometry in healthy adults, with acute exercise elevations detectable within 15-60 minutes.^[3]^[32] Protease inhibitors, such as those targeting furin or ADAM10, effectively block FNDC5 cleavage in cellular models, reducing irisin release, while AMPK activators like AICAR mimic exercise effects to boost processing.^[33]

Physiological Functions

Metabolic Regulation

FNDC5, through its cleaved product irisin, plays a central role in energy homeostasis by promoting the browning of white adipose tissue (WAT). Irisin binds to the integrin αV/β5 receptor on adipocytes, triggering activation of the p38 MAPK and ERK signaling pathways. This cascade upregulates key thermogenic genes, including UCP1, PGC-1α, and CIDEA, which drive mitochondrial biogenesis and uncoupled respiration in white adipocytes. Consequently, irisin enhances thermogenesis, increasing energy expenditure and reducing fat storage in WAT.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] Beyond adipose tissue, irisin exerts systemic effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. In the liver and skeletal muscle, irisin improves insulin sensitivity by activating the PI3K/Akt pathway, which suppresses FOXO1 activity and thereby reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis through downregulation of PEPCK and G6Pase. In animal models of diet-induced obesity, irisin overexpression or administration has been shown to enhance glucose uptake, lower fasting blood glucose, and promote body weight reduction, primarily via increased energy expenditure without altering food intake. These effects highlight irisin's potential as a regulator of peripheral insulin action and lipid homeostasis.^[38]^[39]^[40] In humans, circulating irisin levels exhibit an inverse correlation with body mass index (BMI), suggesting a protective role against obesity-related metabolic dysfunction. Exercise-induced elevations in irisin have been linked to improved lipid profiles, including reduced triglycerides and enhanced HDL cholesterol, in clinical trials involving obese individuals. A 2023 systematic review of cardiometabolic disorders confirmed these associations, noting irisin's contribution to better glucose and fatty acid handling in muscle and adipose tissues during physical activity interventions.^[41]^[42]^[43] Recent advances have elucidated irisin's transport via extracellular vesicles (EVs), amplifying its metabolic signaling. A 2024 study demonstrated that exercise stimulates the release of EV-associated irisin into circulation, which preferentially targets adipose tissue to boost thermogenesis and white fat browning in mice, independent of free irisin levels. This mechanism may explain irisin's sustained effects on energy metabolism during and post-exercise, offering new insights into inter-tissue communication. A 2025 review further highlighted irisin's role in regulating autophagy, essential for metabolic homeostasis during aging.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Skeletal and Bone Effects

FNDC5, through its cleaved product irisin, exerts significant effects on skeletal muscle physiology by promoting myoblast differentiation and hypertrophy. Irisin stimulates the differentiation of myoblasts into mature muscle fibers, primarily via activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, which enhances myogenic markers such as MyoD and myogenin expression.^[34] In mouse models, irisin administration rescues denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy by increasing satellite cell activation and reducing protein degradation pathways, thereby preserving muscle mass and function.^[47] Additionally, irisin enhances mitochondrial biogenesis and function in aging muscle, mitigating sarcopenia by improving oxidative capacity and reducing fission through pathways like AMPK-Nrf2.^[48] Regarding bone physiology, irisin directly influences osteoblast activity to support bone formation. It promotes osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization by activating ERK and p38 MAPK signaling cascades, as well as stabilizing β-catenin to upregulate osteogenic genes like Runx2 and Osterix.^[49] Irisin also modulates osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting RANKL-induced differentiation and NFATc1 expression, thereby reducing bone resorption and maintaining skeletal balance.^[50] In human studies involving postmenopausal women, higher circulating irisin levels correlate with improved bone mineral density, particularly at the lumbar spine and hip, and lower risk of osteoporosis-related fractures.^[51] Aerobic exercise training elevates circulating irisin levels, which in turn supports musculoskeletal adaptations. Randomized controlled trials from 2024 demonstrate that long-term aerobic and alternating resistance programs increase irisin levels, correlating with improvements in muscle strength and bone density in postmenopausal women, mediated by enhanced osteoblast activity and muscle hypertrophy.^[52] In animal models, FNDC5 knockout mice show sex-dependent disruptions in musculoskeletal homeostasis, including altered trabecular bone volume, bone mineral density, and skeletal muscle mass compared to wild-type controls.^[53]^[54]

