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Infanticide Act

The Infanticide Act 1938 (1 & 2 Geo. 6. c. 36) is a statute of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that defines the offense of infanticide, permitting a biological mother who willfully causes the death of her child under twelve months of age to be convicted of this felony rather than murder if, at the time, "the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child."^[1] The maximum penalty is life imprisonment, though convictions typically result in sentences akin to those for manslaughter, reflecting legislative intent to extend mercy in cases of postpartum mental disturbance without requiring proof of insanity.^[1]^[2] Enacted on 23 June 1938, the Act repealed and expanded the Infanticide Act 1922, which had limited the defense to deaths of "newly-born" children, by broadening applicability to infants up to one year old and removing the strict temporal link to birth.^[3] This reform addressed judicial and medical concerns that the 1922 provisions inadequately accounted for delayed-onset mental imbalances from childbirth, enabling juries to consider evidence of such disturbances as reducing culpability from murder—historically punishable by death until its abolition for most capital offenses in 1957—to a lesser offense.^[4]^[5] The law applies exclusively to mothers, requiring no formal psychiatric diagnosis but allowing expert testimony on causal links between birth-related effects and impaired judgment, which has sustained its use in English and Welsh courts into the 21st century.^[2]^[6] While the Act has been praised for incorporating early recognition of postpartum psychological effects—predating formal diagnoses like postpartum depression or psychosis—into criminal law, it remains controversial for its gender-specific scope, which excludes fathers or other caregivers despite comparable mental health risks in some neonaticide cases, and for vague criteria like "balance of mind" that invite inconsistent judicial application without clearer statutory or case law guidance.^[5]^[6] Critics argue it perpetuates an outdated model detached from contemporary evidence on multifactorial causes of maternal filicide, including socioeconomic stressors or pre-existing conditions, potentially underemphasizing full accountability or preventive interventions.^[4]^[7] Reforms proposed in legal scholarship include aligning it with diminished responsibility provisions under the Homicide Act 1957 or abolishing it in favor of broader mental health defenses, though it endures as a distinct, mercy-oriented mechanism amid ongoing debates over empirical validation of its causal assumptions.^[5]^[6]

Historical Development

Pre-20th Century Legal Context

In common law England, the treatment of maternal killings of newborns prior to the 20th century was governed primarily by statutes targeting concealment rather than direct proof of murder, reflecting societal concerns over illegitimacy and moral order. The 1624 Act to Prevent the Destroying and Murthering of Bastard Children (21 Jas. I c. 27), known as the Concealment of Birth Act, presumed malice against unmarried women who concealed the birth of a bastard child that was subsequently found dead, making such acts capital offenses without requiring evidence of intent to kill.^[8]^[9] This legislation responded to perceived rises in secret births amid economic pressures and stigma against unwed mothers, particularly domestic servants, who faced destitution and social ostracism for bearing illegitimate children.^[10] Prosecutions peaked in the 18th century, with empirical records from the Old Bailey showing hundreds of cases annually in London alone, though actual incidence rates remain debated due to underreporting of non-concealed deaths.^[11] Under the Bloody Code, which expanded capital crimes to over 200 offenses by the late 18th century, infanticide convictions theoretically carried mandatory death sentences, yet juries frequently demonstrated reluctance to impose them, driven by observations of postpartum distress and the harsh evidentiary burdens of proving malice amid concealment.^[12] This led to widespread acquittals or reductions to manslaughter, with conviction rates for capital infanticide dropping notably by the late 18th century—estimated at under 20% in newborn murder trials at the Old Bailey—as sympathetic juries invoked discretionary mercy or temporary insanity defenses based on visible maternal desperation rather than formalized medical testimony.^[13] Causal factors included the economic vulnerability of single mothers, lacking welfare support and burdened by illegitimacy's social costs, which prosecutors linked to secretive acts but which juries often viewed as products of despair rather than premeditated evil.^[14] The 1803 Malicious Shooting or Stabbing Act partially repealed the 1624 presumption for concealment alone, requiring proof of willful killing, further eroding strict capital applications.^[15] By the late 19th century, emerging medical observations of lactation-related mental disturbances, termed puerperal mania or insanity, began influencing outcomes, with physicians testifying to physiological disruptions in the postpartum period—such as hormonal shifts and exhaustion—causing transient derangement without absolving responsibility.^[16]^[17] Conviction rates for murder in infanticide cases continued to decline, from around 34 annual murders of infants under one year reported in 1838–1840 to rarer capital sentences as insanity pleas succeeded in over half of tried cases by the 1870s, reflecting juries' integration of this causal evidence while maintaining the act's gravity as a homicide.^[10]^[14] These patterns underscored a tension between retributive justice and pragmatic recognition of maternal vulnerabilities, paving the way for statutory mitigation without diminishing the empirical reality of the killings' lethality.^[18]

