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Lesser cuckoo

The Lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) is a small, migratory brood-parasitic bird in the family Cuculidae, renowned for its distinctive vocalizations and role in East Asian folklore. Adults measure 22–27 cm in length and weigh 40–59 g, with males typically exhibiting slate-gray upperparts, a blackish tail tipped with white, a light gray throat and breast, a white belly barred in black, a yellow eye-ring, a black bill with a yellow base, and tan-yellow feet; females are similar but may show a rufous morph with reddish-brown head and upperparts. Juveniles display barred plumage, with slate-gray and white bars above and black-and-white barring below in the gray morph, or tawny bars above and brown or buff below in the rufous form.^[1] This species breeds in temperate broadleaf and pine forests, scrublands, and secondary growth across the Himalayas from northern Pakistan to Japan, including China and the Korean Peninsula, typically at elevations of 1,500–3,660 m, from May to July. It is a full migrant, wintering in subtropical and tropical lowland forests, dry savannas, and pine plantations in southern Asia (such as Sri Lanka and India) and eastern Africa from November to April, with occasional vagrants recorded as far as the Seychelles and Amsterdam Island. The lesser cuckoo forages by perching quietly in foliage and gleaning prey, primarily consisting of insects like geometrid and noctuid caterpillars, as well as beetles, hymenopterans, and mantids. As an obligate brood parasite, it deposits unmarked white or pale eggs (averaging 21 mm × 16 mm) in the nests of host species such as warblers (Cettia spp.), wren-babblers, shortwings, and the Japanese bush-warbler (Horornis diphone), with incubation lasting about 14 days and fledging around 15 days later; the young cuckoo ejects host eggs or chicks to monopolize parental care.^[1] The bird's husky, chattering song—often transcribed as a six-note phrase resembling "eat your chóky pepper" at 1.5–2.5 kHz with rising and falling pitch—serves as a territorial and mating call, audible during breeding season. In Japanese culture, known as hototogisu, the lesser cuckoo symbolizes the arrival of summer and evokes themes of longing, melancholy, and transience, featuring prominently in classical waka poetry from the Kokin wakashū anthology (c. 905 CE) onward and the Hyakunin Isshu (13th century), as well as inspiring the name of the haiku magazine Hototogisu. In Korea, its call is interpreted as a mournful sound representing sadness and is associated with folklore of sorrow, particularly in literature and as a symbol for the oppressed; the species is designated a Natural Monument for conservation due to declining numbers. Despite suspected population decreases from habitat loss (e.g., 5.1% forest cover decline over three generations), the lesser cuckoo's extremely large range of over 12,300,000 km² qualifies it as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Taxonomy

Classification

The lesser cuckoo is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Aves, order Cuculiformes, family Cuculidae, genus Cuculus, and species C. poliocephalus ^[4]. Its binomial name is Cuculus poliocephalus Latham, 1790, originally described from specimens in India ^[5]. This species is monotypic, with no recognized subspecies ^[1]. Historically, it was considered conspecific with Cuculus rochii and C. lepidus, but molecular studies using DNA evidence have confirmed they are distinct species, rejecting close phylogenetic relationships ^[1].

Etymology

The scientific name of the lesser cuckoo is Cuculus poliocephalus. The genus name Cuculus originates from the Latin word cuculus, meaning "cuckoo," an onomatopoeic term echoing the bird's characteristic call.^[6] The specific epithet poliocephalus is formed in modern Latin from the Ancient Greek polios ("grey") and kephalē ("head"), alluding to the species' grey head plumage.^[7] The English common name "lesser cuckoo" differentiates the species from larger congeners in the same genus, notably the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).^[5] In regional languages, the bird bears names often inspired by its vocalizations. The Japanese term hototogisu (ホトトギス) is onomatopoeic, mimicking the bird's repetitive song. In Chinese, it is called xiāodùjuān (小杜鹃), translating to "small cuckoo," with dùjuān serving as the general term for cuckoos.^[8] The Korean name dugyeon (두견) derives from Sino-Korean roots equivalent to the Chinese dùjuān, and the bird's song is poetically associated with themes of longing in Korean literature.