Neurological and Cognitive Roles

FNDC5 is expressed at low basal levels in the hippocampus, where its upregulation occurs primarily in response to physiological stimuli such as exercise.^[7] Exercise induces FNDC5 expression in the hippocampus through the PGC-1α pathway, linking physical activity to enhanced neurotrophic signaling.^[55] Irisin, the cleaved product of FNDC5 derived from peripheral muscle tissues, can cross the blood-brain barrier to exert central effects.^[56] Irisin promotes neuroprotection by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression via activation of the ERK/STAT3 signaling pathway in hippocampal neurons.^[57] This mechanism enhances synaptogenesis and supports hippocampal neurogenesis, contributing to neuronal homeostasis and plasticity.^[58] In Alzheimer's disease models, irisin reduces amyloid-β toxicity by inducing astrocytic release of neprilysin, an enzyme that degrades amyloid-β peptides, thereby mitigating pathological accumulation.^[59] Irisin administration improves memory performance in aging rodent models, including spatial memory tasks in aged rats subjected to exercise regimens.^[60] In a 2025 human study, exercise-induced elevations in circulating irisin levels correlated with increased hippocampal volume and enhanced executive function in individuals with mild cognitive impairment, suggesting a direct link to cognitive preservation. A 2025 meta-analysis further confirmed that higher irisin levels in blood and cerebrospinal fluid are associated with better cognitive function.^[61]^[62] Recent 2024-2025 investigations highlight irisin's role in stroke recovery, where peripheral overexpression ameliorates post-ischemic cognitive deficits through the muscle-brain axis, promoting BDNF expression in the hippocampus and reducing neuronal damage in rat models.^[63] Additionally, exercise upregulates irisin within extracellular vesicles, which may facilitate its delivery to the brain and support neuroprotective effects against neurodegeneration.^[64]

Molecular Interactions and Regulation

Key Signaling Pathways

Irisin, the cleaved circulating form of FNDC5, primarily exerts its effects by binding to αV integrins, such as αV/β5, on the surface of target cells including adipocytes, osteocytes, and myocytes. This interaction occurs via an RGD-like motif on irisin and the βA domain of the integrin β subunit, leading to a two-step process involving initial adhesion and subsequent integrin-mediated endocytosis, which initiates downstream signaling cascades.^[65] Recent studies as of 2025 have further confirmed αV integrins as the primary irisin receptor, with ongoing research elucidating its role in various tissues.^[66] Unlike classical G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), no GPCR involvement has been confirmed for irisin signaling, with αV integrins established as the primary receptors. Key downstream pathways activated by irisin include the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascades, which drive uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) induction and browning of white adipose tissue. In adipocytes, irisin rapidly phosphorylates p38 and ERK within 10-20 minutes, upregulating UCP1 mRNA and protein expression; pharmacological inhibition of these kinases with SB203580 or U0126 abolishes the effect.^[67] For myogenesis, irisin activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, promoting satellite cell differentiation and muscle hypertrophy while counteracting atrophy in denervation models.^[48] In neuroprotection, irisin engages the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) axis, enhancing BDNF release and neuronal survival against amyloid-β toxicity and ischemia.^[68] Irisin exhibits cross-talk with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α), amplifying mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism in muscle and adipose tissues through shared regulation of UCP1 and FNDC5 expression. Additionally, irisin inhibits nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine production and promoting anti-inflammatory responses in macrophages and adipocytes.^[69]