Infanticide Act 1922

The Infanticide Act 1922 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to address inconsistencies in the treatment of mothers prosecuted for murdering their newborn children, where juries often convicted on murder charges but recommended mercy due to postpartum conditions, leading to frequent reprieves from execution despite the death penalty's application.^[4]^[19] Enacted amid growing recognition of physiological and psychological effects following childbirth, the legislation introduced infanticide as a distinct offense equivalent to manslaughter, applicable where a mother wilfully caused the death of her child under 12 months old while her "balance of mind" was disturbed by incomplete recovery from birth or lactation effects.^[20]^[21] This provision reflected medical testimony emphasizing endocrine and hormonal disruptions post-partum as causal factors in temporary mental disturbance, distinguishing it from full legal insanity by acknowledging reduced culpability without negating intent entirely, thus allowing convictions for a lesser offense punishable by up to life imprisonment but typically shorter terms.^[22]^[23] The Act formalized a mercy-based approach grounded in observable physiological impacts, responding to public and judicial reluctance to impose capital punishment in such cases, with immediate effect in reducing murder verdicts to infanticide upon its passage in July 1922.^[19] Contemporary critiques highlighted the Act's vagueness, particularly the undefined threshold for "disturbance of the balance of mind," which led to arguments over its drafting and jurisdictional clarity in application, though it succeeded in aligning legal outcomes with evidentiary recognition of postpartum causal influences.^[21]^[22] The Infanticide Act 1938, enacted on 23 June 1938, repealed the Infanticide Act 1922 and re-enacted its core provisions with modifications to clarify the offense's scope and application.^[24] Section 1 established that a biological mother who, by any willful act or omission, causes the death of her child under 12 months old commits the felony of infanticide if, at the time, "the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth."^[1] This formulation replaced the 1922 Act's more restrictive temporal linkage to postpartum recovery, extending applicability to any such death within the first year while grounding mitigation in causally verifiable physiological and psychological effects of childbirth and lactation, treatable as a manslaughter equivalent rather than murder.^[25] The Act's framework thus prioritized empirical recognition of birth-induced mental disturbance as a partial exculpatory factor, enabling juries to convict on infanticide where full mens rea for murder might otherwise apply, with penalties aligned to manslaughter guidelines.^[5] The legislation maintained exclusivity to biological mothers, reflecting the causal specificity of postpartum hormonal and physiological disruptions empirically tied to female reproduction, with equivalent paternal disturbances observed far less frequently in homicide data.^[1] No substantive amendments have altered this gender-specific structure since enactment, though the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 clarified that infanticide applies solely to a woman's own biological child, excluding cases involving surrogacy or adoption to preserve the offense's focus on direct birth-related causation.^[26] Judicial interpretations have since refined the "disturbance" threshold, increasingly requiring corroborative medical evidence—such as psychiatric assessments of postpartum depression or endocrine imbalances—to establish the causal link, as seen in appellate reviews emphasizing objective indicators over subjective claims.^[2] These rulings address interpretive ambiguities in proving the disturbance's nexus to birth effects, without expanding the defense beyond its original evidentiary bounds. Empirically, convictions under the 1938 Act remain rare, with UK-wide prosecutions averaging fewer than a handful annually and often resulting in non-custodial dispositions like probation or community orders, underscoring the provision's merciful intent while preserving deterrence against willful child killings.^[5]^[2] This low incidence aligns with the offense's design as a targeted mitigation for biologically induced impairment, avoiding broader application that might dilute homicide accountability, though ongoing debates highlight residual uncertainties in adjudicating the degree of disturbance sufficient for the defense.^[6]

Legislation by Jurisdiction

England and Wales

In England and Wales, the offense of infanticide is governed by section 1 of the Infanticide Act 1938, which applies where a woman, by any wilful act or omission, causes the death of her biological child under the age of twelve months, but at the time of the act or omission, the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth.^[1] The provision may be prosecuted as a standalone offense or accepted as a partial defense to a murder charge, allowing a jury to return a verdict of infanticide in lieu of murder if the elements are proven beyond reasonable doubt.^[27] Prosecution requires evidence of an unlawful killing, with the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) guidance stressing the necessity of robust psychiatric or medical evidence to substantiate the birth- or lactation-related disturbance of the mind, distinguishing it from broader mental health conditions unrelated to the physiological effects of childbirth.^[27] The offense integrates into the broader homicide framework without substantive alteration by subsequent legislation, such as the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, which reformed partial defenses like loss of control but preserved the infanticide mitigation as a distinct mechanism tied to postpartum physiological impacts.^[5] Sentencing follows guidelines akin to those for manslaughter, with a statutory maximum of life imprisonment, though courts typically impose non-custodial disposals, suspended sentences, or terms of two to five years' custody, emphasizing rehabilitation and psychiatric treatment over punitive measures given the offense's recognition of temporary mental impairment.^[2]^[5] Convictions remain infrequent, reflecting the offense's narrow evidentiary threshold; a review of cases from 2002 to 2024 identified 17 instances where women were convicted of or pleaded guilty to infanticide for causing the death of a child under twelve months, with the majority resulting in non-custodial outcomes.^[2] This low incidence underscores its targeted application in scenarios involving concealed births or immediate postpartum killings where psychiatric assessments confirm the requisite mind disturbance, rather than routine homicide prosecutions.^[2]

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland, following the partition of Ireland in 1921, the Infanticide Act 1922 was initially applied via the Uniformity of Laws Act (Northern Ireland) 1922, but was repealed and re-enacted with modifications by the Infanticide Act (Northern Ireland) 1939, which commenced on 2 May 1939.^[28] The 1939 Act defines infanticide as occurring when a woman, by any wilful act or omission, causes the death of her child under twelve months old, provided that at the time the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by the effect of lactation consequent upon its birth.^[29] In such cases, the offense is indictable and punishable on conviction as for manslaughter, serving as an alternative verdict to murder.^[29] These provisions are substantively identical to those in the Infanticide Act 1938 applicable in England and Wales, reflecting harmonization across jurisdictions despite separate legislative processes.^[30] Prosecutions fall under Northern Ireland's devolved criminal justice framework, including preliminary investigations in magistrates' courts and trials in Crown Courts, with appeals progressing to the Court of Appeal (Northern Ireland) and potentially the UK Supreme Court.^[28] The evidentiary burden requires proof of the mental disturbance element, often assessed through medical testimony on postpartum conditions, with juries exercising discretion to determine its presence and causal link to the act.^[29] Integration occurs with UK-wide mental health statutes, such as section 5 of the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1966 on diminished responsibility, allowing infanticide as a specific lens for maternal cases without supplanting broader defenses.^[31] Given Northern Ireland's population of approximately 1.9 million, infanticide cases are sporadic compared to England and Wales, typically arising in contexts of maternal mental health crises and resolved via plea or jury findings emphasizing the statutory disturbance.^[32] For instance, in 2016, a Belfast Crown Court hearing detailed a mother's admission to killing her infant son amid fears of transmitting "bad blood," invoking infanticide provisions tied to her psychological state.^[32] In a 2023 case, a woman charged with her baby's murder advanced the defense that she remained affected by childbirth recovery, aligning directly with the Act's criteria for jury consideration.^[33] No distinct reforms have altered the 1939 framework, and sentencing patterns—often probation, suspended terms, or hospital orders—mirror leniency trends observed in mainland UK jurisdictions, prioritizing rehabilitation over retributive measures.^[28]