Description

Plumage

The adult male lesser cuckoo exhibits a distinctive slate-grey plumage on the upperparts, with the tail and uppertail-coverts appearing contrastingly blackish and featuring a white tip along with white subterminal spots on the outer feathers.^[1] Adults have a yellow eye-ring and dark brown iris. The throat and breast are light grey, transitioning to a white belly finely barred with black, while the undertail-coverts are often similarly barred.^[1] Males are monomorphic, showing no significant variation in this grey plumage pattern. Adult females are generally similar to males in possessing slate-grey upperparts, a blackish tail with white tip and spots, and light grey throat and breast leading to a white, black-barred belly.^[1] However, sexual dimorphism is evident through female-limited polymorphism, where approximately 38% of females display a rufous morph characterized by rufous-brown head and upperparts, with barred rufous and black patterns on the back and wings, and a barred tail.^[1] The remaining grey-morph females may occasionally show a subtle rufous wash on the breast.^[1] Juveniles differ markedly from adults, presenting slate-grey upperparts with broad white bars above and black-and-white barring on the breast and belly in the grey morph, or barred tawny upperparts and brown-and-buff barred underparts in the rufous morph.^[1] The tail spots are less distinct than in adults, and the face features black markings with white bars.^[1]

Measurements and vocalizations

The lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) has a body length of 22–27 cm and a mass ranging from 40–59 g.^[1] Wingspan measurements are not well-documented for this species. Its bill is slender and slightly downcurved, yellow at the base with a black tip, while the legs are short and tan-yellow.^[9] The species is most readily identified by its vocalizations, particularly the male's primary song, a husky chattering phrase often rendered as "eat your chóky pepper" or "kuk-ko-ro-ko-ro-ko-ro." This song comprises six notes delivered at frequencies of 1.5–2.5 kHz, with pitch rising and falling, and is repeated at intervals of approximately 2–3 seconds. It functions primarily in territorial advertisement and mate attraction during the breeding season.^[1]^[10] Alarm calls are sharp and staccato, consisting of "kik-kik" notes used to deter potential threats.^[11] Females produce begging calls that acoustically mimic the vocalizations of host nestlings, facilitating extended post-fledging care from host parents.^[12]

Distribution and migration

Breeding range

The lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) breeds across a broad expanse of Asia, ranging from northern Pakistan and Kashmir through the Himalayan foothills to the Khasi and Naga Hills in northeastern India, extending eastward to northern Myanmar, northern Indochina, southern China (including Taiwan and Hainan), Ussuriland in southeastern Siberia, Korea, and Japan.^[13] This distribution encompasses diverse topographic features, with breeding occurring from sea level in parts of Japan and Korea to high elevations of 1500–3660 m in the Himalayas, and typically up to 1200 m (occasionally 2300 m) in Japan.^[13] The breeding season spans May to July, aligning closely with the nesting periods of its primary host species, such as the Japanese bush-warbler (Horornis diphone) in Japan and various warblers and babblers in the Himalayas, to facilitate brood parasitism.^[13] Within this window, the species arrives via migration to establish territories in temperate and montane forests where hosts are abundant.^[3] The lesser cuckoo is described as common to fairly common in suitable breeding habitats throughout much of its range, particularly in areas with dense understory vegetation supporting host populations, though quantitative density estimates remain limited.^[13]^[3]

Wintering grounds and routes

The Lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) winters primarily in peninsular India, Sri Lanka, and eastern Africa, with records from countries including Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.^[1]^[3] In these regions, it occupies subtropical and tropical dry or moist lowland forests during the non-breeding season. Vagrant individuals have been observed in the Seychelles on autumn (November) and spring (April) passage, and exceptionally on Amsterdam Island.^[1] The species is a full migrant, with the entire breeding population undertaking southward or southwestward journeys post-breeding to reach wintering areas, followed by northward return in spring. Migration typically begins in late summer to early autumn, from August to October, and concludes with arrivals at wintering grounds by November or December. Return migration occurs from March to May, with birds arriving back at breeding sites by late spring. For instance, GPS-tracked individuals from South Korea departed breeding areas in August or September 2024 and initiated northward movement from Mozambique in April 2025.^[1]^[14]^[15] Migratory routes vary by population but generally align with major flyways, including paths along the Himalayan foothills and coastal corridors through the Indian subcontinent for western and central breeders. Eastern populations, such as those from Korea and Japan, follow longer trajectories across central Asia and the Indian Ocean, including direct overwater flights of up to 4,180 km over the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean in six days. Many individuals make stopovers in India during southward travel, facilitating recovery before reaching African wintering sites. Migration distances average 3,000–5,000 km for populations breeding in the western Himalayas and Indian subcontinent, though eastern breeders cover up to 13,000 km one-way, as documented in a round-trip of 27,340 km from South Korea to Mozambique.^[1]^[15]^[14]