Factors Influencing Expression

The expression of the FNDC5 gene, which encodes the precursor protein for the myokine irisin, is tightly regulated by various transcriptional activators, particularly in response to physiological stimuli such as exercise. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) serves as a key transcriptional coactivator that induces FNDC5 expression in skeletal muscle and other tissues, with this upregulation prominently observed following endurance exercise.^[70] Additionally, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRα) contribute to FNDC5 transcription, often in concert with PGC-1α, enhancing gene expression in metabolic contexts like muscle differentiation and energy expenditure regulation.^[71] Cold exposure and β-adrenergic signaling further boost FNDC5 expression through cyclic AMP (cAMP)-mediated pathways, which activate PGC-1α and promote irisin secretion to support thermogenesis and adipose tissue browning.^[72] In contrast, several inhibitors suppress FNDC5 expression, linking inflammation and environmental stress to reduced irisin levels. Inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) downregulate FNDC5 transcription primarily via activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, which antagonizes PGC-1α activity and impairs metabolic gene expression in conditions like obesity and chronic inflammation.^[73] Hypoxia similarly downregulates FNDC5 and irisin through hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α)-dependent mechanisms, leading to decreased expression in muscle and contributing to atrophy under low-oxygen conditions.^[74] Hormonal factors also modulate FNDC5 expression, with thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) enhancing transcription and irisin release in skeletal muscle, thereby supporting metabolic homeostasis in thyroid-responsive tissues.^[75] Sex-based differences influence baseline FNDC5 expression, with females exhibiting higher circulating irisin levels compared to males, potentially due to estrogen-mediated effects on PGC-1α signaling and adipose-muscle interactions.^[76] Epigenetic mechanisms provide additional layers of regulation for FNDC5. Histone H3 acetylation at the gene promoter positively correlates with increased transcription, as glucocorticoid receptor binding facilitates chromatin opening and enhances FNDC5 mRNA levels in hepatic and muscle cells.^[77] Conversely, microRNA-129-5p (miR-129-5p) targets the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of FNDC5 mRNA, reducing its stability and expression, particularly in diabetic adipose tissue where elevated miR-129-5p contributes to impaired irisin production.^[78]

Clinical Relevance

Associations with Diseases

FNDC5, through its cleaved product irisin, has been implicated in various disease states, primarily via observational associations reflecting its dysregulation. In metabolic disorders, circulating irisin levels are notably reduced in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity, with meta-analyses indicating approximately 13-15% lower concentrations in T2DM patients compared to healthy controls, potentially linking to impaired insulin sensitivity and adipose tissue dysfunction.^[79] Additionally, the rs3480 polymorphism in the FNDC5 gene has been associated with NAFLD severity; the G allele (A>G variant) correlates with protection from clinically significant fibrosis progression in NAFLD cohorts, as evidenced by genetic studies, though a 2024 review highlighted FNDC5 variants' role in fibrosis among European populations.^[80]^[81] However, inconsistencies in irisin measurement methods (e.g., ELISA vs. mass spectrometry) complicate interpretations of circulating levels in disease states.^[3] In neurological diseases, reduced serum irisin levels are observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), where plasma concentrations decline with disease progression and negatively correlate with symptom severity, such as motor deficits in PD.^[82] Studies from 2025, including cross-sectional analyses, demonstrate an inverse correlation between irisin levels and cognitive decline in dementia cohorts, with higher baseline irisin associated with preserved cognitive function over time, suggesting a protective role against neurodegeneration though causality remains unestablished.^[62] Regarding musculoskeletal conditions, irisin expression and circulating levels are decreased in sarcopenia and osteoporosis, particularly in postmenopausal women, where lower concentrations correlate with reduced bone mineral density and increased fracture risk, potentially exacerbating age-related muscle wasting.^[83]^[84] In stroke models, irisin levels drop post-ischemia, contributing to muscle atrophy and post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) via disruption of the FNDC5/irisin/BDNF axis, as shown in rodent studies linking irisin deficiency to hemiplegic muscle loss and hippocampal dysfunction.^[63] Emerging evidence points to potential roles in other pathologies, including cancer and cardiovascular disease, without established causal links. In breast cancer, irisin exhibits anti-proliferative effects on tumor cells, reducing migration and viability in malignant lines like MDA-MB-231 while sparing non-malignant cells, with lower serum levels noted in patients.^[85]^[86] For cardiovascular disease, irisin appears protective against atherosclerosis, as it suppresses oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced inflammation and endothelial injury in apolipoprotein E-deficient models, potentially mitigating plaque formation.^[87] These associations underscore irisin's dysregulation in disease but highlight the need for further research to clarify mechanisms.