Canada

Canada incorporated infanticide provisions into its Criminal Code in 1948, under section 233, establishing the offence for a female person who, by a wilful act or omission, causes the death of her newly-born child while her mind is "not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth or from the effects of lactation consequent on the birth."^[34] This provision, with a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment, offers a lesser offence than murder (which carries a mandatory life sentence with a 25-year parole ineligibility for first-degree) or manslaughter, recognizing potential mental disturbance tied to postpartum physiological effects rather than broader insanity defenses.^[35] The law applies exclusively to children under one year old and requires proof of the mental state at the time of the act, distinguishing it from general homicide by incorporating causal links to childbirth-induced impairment.^[36] Judicial interpretations have refined the offence's elements, emphasizing that infanticide subsumes the mens rea of murder—such as intent to cause death or bodily harm likely to cause death with indifference to life—but treats the postpartum disturbance as a partial excuse reducing culpability.^[37] In R. v. Borowiec, 2016 SCC 11, the Supreme Court upheld infanticide convictions for a woman who concealed and discarded her newborns, rejecting the Crown's appeal for murder convictions by affirming that the offence does not demand a separate, heightened mens rea but integrates the disturbance condition to mitigate from murder.^[38] The ruling clarified that the mental disturbance must be factually connected to birth effects, incorporating an objective assessment of whether a reasonable observer would foresee the impairment's impact, thus avoiding purely subjective claims detached from biological causality.^[37] This decision maintained the provision's viability amid arguments for its vagueness, underscoring evidentiary burdens on causation over unfettered leniency.^[39] Infanticide convictions in Canada are infrequent, comprising a minor subset of overall homicide cases, with Statistics Canada data on accused persons showing infanticide alongside murder and manslaughter but without breakdown revealing dozens of annual convictions; empirical reviews indicate most arise as plea bargains from murder charges in neonaticide scenarios.^[40] Usage patterns highlight biological rationales, such as hormonal disruptions, over cultural or socioeconomic pressures, though academic critiques question over-reliance on the former amid gender-exclusive application, prompting repeal debates since the 2000s.^[41] Proposals to eliminate section 233 cite its perpetuation of parental inequality—excluding fathers facing similar newborn caregiving stresses—and reliance on outdated medical assumptions, yet no legislative repeal has occurred, with courts upholding it as constitutionally valid for targeted amelioration of postpartum vulnerabilities.^[42]^[43]

Legal Provisions and Application

Core Elements of Infanticide Offense

The infanticide offense, as codified in jurisdictions such as England and Wales under the Infanticide Act 1938 and in Canada via section 233 of the Criminal Code, requires that the perpetrator be the biological mother of the victim.^[34] The victim must be the mother's child under a specified age threshold—twelve months in the United Kingdom or one year in Canada—with the death resulting from a wilful act or omission by the mother.^[34] Central to the offense is a causal nexus: the mother's balance of mind must have been disturbed specifically due to incomplete recovery from the physiological effects of childbirth or, in the UK formulation, lactation consequent upon birth, rather than unrelated factors.^[34] This disturbance is not equivalent to legal insanity, which demands a complete failure to appreciate the nature of the act or its wrongfulness; instead, it posits a partial physiological impairment traceable to postpartum processes, provable through medical testimony linking hormonal, nutritional, or psychological imbalances directly to the birth event. As a partial defense to murder, infanticide reduces culpability from murder to an offense equivalent in treatment to manslaughter, acknowledging the presence of mens rea (such as intent to kill or cause grievous bodily harm) while mitigating punishment based on the causal role of birth-related disturbance. This framework preserves the unlawfulness of the killing and the victim's inherent right to life, rejecting any justification or full excuse that would absolve responsibility entirely; the physiological causality serves as a mitigating factor rooted in empirical postpartum vulnerabilities, not a denial of agency. Unlike broader mental health defenses, the disturbance must temporally and causally connect to the birth, ensuring the offense targets neonaticide or early infant homicide scenarios without extending to unrelated maternal killings.^[34] Evidentiary standards place the initial burden on the prosecution to establish the unlawful killing, after which the defense may adduce medical evidence of the requisite mental disturbance; if proven to the jury's satisfaction, the offense downgrades without requiring negation of intent. This does not impose a reverse burden on the accused but integrates the disturbance as an alternative verdict post-indictment for murder, supported by expert testimony on postpartum conditions like thyroid dysfunction or hormonal shifts empirically associated with impaired judgment. The formulation avoids barring the defense even in cases of deliberate intent, prioritizing causal realism in mitigation over exculpation, provided the disturbance's physiological origins are substantiated.^[34]

Distinctions from Murder and Manslaughter

In England and Wales, under the Infanticide Act 1938, the offense applies where a mother causes the death of her child under 12 months old by a willful act or omission while her mind's balance is disturbed due to not having fully recovered from childbirth or lactation effects; this permits a jury to return a verdict of infanticide in lieu of what might otherwise be murder or manslaughter.^[1] Murder requires proof of malice aforethought, encompassing intent to kill, intent to cause grievous bodily harm, or foresight of death in a felony context, without any such disturbance mitigating the full culpability.^[27] In contrast, manslaughter lacks this specific mens rea but arises from either voluntary circumstances like provocation or diminished responsibility, or involuntary ones involving an unlawful and dangerous act or gross negligence; infanticide, however, specifies the maternal postpartum disturbance as the discounting factor, obviating the need to establish a separate unlawful act or provocation element.^[27] Sentencing reflects these culpability gradients: murder carries a mandatory life sentence with a minimum tariff of 15 to 25 years' parole ineligibility based on aggravating factors, whereas infanticide is punishable by up to life imprisonment but treated akin to manslaughter with judicial discretion for lesser terms, acknowledging the causal role of birth-related impairment over uniform punitive severity.^[27] Judicial application requires evidence that the disturbance directly contributed to the act, preventing unwarranted downgrades from higher homicide charges.^[20] In Canada, the Criminal Code delineates infanticide as a distinct culpable homicide where a mother, by willful act or omission, causes her newly born child's death while not fully recovered from childbirth effects, disturbing her mind; this categorizes the act separately from murder or manslaughter, even if an intent to kill existed absent the disturbance.^[44] Murder demands specific intent to kill or cause bodily harm likely to produce death, or knowledge that the act would probably cause death, without postpartum mitigation; manslaughter encompasses culpable homicides not fitting murder or infanticide, often involving unlawful acts or criminal negligence without intent.^[45] Infanticide's hybrid nature incorporates willful conduct but reduces culpability via the birth-linked disturbance, distinct from manslaughter's broader negligence or provocation bases, with evidentiary thresholds ensuring the nexus between disturbance and act to curb misuse.^[34] Penalties underscore the distinctions: first-degree murder mandates life with 25 years' parole ineligibility, second-degree life with 10-25 years, and manslaughter up to life; infanticide, however, caps at five years' imprisonment on indictment, prioritizing the empirical impact of maternal physiological recovery over equivalent homicide sanctions.^[44]

Evidentiary Requirements and Sentencing

To convict under the Infanticide Act 1938 in England and Wales, the prosecution must prove beyond reasonable doubt that the accused woman wilfully caused the death of her child under twelve months old by an act or omission, and that at the time her balance of mind was disturbed due to not having fully recovered from the effects of giving birth or lactation.^[1]^[27] This disturbance must be causally linked to physiological postpartum or lactational effects, rather than unrelated factors such as general depression or external stressors alone, though courts interpret the nexus flexibly based on evidence.^[6] Expert psychiatric testimony is typically essential to establish this mental state, assessing whether the disturbance aligns with recognized postpartum conditions like hormonal imbalances, and juries evaluate the reasonableness of the claimed causal connection in light of all evidence.^[27]^[2] In Canada, under section 233 of the Criminal Code, evidentiary standards similarly require proof of a wilful act or omission causing the death of a newly-born child, with the mother's mind disturbed owing to incomplete recovery from childbirth or lactation effects, emphasizing a direct causal tie to these physiological processes.^[34] Juries or judges assess whether the evidence suffices to reduce the charge from murder, often relying on psychiatric evaluations to differentiate qualifying disturbances from non-qualifying mental states. Appeals commonly scrutinize the sufficiency of this evidence, such as whether alternative causes (e.g., non-maternal actors or unrelated psychopathology) were adequately excluded, potentially leading to overturned convictions if psychiatric linkage is deemed inadequate.^[46] Sentencing for infanticide treats the offence as equivalent to manslaughter, with a maximum of life imprisonment in England and Wales but broad judicial discretion guided by factors including the degree of harm, offender remorse, future risk, and mental health needs.^[27] In practice, custodial terms are rare; among infanticide convictions since 2002, outcomes predominantly involve non-custodial disposals such as hospital orders under the Mental Health Act or community orders with supervision, with fewer than 10% resulting in immediate imprisonment over broader post-2000 data.^[47] In Canada, the maximum penalty is five years, similarly yielding lenient results focused on treatment over incarceration when the defence succeeds.^[34]

Controversies and Criticisms

Medical and Psychological Justifications

The medical and psychological justifications for provisions like those in the Infanticide Act 1938 center on the recognized physiological disruptions following childbirth, particularly the rapid postpartum decline in hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, which can precipitate acute mental disturbances in vulnerable women.^[48] These hormonal withdrawals mimic withdrawal states associated with psychosis in other contexts, potentially triggering transient episodes of severe mood dysregulation or delusional thinking.^[49] Postpartum psychosis, the most severe manifestation, occurs in approximately 1-2 per 1,000 deliveries, representing less than 0.2% of cases, and is characterized by rapid onset symptoms including hallucinations and infanticidal ideation.^[50] Empirical data link these events to underlying vulnerabilities like bipolar disorder or prior episodes, rather than universal maternal experience, underscoring a causal pathway from endocrine shifts to impaired cognition without implying inevitability.^[49] Critics argue that extending such justifications risks overgeneralization, as not all infanticide cases involve verifiable psychopathology; studies indicate that roughly half of convictions under similar doctrines lack evidence of an identifiable mental disorder, relying instead on presumed disturbance from the birth process alone.^[51] UK forensic reviews highlight a stronger empirical correlation with concealed or denied pregnancies—often involving social denial and lack of prenatal care—than with routine postpartum hormonal fluctuations, suggesting psychosocial stressors amplify rather than solely cause the acts.^[52]^[53] This pattern challenges narratives of inherent maternal exemption, as concealed cases frequently lack the acute psychotic features of classic postpartum onset and instead reflect prolonged dissociation.^[54] From a causal standpoint, while hormonal mechanisms provide a substantiated physiological basis for rare, non-volitional impairments—distinguishing them from premeditated or unrelated killings—this does not eliminate individual agency or moral culpability in the absence of such pathology.^[55] Defenses invoking these justifications succeed predominantly when supported by psychiatric assessments confirming disturbance, with case analyses showing high acceptance in neonaticide scenarios tied to endocrine evidence, though broader application dilutes precision to non-pathological stressors.^[5] Peer-reviewed evaluations emphasize that true causal links require demonstrable impairment, not mere temporal proximity to birth, to avoid conflating rarity with routine leniency.^[22]

Gender-Specific Nature and Potential Biases

The Infanticide Act 1938 restricts the offense to women who unlawfully kill their biological child under one year old, with the act's architects attributing this gender specificity to the unique physiological and psychological disturbances arising from pregnancy and childbirth that impair the "balance of the woman's mind."^[25] This provision reflects empirical patterns in neonaticide cases—killings within the first days of life—where biological mothers comprise nearly all perpetrators in England and Wales, often exceeding 90% when accounting for concealment or non-prosecution of maternal suspects.^[56] Such data underscores a causal link tied to maternal exclusivity in birth and early caregiving, including heightened vulnerability to postpartum mental states without direct male analogs.^[53] Proponents of the gender-specific framework maintain that it recognizes irreplaceable female burdens, such as hormonal shifts post-delivery, which lack equivalents in paternal experience and justify tailored legal mercy absent broader applicability.^[57] Critics, however, contend that the mother-only limitation embodies overt sex discrimination by entrenching gender-based legal exceptionalism, potentially overlooking paternal mental health impairments or shared stressors in filicide scenarios and advocating instead for gender-neutral expansions of diminished responsibility doctrines to address equivalences in culpability.^[58] Paternal killings of infants under one year, though less frequent than maternal neonaticides, proceed under standard murder or manslaughter charges without access to the infanticide verdict, resulting in full evidentiary scrutiny and penalties.^[56] Empirical reviews find no substantiation for claims of routine exploitation of the provision by non-qualifying actors or systemic paternal evasion, as father-perpetrated cases remain prosecutable via existing homicide laws irrespective of the act's scope.^[59]