Therapeutic Potential

Recombinant irisin has shown promise as an exercise mimetic in preclinical models of metabolic disorders. In studies using diabetic mice, intraperitoneal injections of recombinant irisin at doses of 0.5 μg per gram of body weight improved glucose uptake and homeostasis by stimulating GLUT4 translocation in skeletal muscle, thereby reducing hyperglycemia and enhancing insulin sensitivity. Similarly, administration of recombinant irisin in streptozotocin-induced insulin-deficient diabetic mice lowered blood glucose levels through induction of energy expenditure and mitochondrial biogenesis, without causing hypoglycemia. These findings support irisin's potential to mimic exercise-induced metabolic benefits, with recent 2024 research exploring subcutaneous formulations to enhance its stability and bioavailability for obesity treatment, demonstrating reduced body weight and improved lipid profiles in high-fat diet models.^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91] In neurological applications, irisin and its analogs exhibit neuroprotective effects in stroke recovery models. Irisin treatment in rodent models of ischemic stroke reduced neuronal apoptosis by upregulating anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2 and enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, leading to improved motor function and reduced infarct volume. Irisin analogs, developed for improved stability, have shown similar efficacy in 2024 preclinical studies, promoting BDNF-mediated neuroplasticity and limiting secondary brain injury post-stroke. For Alzheimer's disease, 2023 preclinical investigations highlight irisin's role in clearing amyloid-β plaques via neprilysin upregulation in astrocytes, with nanoparticle-based delivery systems proposed to facilitate blood-brain barrier crossing, though human trials remain pending.^[92]^[93]^[94]^[95] Delivery innovations are addressing irisin's pharmacokinetic limitations. Extracellular vesicle (EV)-encapsulated irisin enables sustained release and targeted delivery, as demonstrated in 2024 studies where muscle-derived EVs loaded with irisin promoted white adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis in obese models, extending irisin's half-life compared to free recombinant forms. Gene therapy approaches using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors to overexpress FNDC5 have been explored for sarcopenia, with AAV-mediated FNDC5 delivery in aged mice improving muscle strength and mass by enhancing mitochondrial function and reducing atrophy markers, though efficacy varies by vector serotype and dosing.^[96]^[97]^[98]^[99] Despite these advances, therapeutic use of irisin faces challenges related to stability and dosing. Recombinant irisin is prone to aggregation and rapid degradation in vivo, necessitating stabilizers like trehalose to maintain bioactivity, with optimal doses ranging from 50-500 μg/kg in animal models but varying widely across studies. Ongoing preclinical trials, including extensions into 2026 for metabolic syndrome interventions, emphasize the need for standardized dosing protocols to translate benefits into clinical settings without off-target effects.^[100]^[7]^[101]