Leniency Concerns and Impact on Infant Life Valuation

Critics of the Infanticide Act 1938 contend that its provisions establish a two-tiered system of justice, wherein the unlawful killing of infants receives substantially milder treatment than comparable offenses against older children or adults, thereby implying a diminished valuation of nascent human life.^[5] This leniency, which typically results in non-custodial sentences rather than the mandatory life imprisonment for murder, is argued to potentially foster a societal tolerance for killings motivated by social or economic pressures, such as unwanted pregnancies, by reducing the perceived gravity of the act.^[60] Right-leaning commentators, emphasizing the biological continuity between unborn and newborn life, highlight this disparity as inconsistent with broader protections against harm to fetuses, where causing miscarriage through assault can incur severe penalties under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, contrasting sharply with post-birth mitigation. Empirical data indicate that while convictions under the Act are infrequent— with only 17 cases of women pleading or being found guilty of infanticide for children under 12 months between 2002 and 2024—public discourse often portrays such outcomes as "getting away with murder," which may undermine confidence in the criminal justice system's retributive function.^[2] ^[61] However, no direct causal evidence links the Act to elevated infant homicide rates; comparative analysis shows similar incidence levels in England and Wales (with the Act) and Scotland (without specific infanticide provisions), suggesting limited deterrent erosion.^[62] Recidivism appears negligible given the rarity of offenses and the emphasis on psychiatric intervention over incarceration, though comprehensive longitudinal studies remain scarce due to low case volumes. Proponents of the Act maintain that its sparing application averts any slippery slope toward normalized infant killing, as sustained low rates demonstrate effective safeguards without necessitating full murder equivalence.^[63] Detractors counter that this philosophical leniency parallels debates over abortion's moral parity with infanticide, arguing it subtly erodes deterrence by prioritizing maternal circumstances over the absolute right to life of the infant, particularly when modern alternatives like accessible termination exist pre-birth.^[63] Recent trends, including murder convictions for neonaticides in lieu of infanticide pleas, reflect growing judicial skepticism toward such mitigation, potentially signaling a recalibration toward uniform valuation of infant lives.^[60]

Reception and Reform Debates

Supportive Perspectives and Empirical Outcomes

Proponents of the infanticide provision in Canada's Criminal Code, enacted in 1948, argue that it achieved a humane shift from capital punishment to rehabilitative measures for cases involving verifiable postpartum mental disturbances. Prior to 1948, women charged with murdering newborns faced potential execution under murder statutes; the new provision classified infanticide as a distinct offense with a maximum five-year sentence, effectively removing such cases from capital eligibility and enabling psychiatric treatment over lethal punishment.^[64]^[42] This reform aligned sentencing with causal factors like the physiological and psychological effects of childbirth, avoiding the binary outcomes of murder convictions or full acquittals under the insanity defense.^[65] Empirical data indicate low and stable infanticide rates following the provision's introduction, with no observed spike in occurrences attributable to its leniency. Analysis of trends across 28 countries from 1960 to 2009 showed Canada's infanticide rates remaining fairly stable or decreasing linearly, suggesting the law did not incentivize escalation in infant killings.^[66] Sentencing outcomes further support rehabilitative efficacy, as no convictions under the provision have resulted in imprisonment exceeding one year since 1948, with many resolved via probation or conditional discharges that facilitate mental health interventions and societal reintegration.^[42] Medical advocates emphasize that this approach prioritizes evidence-based treatment for disturbances linked to lactation imbalances or hormonal shifts post-delivery, reducing recidivism risks compared to punitive incarceration.^[67] The provision's framework promotes causal accountability by requiring proof of a mind disturbed by childbirth effects, offering partial mitigation without absolving responsibility entirely, as would occur with a not criminally responsible verdict. Psychiatric perspectives highlight its realism in addressing transient postpartum conditions, where empirical correlations exist between delivery-related physiological changes and impaired judgment, enabling targeted therapy over ideological retribution.^[68] Overall, these outcomes demonstrate compassionate efficacy with minimal societal costs, as low conviction volumes and rehabilitative focus have not correlated with broader homicide increases.^[66]

Calls for Repeal or Revision

In the United Kingdom, legal academics have advocated for judicial clarification of the Infanticide Act 1938's "balance of mind disturbed" test, arguing that its vague wording leads to inconsistent application and fails to align with modern psychiatric understandings of postpartum mental states, potentially warranting statutory reform to define thresholds more precisely.^[5] The Law Commission launched a review of homicide laws in August 2025, soliciting evidence on infanticide's ongoing viability amid criticisms of its obsolescence and gender-specific framing, echoing unadopted 2006 proposals to restructure partial defenses like diminished responsibility.^[69] Proponents of repeal assert the Act perpetuates anachronistic leniency tied to biological motherhood, recommending its replacement with gender-neutral expansions of manslaughter to encompass equivalent mental disturbances in any caregiver, thereby addressing perceived biases without empirical evidence of widespread misuse given the offense's rarity—fewer than 10 convictions annually in recent decades.^[60] Revision proposals include broadening applicability beyond biological mothers to co-parents experiencing analogous stressors, such as severe sleep deprivation or relational trauma, or narrowing it to verifiable severe psychosis, as postpartum psychotic episodes demonstrably correlate with higher infanticide risk but lack the Act's causal linkage to birth effects.^[70] Critics of expansion highlight unaddressed evidentiary challenges, noting that broadening could dilute murder convictions without commensurate reductions in infant homicides, as infanticide pleas succeed in under 20% of eligible cases based on forensic psychiatric assessments.^[57] Despite these debates, no substantive amendments have been enacted by October 2025, with resistance stemming from the provision's infrequent invocation and historical role in averting mandatory life sentences for transient disturbances.^[2] In Canada, 2006 legislative discussions, prompted by high-profile cases, debated repealing the infanticide provision in section 233 of the Criminal Code as vague and discriminatory, favoring its absorption into general manslaughter with explicit mental disorder criteria to eliminate gender presumptions.^[42] The 2016 Supreme Court ruling in R. v. Borowiec upheld infanticide's availability absent intent to kill but intensified post-judgment reviews critiquing its outdated postpartum focus, with scholarly recommendations for repeal citing failure to require causal proof of mental disturbance and potential under-deterrence of neonaticide.^[38]^[39] Proposals for revision emphasized limiting convictions to objective evidence of psychosis or expanding to paternal filicide under equivalent diminished capacity, though empirical data showing infanticide's use in only 5-10% of maternal neonaticides annually has stalled changes absent broader homicide reform.^[71] No repeal or major revision has occurred by 2025, perpetuating critiques of unaddressed biases in a framework resistant to empirical overhaul due to its merciful intent.^[43]

Comparative International Context

Australia and New Zealand, as Commonwealth nations, maintain infanticide provisions closely modeled on the UK's framework, allowing mothers to be convicted of the lesser offense rather than murder when the child's death under specified ages—typically up to 12 months in Australian states like New South Wales and Victoria, or 10 years in New Zealand—is linked to post-partum mental disturbance from childbirth effects.^[72]^[73]^[74] These statutes reflect direct historical influence from the English Infanticide Acts of 1922 and 1938, preserving a causal recognition of physiological and psychological factors unique to maternal cases without extending to fathers.^[75] In contrast, the United States lacks a federal infanticide equivalent, with cases handled under state homicide laws where postpartum psychosis or depression may invoke insanity defenses, but outcomes vary widely due to inconsistent application and stricter evidentiary thresholds for exculpation.^[76]^[70] Maternal filicide often results in murder charges, with only about one-third of documented postpartum psychosis defenses succeeding via insanity findings, leading to potential life sentences or execution in some instances, unlike the near-universal leniency of non-custodial or probationary dispositions in UK infanticide verdicts.^[70]^[77] European jurisdictions typically subsume similar acts under broader diminished responsibility doctrines, eschewing sex-specific offenses in favor of gender-neutral assessments of mental impairment, as seen in frameworks across countries like the Netherlands and Spain where pathologization influences sentencing but without dedicated infanticide categories.^[78]^[79] This approach yields higher murder conviction proportions in comparable cases compared to the UK's model, empirically underscoring debates over the latter's targeted causal leniency versus more egalitarian but potentially harsher general homicide treatments.^[80]^[77]