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### Tissue-Specific Expression Data for FNDC5 (TPM Values)
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Aug 11, 2017 · Although FNDC5 is expressed primarily in skeletal muscle, it is also detected in other organs or tissues such as liver, fat, heart, and kidney.
[22]
Cleavage of FNDC5 and insights into its maturation process - PubMed
Jun 15, 2020 · FNDC5 corresponds to an irisin precursor that increases with exercise. Studies suggest that irisin mediates beneficial effects in adipose ...
[23]
Potential Neuroprotective Mechanisms of Irisin in Alzheimer's Disease
Aug 4, 2023 · The extracellular region of FNDC5 is proteolytically cleaved to release the active form of irisin [10]. The cleavage of FNDC5 occurs via a ...2. Irisin · 3. Irisin And Ad · 8. Neuroinflammation<|separator|>
[24]
New insights into the cellular activities of Fndc5/Irisin and its ...
Mar 30, 2020 · Ferrer-Martínez A, Ruiz-Lozano P, Chien KR. Mouse PeP: a novel peroxisomal protein linked to myoblast differentiation and development. Dev ...
[25]
Plasma Irisin Modestly Increases during Moderate and High ...
Jan 26, 2017 · A single bout of moderate and high intensity afternoon exercise induces modest increases in circulating irisin concentrations during exercise.
[26]
Skeletal muscle AMPK is essential for the maintenance of FNDC5 ...
Feb 17, 2015 · activation is linked to PGC-1a function, as AMPK can directly phosphorylate PGC1a, a process that is impor- tant for auto-regulatory mechanism ...
[27]
Irisin: Still chasing shadows - ScienceDirect.com
... FNDC5 harbors two N-glycosylation sites. Surprisingly, no band shifts were observed after deglycosylation (Figure 2D). Thus, the bands from the human and ...
[28]
Irisin and exercise training in humans – Results from a randomized ...
Nov 5, 2013 · Baseline irisin concentration. Mean baseline irisin concentration was 194 ± 62 ng/ml. There were no significant differences between groups ...Exercise Testing · Statistical Analysis · Baseline Irisin...
[29]
Role of irisin in physiology and pathology - Frontiers
Sep 25, 2022 · In this review, we systematically summarized the roles of FNDC5/irisin in fat, liver, nerve, bone, skeletal muscle, articular cartilage, cancer, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
Exercise-Mediated Browning of White Adipose Tissue - MDPI
Oct 26, 2021 · In addition, irisin mediates the browning of WAT through P38 and ERK MAP kinase signals in adipocytes. Exercise enhances the expression of FGF21 ...
[31]
From white to brown fat through the PGC-1α-dependent myokine irisin
By an incompletely understood mechanism, irisin induced the expression of Ucp1 and other BAT-associated genes, partly via increased PPAR-α expression. Thus, ...
[32]
Laser-scanning cytometry can quantify human adipocyte browning ...
Jul 27, 2015 · In our experiments, both irisin and BMP7 treatment during white adipocyte differentiation significantly upregulated Ucp1, Elovl3, Cidea, Cyc1 ...
[33]
Irisin inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis and increases glycogen ...
In diabetic mice, persistent subcutaneous perfusion of irisin improved the insulin sensitivity, reduced fasting blood glucose, increased GSK3 and Akt ...
[34]
Irisin inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis and increases glycogen ...
Irisin improves glucose homoeostasis by reducing gluconeogenesis via PI3K/Akt/FOXO1-mediated PEPCK and G6Pase down-regulation and increasing glycogenesis.
[35]
[PDF] Review Article The Effect of Irisin as a Metabolic Regulator and Its ...
Mar 19, 2021 · Boström et al. reported that irisin with its precursor FNDC5 plays a major role in browning white adipose tissue and activation of thermogenic ...
[36]
Irisin and Cardiometabolic Disorders in Obesity: A Systematic Review
Studies have shown an inverse correlation between irisin levels and the BMI, which could be explained by differences in the body composition of the subjects ...
[37]
The association of serum irisin with anthropometric, metabolic, and ...
We found a positive correlation between irisin and BMD in healthy subjects. The potential role of irisin should be confirmed in further studies evaluating the ...
[38]
Irisin and Cardiometabolic Disorders in Obesity: A Systematic Review
Oct 19, 2023 · This finding suggests a potential relationship between serum irisin levels and an increase in glucose and fatty acid uptake in muscle tissues, ...
[39]
Exercise-inducible circulating extracellular vesicle irisin promotes ...