References

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Infanticide Act 1938 - Legislation.gov.uk
An Act to repeal and re-enact with modifications the provisions of the Infanticide Act 1922.
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Infanticide Act 1938 - Legislation.gov.uk
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Aug 26, 2025 · Abstract. It is widely accepted that the purpose of the Infanticide Act 1938 is to offer mercy for women who kill their infants while 'the ...
[7]
issues relating to The Infanticide Act 1938 - ResearchGate
Jan 17, 2019 · Research has shown that premature, deformed,. illegitimate and even female children are more likely to be victims of infanticide2. ... continued ...
[8]
Infanticide in the Early Modern Period: The 1624 Statute
The statute was primarily focused upon the crime of infanticide, more specifically, the deaths of new born babies. It also made it a capital criminal offence ...
[9]
Illegitimacy and Infanticide in Early Modern England | The York ...
Apr 3, 2025 · The 1624 Infanticide Act presumed an unmarried mother guilty of murdering her child if she concealed a pregnancy and the child was found dead.
[10]
Infanticide and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century Britain - jstor
The first was illegitimacy. Most of those apprehended for infanticide and abortion were single women, and it was believed that the desire to avoid the stigma ...
[11]
[PDF] CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFANTICIDE IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND
It was the primary legal understanding of infanticide at least since the passage of the 1624 “Act to Prevent the Destroying and. Murthering of Bastard Children.
[12]
Infanticide in the Early Modern Period: Account for the Relatively ...
Oct 7, 2017 · Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the conviction rate declined in the cases of new-born child murder and this essay will address some of the reasons ...
[13]
[PDF] Infanticide at the Old Bailey, 1674- 1704 Prior to 1624, i - DalSpace
after 1710, the illegitimacy rate began to rise steadily and by the late 18th century were never less ... infanticide from the medieval period to the eighteenth ...<|separator|>
[14]
Bad or Mad? Infanticide: Insanity and Morality in Nineteenth-Century ...
May 13, 2020 · Alongside the understanding that poverty and illegitimacy caused infanticide, child-murder was also perceived to be a product of insanity in the ...
[15]
Infanticide - The Victorian Web
Feb 3, 2024 · No other laws specific to infanticide were passed in England until the 1922 Infanticide Act (Geo. V, c. 18). Illegitimacy, however, continued to ...
[16]
[PDF] Infanticide and Puerperal Insanity in Victorian English Courts
The practice of infanticide was a moral panic, arising out of concern for the moral stability of motherhood. III. Turning Towards Infanticide. Committing ...
[17]
Puerperal Insanity - The Victorian Web
Feb 28, 2024 · As well as fascinating the medical profession, puerperal insanity captured public attention. As reports of infanticide trials illustrate, the ...
[18]
https://oxfordre.com/criminology/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-219
[19]
100 years of the Infanticide Act - Counsel Magazine
Dec 5, 2022 · It is now 100 years since the Infanticide Act was passed by Parliament. We no longer have the death penalty in England and Wales and we now have the partial ...Missing: motivations | Show results with:motivations
[20]
[PDF] THE LAW OF INFANTICIDE - Doughty Street Chambers
While the Act of 1803 repealed the Act of 1624, it reinstated the status quo of the 17th century where mothers who committed infanticide were charged with ...<|separator|>
[21]
The Problems with the Infanticide Act 1922
Apr 28, 2023 · Judges and lawyers argued that it was unclear who had the jurisdiction to bring in a bill for infanticide and that the Act was badly drafted.[6] ...Missing: enactment motivations
[22]
'[M]ercy is justice…and should not be denied': Lord Dawson, the ...
The Infanticide Act 1938 was the second piece of inter-war legislation to establish the crime of infanticide in England and Wales. As such, it significantly ...
[23]
[PDF] Scientific Understandings of Postpartum Illness: Improving Health ...
Jan 27, 2010 · Like the Infanticide Act of 1922, the Infanticide Act of 1938 did not contain any within-statute legislative findings or preamble ...
[24]
Infanticide Act 1938 - Legislation.gov.uk
(1)Where a woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her child being a child under the age of twelve months, but at the time of the act or ...
[25]
Infanticide Act 1938 - Women's Legal Landmarks in the Interwar Years
This established that a woman could be convicted of the new offence of infanticide if she was found to have caused 'the death of her newly-born child' while ' ...
[26]
Coroners and Justice Act 2009 - Explanatory Notes
Section 57 amends section 1 of the Infanticide Act 1938 so that it is clear that the offence and defence of infanticide are available only in respect of a ...Missing: judicial | Show results with:judicial
[27]
Murder, manslaughter, infanticide and causing or allowing the death ...
Jun 21, 2024 · This guidance assists our prosecutors when they are making decisions about cases. It is regularly updated to reflect changes in law and practice.
[28]
Infanticide Act (Northern Ireland) 1939 - Legislation.gov.uk
An Act to repeal and re-enact with modifications the provisions of the Infanticide Act, 1922, as applied to Northern Ireland by the Uniformity of Laws Act.Missing: motivations | Show results with:motivations<|separator|>
[29]
Infanticide Act (Northern Ireland) 1939 - Legislation.gov.uk
An Act to repeal and re-enact with modifications the provisions of the Infanticide Act, 1922, as applied to Northern Ireland by the Uniformity of Laws Act ...
[30]
[PDF] Newspaper Reportage of Infanticide and the Law in England and ...
... English Act was held to apply, but is now dealt with under the Infanticide Act (Northern Ireland) 1939, a statute almost identical to the [English] 1938. Act.<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
Murder, infanticide and suicide - Legislation.gov.uk
Murder, infanticide ... (1)Section 5 of the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1966 (c. 20) (effect, in cases of homicide, of impaired mental responsibility) ...<|separator|>
[32]
Belfast Crown Court told details of mother's admission to killing her ...
Apr 15, 2016 · A court hears details about a case of infanticide in which a mother-of-two killed her youngest son because she feared she had given him "bad ...Missing: convictions | Show results with:convictions
[33]
Belfast court told woman accused of murdering baby son was ... - ITVX
Mar 6, 2023 · A woman accused of murdering her baby son was "still recovering from the effects of childbirth at the material time", a jury heard Monday.
[34]
Criminal Code ( RSC , 1985, c. C-46) - Laws.justice.gc.ca
233 A female person commits infanticide when by a wilful act or omission she causes the death of her newly-born child, if at the time of the act or omission ...
[35]
Why Section 233 of Canadas Criminal Code is Unconstitutional
In 1948,Parliament tried to remedy this by addings. 233 to the Canadian Criminal Code, creating the offence of infanticide. With a maximum penalty of five ...
[36]
Infanticide - Nicholas Robinson Criminal Lawyer
Under Section 233 of the Criminal Code: ... This law, introduced in 1948, acknowledges the physical and mental effects of childbirth, which can impair a mother's ...
[37]
2016 SCC 11 (CanLII) | R. v. Borowiec
Mar 24, 2016 · The trial judge acquitted the respondent of murder and found her guilty of two counts of infanticide. [9] On the Crown's appeal of the acquittal ...
[38]
R. v. Borowiec - SCC Cases - Décisions de la CSC
Mar 24, 2016 · The trial judge acquitted B of murder and found her guilty of two counts of infanticide. The majority of the Court of Appeal dismissed the ...
[39]
Canada's infanticide law 'vague, outdated and rife with problems'
Jan 7, 2016 · Alberta is arguing before the superme court that a law created to spare vulnerable women allows killer mothers to sidestep the punishment ...
[40]
Number, percentage and rate of persons accused of homicide, by ...
Jul 22, 2025 · Annual ... Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Footnote 2. Homicide includes Criminal Code offences of murder, manslaughter and infanticide.
[41]
[PDF] Infanticide Provisions in a Contemporary Context: Should They Stay ...
The enactment of Sections 233 and 237 of the Criminal Code by. Parliament aimed to address the historical prevalence of jury nullification in infanticide ...
[42]
Repealing Canada's infanticide law | Criminal Code of Canada
The law is based on antiquated medical opinion and perpetuates inequality between male and female parents, who could both face stress from caring for an ...
[43]
[PDF] Deconstructing Infanticide - Western OJS
Abstract. The offence of infanticide is allegedly based in debunked and sexist ideas about women and pregnancy. This article demonstrates that this offence ...
[44]
Criminal Code ( RSC , 1985, c. C-46) - Laws.justice.gc.ca
Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide (continued) 234 Culpable homicide that is not murder or infanticide is manslaughter. 235 (1) Every one who commits first ...
[45]
Criminal Code ( RSC , 1985, c. C-46) - Laws.justice.gc.ca
(4) Culpable homicide is murder or manslaughter or infanticide. (5) A person commits culpable homicide when he causes the death of a human being, (a) by means ...
[46]
https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/2018/1696.html
[47]
None
Summary of each segment:
[48]
THE NEUROENDOCRINOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PREGNANCY ...
... postpartum depression, postpartum psychosis, dysphoria induced by oral contraceptives or hormonal replacement therapy and anabolic steroid–induced aggression.Missing: incidence | Show results with:incidence
[49]
Postpartum Psychosis: Madness, Mania, and Melancholia in ...
Sep 9, 2016 · After an incipient episode, 20%−50% of women have isolated postpartum psychosis. The remaining women have episodes outside the perinatal period, ...
[50]
Postpartum Psychosis: What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment
Sep 13, 2022 · Postpartum mood changes are very common but can vary from person to person. Some examples in addition to postpartum psychosis include postpartum ...
[51]
[PDF] The Offence/Defence of Infanticide: A View from Two Perspectives
Research has shown that approximately half of women who were convicted of infanticide were not suffering from an 'identifiable mental disorder'.43 The ...<|separator|>
[52]
Assessment of neonaticide in the setting of concealed and denied ...
Feb 6, 2020 · It is known that concealed and denied pregnancy are both associated with increased health risks to the mother and infant.
[53]
Content analysis of infanticide and neonaticide cases in the UK
Feb 22, 2023 · TABLE 1. Conviction of case. Conviction, Murder, Manslaughter, Diminished responsibility (including infanticide). Neonaticide, 2 ...Missing: sentencing | Show results with:sentencing
[54]
Perinatal risk factors for neonaticide and infant homicide - NIH
One of the common misconceptions about women who commit neonaticide is that there is an underlying psychiatric illness. This is embodied in the Infanticide Act, ...
[55]
Maternal Infanticide Associated With Mental Illness: Prevention and ...
Sep 1, 2004 · Although maternal infanticide is a rare event, a high proportion of cases occurs in the context of postpartum mental illness.
[56]
Infanticide in England and Wales - PubMed
For all neonaticides the mother was recorded as a suspect, 36% of these mothers were subsequently indicted, all but two were convicted of infanticide and all ...Missing: 2000-2024 | Show results with:2000-2024
[57]
8 Gender, 'Madness', and Crime: the Doctrine of Infanticide
The Act stipulated that, to be liable for infanticide, a woman must have caused the death of a 'newly born' child, when her 'balance of mind' was 'disturbed' by ...
[58]
Bad, Mad or Sad? Legal Language, Narratives, and Identity ...
Apr 21, 2016 · Firstly, infanticide is a gendered offence; it can only be committed by female defendants who kill their own child(ren), thus encoding 'what was ...<|separator|>
[59]
Filicide and criminal justice outcomes: Are maternal and paternal ...
The results of our study demonstrate that maternal perpetrators were less likely to be convicted, to be convicted of murder, and to receive a prison sentence ...
[60]
Infanticide: is the law fit for purpose?
Sep 9, 2022 · Considerable criticism has been directed at the Infanticide Act and the basis for the lenient treatment, notably the focus on lactation.
[61]
The Modern Debate: Getting Away With Murder?
The Modern Debate: Getting Away With Murder? 185 so that by 1939 antenatal ... 1938 Infanticide Act. The first of these related to the fact that the ...
[62]
Child murder by mothers: patterns and prevention - PMC - NIH
The British Infanticide Act of 1922 (amended in 1938) allows mothers to be charged with manslaughter rather than murder if they are suffering from a mental ...
[63]
Infanticide: vulnerable mothers who kill their babies can be granted ...
Aug 8, 2023 · A woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her child under the age of 12 months, but [whose] mind was disturbed by reason of her ...
[64]
The Death Penalty's Abolition and Infanticide's Invention
Jun 14, 2025 · Decades before Canada abolished the death penalty, it removed infanticide from the Criminal Code 's offences punishable by death.
[65]
View of Canadian Infanticide Legislation, 1948 and 1955
View of Canadian Infanticide Legislation, 1948 and 1955: Reflections on the Medicalization/Autopoiesis Debate.
[66]
Comparing trends in infanticides in 28 countries, 1960–2009
The term 'infanticide' refers to the homicide of a child younger than one year old. In this article, we describe infanticide trends in 28 industrialized ...
[67]
Supreme Court of Canada Dismisses Appeal in Infanticide Case R v ...
Mar 24, 2016 · Supreme Court of Canada Dismisses Appeal in Infanticide Case R v MB ... psychological, medical and other effects of childbirth and ...
[68]
[PDF] Rationalizing Infanticide: A Medico-legal Assessment of the Criminal
This article involves a discussion of the proper scope and interpretation of the Criminal Code provisions relating to the offence of infanticide. A review ...Missing: vagueness | Show results with:vagueness
[69]
Law Commission publishes call for evidence on the review of the ...
Aug 14, 2025 · Recommendations for reform of murder, manslaughter and infanticide in 2006. These recommendations concerned substantive homicide offences, ...
[70]
Commentary: Postpartum Psychosis, Infanticide, and Insanity ...
Sep 1, 2012 · In this article, we discuss postpartum psychosis, infanticide law, and research regarding mothers who kill, and we make recommendations to forensic ...
[71]
Infanticide Provisions in a Contemporary Context - CanLII
Infanticide Provisions in a Contemporary Context: Should They Stay, or Should They Go? J O S H U A P E R L. *. ABSTRACT The enactment of Sections 233 and ...
[72]
CRIMES ACT 1900 - SECT 22A Infanticide
A woman is guilty of infanticide and not of murder if-- (a) the woman by an act or omission causes the death of a child, in circumstances that would constitute ...
[73]
CRIMES ACT 1958 - SECT 6 Infanticide - classic austlii
(2) On an indictment for murder, a woman found not guilty of murder may be found guilty of infanticide. Note. See sections 10(3) and 421 for other alternative ...
[74]
What does infanticide mean in NZ law? - AUT News
Aug 1, 2023 · Infanticide has a legalistic meaning in the courtroom: it does not mean the killing of an infant. Rather, it is an offence that can only be committed by a ...
[75]
Infanticide and Infanticide Statutes in Australia and New Zealand
This article examines the recommendations of various law reform commissions and the development of infanticide statutes in Australia and New Zealand.Missing: comparative international US Europe
[76]
[PDF] The Inconsistent Treatment of Postpartum Psychosis as a Defense to ...
The legal community inconsistently treats postpartum psychosis as a defense in infanticide cases, and the medical community is slow to validate these disorders.
[77]
Britain and US clash over infanticide - The BMJ
Mar 16, 1996 · In Britain women who kill their babies while suffering from puerperal psychosis are not remanded in custody and almost invariably receive non- ...
[78]
Pathologization, Law, and Gender in Cases of Infanticide in Spain ...
Jan 23, 2024 · This article compares how gender and pathologization were entangled in the laws on infanticide in Spain and the Netherlands in 1930–1960, as well as in court ...
[79]
Mothers who kill: the crime of infanticide - ScienceDirect.com
Recent studies indicate that approximately 50% of women convicted of infanticide kill their children in the context of unwanted, concealed pregnancies, while ...
[80]
Policy and Disparity: The Punishment of Infanticide in Britain and ...
This article argues that the lack of specific public, legal, and medical policy in the United States concerning infanticide results in random inequity of ...