Jan 30, 2024 · Exercise leads to the accumulation of circulating EV-irisin, which enhances adipose energy metabolism and thermogenesis and promotes white fat browning in mice ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[40]
Exercise‐inducible circulating extracellular vesicle irisin promotes ...
Jan 30, 2024 · Exercise leads to the accumulation of circulating EV-irisin, which enhances adipose energy metabolism and thermogenesis and promotes white fat ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[41]
Irisin is a pro-myogenic factor that induces skeletal muscle ... - Nature
Oct 24, 2017 · Irisin injection rescues loss of skeletal muscle mass following denervation by enhancing satellite cell activation and reducing protein degradation.
[42]
Irisin Protects Musculoskeletal Homeostasis via a Mitochondrial ...
FNDC5 upregulation occurs during the recovery period after exercise, dependent on PGC-1α activation [55], with expression peaking 3 h post-exercise [56].Irisin Protects... · 3. Myokine Irisin's Role For... · 3.2. Irisin: Sustaining...<|separator|>
[43]
Irisin promotes osteoblast proliferation and differentiation via ...
Jan 7, 2016 · Irisin directly targets osteoblast, promoting osteoblast proliferation and differentiation via activating P38/ERK MAP kinase signaling cascades in vitro.
[44]
Exercise-induced irisin in bone and systemic irisin administration ...
Feb 21, 2017 · Irisin reduced RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1) expression in RANKL-treated RAW264 ...
[45]
Serum Irisin level is associated with fall risk, muscle strength, and ...
Feb 27, 2023 · Postmenopausal women with lower serum irisin levels have a higher fall risk, weaker muscle strength, and higher cortical porosity.
[46]
Alternating Aerobics with Resistance Exercise Improves Bone ...
Long-term alternating exercise training improves bone density, body composition, and circulating irisin levels in postmenopausal women, and irisin would mediate ...
[47]
Irisin Protects against Loss of Trabecular Bone Mass and Strength in ...
Jun 8, 2023 · Experiments in mouse models have shown that administration of recombinant irisin prevents disuse-induced bone loss. In this study, we aimed to ...
[48]
Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1α/FNDC5 ...
Nov 5, 2013 · Our findings link endurance exercise and the important metabolic mediators, PGC-1α and FNDC5, with BDNF expression in the brain.
[49]
Irisin: An unveiled bridge between physical exercise and a healthy ...
Feb 15, 2024 · Irisin, a myokine induced by exercise that can cross the blood-brain barrier, reduce neuroinflammation, and counteract neurodegeneration.<|separator|>
[50]
Promise of irisin to attenuate cognitive dysfunction in aging ... - NIH
Apr 30, 2022 · Peripheral irisin enters the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier, modulating glial cell gene expression, and possibly reducing the numbers ...<|separator|>
[51]
Exercise hormone irisin is a critical regulator of cognitive function
These positive effects are in part due to enhanced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus as well ...
[52]
Irisin reduces amyloid-β by inducing the release of neprilysin from ...
Nov 15, 2023 · Here, using a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture model of AD, we show that irisin significantly reduces Aβ pathology by increasing astrocytic ...Missing: toxicity | Show results with:toxicity
[53]
[PDF] Irisin - Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation
In aged rats (20 months old), exercise training (voluntary free wheel running exercise) for 90 days significantly improved spatial memory and increased protein ...
[54]
The myokine irisin represents an indirect pathway linking exercise to ...
Sep 12, 2025 · Further, irisin crosses the blood-brain-barrier (39), is necessary for hippocampal neurogenesis (40), and protects against neuronal apoptosis ...
[55]
Targeting the muscle-brain axis to improve post-stroke cognition via ...
Oct 25, 2025 · Peripheral FNDC5/irisin overexpression promoting BDNF expression in hippocampus after stroke in rats. (A) Schematic of intravenous injection ...
[56]
Physical exercise upregulates Irisin in extracellular vesicles
Jan 3, 2025 · Physical exercise improves overall brain health, cognition, and stimulates the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in humans.Missing: trials MCI
[57]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9844023/
[58]
Irisin Stimulates Browning of White Adipocytes Through Mitogen ...
Jan 16, 2014 · In the current study, we demonstrated in mice that recombinant irisin decreased the body weight and improved glucose homeostasis. We further ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Protective effect of irisin against Alzheimer's disease - Frontiers
Sep 19, 2022 · Several other studies have also found that irisin may induce the STAT3 signaling pathway through the motor-irisin-BDNF axis to proliferate ...
[60]
New insights into the cellular activities of Fndc5/Irisin and its ...
Mar 30, 2020 · Fndc5, a well-defined myokine and also identified as an adipokine, has a critical role in modulation of metabolism and protection against ...
[61]
Proteomic Analysis of Skeletal Muscle and White Adipose Tissue ...
Our study aimed to investigate the impact of AE on proteomic changes in both the skeletal muscle and the epididymal fat pad (EFP) of high-fat-diet-induced ...
[62]
Expression of the irisin precursor FNDC5 in skeletal muscle ...
This is the first study to show that FNDC5 expression relates to functional capacity in a human HF population. Lower FNDC5 expression may underlie reduced ...Missing: Teufel 2002
[63]
PPARγ/Pgc-1α-Fndc5 pathway up-regulation in gastrocnemius and ...
Aug 29, 2018 · The findings showed a combination of 20 mg/mL BCAAs with aerobic exercise significantly increased Fndc5, PPARγ, Pgc-1α gene expression in skeletal muscles.Missing: Ferrer- Martínez et 2002
[64]
Irisin and FGF21 are cold-induced endocrine activators of brown fat ...
Irisin, derived from FNDC5, is an exercise-induced myokine that drives brown fat-like thermogenesis in murine white fat. Here we explored whether cold exposure ...Missing: cAMP | Show results with:cAMP
[65]
The Emerging Role of Irisin in Cardiovascular Diseases
Oct 8, 2021 · Dysfunction of irisin has shown to be involved in cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, and myocardial ...
[66]
HIF-1α Negatively Regulates Irisin Expression Which Involves in ...
Jan 14, 2022 · Our research indicated that FNDC5/irisin was negatively regulated by HIF-1α and could participate in the regulation of muscle atrophy caused by hypoxia.
[67]
Irisin and Insulin Interplay in Thyroid Disorders: A Pilot Study - PMC
Jun 9, 2025 · Specifically, thyroid hormones, particularly T3, have been demonstrated to impact the production and release of irisin in skeletal muscle tissue ...
[68]
FNDC5 and irisin in humans: I. Predictors of circulating ...
Circulating levels of irisin appeared to be higher in women than in men (126.9±44.9 vs 102.0±13.5 ng/ml) but the difference did not achieve statistical ...
[69]
Glucocorticoid receptor positively regulates transcription of FNDC5 ...
Feb 27, 2017 · These results suggest that FNDC5 gene transcription is epigenetically regulated by histone H3 acetylation and H3K27 di-methylation. To identify ...
[70]
miR-129-5p Modulates Fndc5 Expression in Adipose Tissue of ...
Sep 9, 2025 · Furthermore, miR-129-5p was identified as a potential regulator of the Fndc5 gene, displaying elevated expression in diabetic adipose tissue.Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
[71]
Irisin in Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity: A Biomarker of Metabolic and ...
Jun 3, 2025 · Specifically, irisin levels were about 13% to 15% lower in people with diabetes compared to those without. Lower irisin levels were also linked ...
[72]
Fibronectin Type III Domain–Containing Protein 5 rs3480 A>G ...
... FNDC5 rs3480 variant and a lower risk of significant fibrosis in NAFLD. This ... polymorphism influences liver fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver ...
[73]
The contribution of genetics and epigenetics to MAFLD susceptibility
Apr 25, 2024 · The MBOAT7-TMC4 variant rs641738 increases risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in individuals of european descent. Gastroenterology ...
[74]
Irisin's emerging role in Parkinson's disease research: A review from ...
Nov 15, 2024 · Irisin interacts with the αVβ5 integrin receptor, maintaining mitochondrial function, reducing ROS production, oxidative stress, and neuronal ...
[75]
Association Between Irisin Level and Cognitive Function
Jul 22, 2025 · These studies have confirmed the positive effect of irisin induced by exercise on cognitive function, supporting the findings of our research.
[76]
Irisin and Its Role in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis and Sarcopenia
Apr 22, 2024 · Even in 80 women with postmenopausal osteoporosis, serum levels of irisin were significantly lower than in the control group [42]. These ...
[77]
The association between circulating irisin levels and osteoporosis in ...
Aug 8, 2024 · Moreover, studies have also linked reduced irisin levels to sarcopenia in postmenopausal women, a known risk factor for fractures (18, 19).
[78]
Serum irisin levels are lower in patients with breast cancer
Nov 11, 2015 · The authors reported a significant suppressive effect of irisin on cell number, migration and viability in breast cancer cells, the induction of ...Statistical Analysis · Comparison Of Irisin Levels... · Abbreviations
[79]
Effects of the exercise‐inducible myokine irisin on malignant and ...
Aug 14, 2014 · Irisin significantly decreased cell number, migration and viability in malignant MDA-MB-231 cells, without affecting non-malignant MCF-10a cells ...
[80]
Protective Effect of Irisin on Atherosclerosis via Suppressing ...
Our study demonstrated that irisin significantly reduced atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice via suppressing ox-LDL-induced cell inflammation ...
[81]
Physiology and role of irisin in glucose homeostasis - PMC
Irisin reduces gluconeogenesis by downregulating the expression of ... reduced gluconeogenesis in the liver. Furthermore, an increase in acetyl-CoA ...
[82]
Anti-diabetic activity of recombinant irisin in STZ-induced insulin ...
It has been reported that irisin can potentially prevent obesity and associated type 2 diabetes, and improve glucose homeostasis and insulin resistance [8], [9] ...
[83]
Exercise-Linked Skeletal Irisin Ameliorates Diabetes-Associated ...
Jul 8, 2022 · Furthermore, EX or recombinant irisin administration prevented T2DM-Induced hyperglycemia and improved glucose intolerance in diabetic mice.
[84]
Developing Subcutaneous Formulations for Irisin as a Potential ...
Oct 22, 2025 · Developing Subcutaneous Formulations for Irisin as a Potential Therapeutic. Original Research Article; Open access; Published: 22 October 2025.
[85]
Irisin Peptide Protects Brain Against Ischemic Injury ... - PubMed
The present study indicated that irisin attenuates brain damage via reducing apoptosis and increasing BDNF protein of brain cortex in the experimental model of ...Missing: analogs | Show results with:analogs
[86]
Irisin ameliorates neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis ...
Apr 7, 2022 · Irisin ameliorates neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis through integrin αVβ5/AMPK signaling pathway after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice.
[87]
Irisin Research Landscape (2012–2024): A Bibliometric and Visual ...
Oct 22, 2025 · In metabolism, exercise induces the accumulation of circulating extracellular vesicles irisin, which enhances adipose energy metabolism ...
[88]
Irisin reduces amyloid-β by inducing the release of neprilysin from ...
Oct 6, 2025 · Enhancing circulating irisin levels has been shown to improve cognitive deficits and reduce neuropathology in Alzheimer disease models, while ...
[89]
FNDC5/irisin-loaded apoptotic nanovesicles encapsulated in photo ...
Sep 19, 2025 · Recent studies have shown that irisin can be selectively packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs) for intercellular communication [8,9]. EV- ...
[90]
Exercise-inducible circulating extracellular vesicle irisin promotes ...
Irisin promotes the browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) and enhancer thermogenesis by binding to its receptor and activating a downstream signaling pathways, ...
[91]
AAV-mediated skeletal muscle specific irisin expression does not ...
Nov 19, 2023 · These findings suggest that AAV-mediated Fndc5 gene therapy may not be an efficient strategy for obesity, contrary to our expectations.Missing: sarcopenia | Show results with:sarcopenia
[92]
Fndc5/irisin mediates the benefits of aerobic exercise intervention ...
Mar 13, 2025 · Aerobic exercise improves aging-associated sarcopenia in mice, with Fndc5/irisin playing a role in this process.Missing: AAV- gene
[93]
Aggregation of irisin and its prevention by trehalose: A biophysical ...
Jun 5, 2023 · Since the risk of aggregation is one of the major challenges in biotherapeutics, the stabilization of irisin and prevention of its aggregation ...<|separator|>
[94]
Irisin ameliorates age‐associated sarcopenia and metabolic ...
Dec 12, 2022 · Irisin is a pro-myogenic factor that induces skeletal muscle hypertrophy and rescues denervation-induced atrophy.