Habitat and ecology

Preferred environments

The lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) primarily inhabits a variety of forested and semi-forested environments, favoring broadleaf and pine forests, as well as secondary growth areas, scrublands, and woodland edges.^[1] These habitats provide suitable conditions for its lifestyle as a brood parasite.^[1] In terms of elevation, the species occurs from sea level up to 2,300 m in Japan, where it is commonly found in lowland and foothill forests, while in the Himalayas, it ranges higher, typically between 1,500 m and 3,660 m.^[1] For climate preferences, it breeds in temperate regions during summer months, benefiting from milder conditions that support insect availability and host nesting activity, and migrates to tropical areas for wintering.^[3]^[16] At the microhabitat level, the lesser cuckoo selects areas with open canopies that facilitate aerial foraging from perches, often in the upper layers of lowland and foothill forests.^[17] It also prefers sites near undergrowth where potential host birds construct nests, ensuring proximity for parasitism without delving into dense vegetation.^[3]

Diet and foraging

The lesser cuckoo is primarily insectivorous, with its diet consisting mainly of caterpillars—particularly hairy and toxic species that many other birds avoid—along with beetles, hymenopterans, mantids, and orthopterans such as grasshoppers and crickets.^[18]^[19] It forages using a combination of techniques adapted to its arboreal and open woodland habitats, including aerial sallies from perches to capture flying insects, gleaning prey from foliage while methodically searching branches and leaves. Foraging activity occurs solitarily or occasionally in loose pairs, often during the day in a deliberate, unobtrusive manner.^[1]

Breeding

Brood parasitism

The lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) is an obligate brood parasite that depends exclusively on host species to incubate its eggs and rear its young. Unlike many birds, it constructs no nests of its own and invests no effort in parental care after egg-laying. This reproductive strategy allows the species to allocate energy toward producing multiple eggs across numerous host nests during the breeding season.^[1]^[20] Females exhibit specialized laying behavior, typically depositing a single egg per selected host nest to minimize detection and competition. Before laying, the female often removes one host egg. A single female may lay multiple eggs over the course of a breeding season, with each egg placed in a separate nest to maximize the chances of successful parasitism. This output is facilitated by the species' migratory lifestyle and extended breeding period in suitable habitats.^[21]^[22] Host selection is targeted and methodical, focusing primarily on small passerines such as bush-warblers (Cettia and Horornis spp., e.g., Japanese bush-warbler Horornis diphone and brownish-flanked bush-warbler Cettia fortipes), wren-babblers (Pnoepyga spp.), and shortwings (Brachypteryx spp.). Females scout potential nests, observing them to assess activity levels, clutch stage, and host responsiveness before attempting parasitism. This surveillance helps ensure the egg is laid during the optimal window, usually when the host clutch has 3–5 eggs.^[21]^[23]^[22] Adult behaviors during breeding emphasize efficiency over investment. Males contribute by singing to defend territories and attract females but do not participate in laying or rearing. Post-laying, both sexes provide no further care, leaving the parasitic chick to evict host offspring upon hatching and solicit food solely from the unwitting hosts. This abandonment underscores the evolutionary adaptations of brood parasitism in the lesser cuckoo.^[1]

Eggs and development

The eggs of the lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) are smooth and unmarked, with an average size of 21 mm × 16 mm. They are laid at intervals of 2–3 days during the breeding season, allowing females to parasitize multiple host nests. Egg color varies regionally to closely mimic those of the primary hosts, appearing as uniform brown in Japan to match the eggs of the Japanese bush-warbler (Horornis diphone). In other populations, such as in India, eggs may be white or brown to resemble the unmarked eggs of hosts like wren-babblers (Pnoepyga spp.) and shortwings (Brachypteryx spp.).^[1]^[21] Incubation is performed entirely by the host and lasts approximately 14 days, during which the cuckoo egg typically hatches 1–2 days earlier than host eggs due to advanced embryonic development. The newly hatched chick is semi-altricial, blind, and sparsely covered in down, but possesses specialized adaptations such as a wide gape and temporary flanges on the bill edges that enable it to rapidly evict host eggs or chicks from the nest within hours of hatching. Known hosts include the Japanese bush-warbler (Horornis diphone), brownish-flanked bush-warbler (Cettia fortipes), wren-babblers (Pnoepyga spp.), and shortwings (Brachypteryx spp.) in its breeding range.^[1]^[23] The nestling period lasts about 15 days, after which the chick fledges, though it remains dependent on host parents for feeding. Young cuckoos achieve independence at around 25–30 days post-hatching, by which time they have developed flight capabilities and foraging skills. To maximize food provisioning, cuckoo chicks employ acoustic mimicry, producing begging calls that imitate the chorusing sounds of an entire host brood rather than a single chick.^[1]

Conservation

Status and threats

The lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with the assessment noting its extremely large global range of approximately 12.3 million km² and a population decline that is not suspected to be rapid enough to qualify for more threatened categories.^[3] This status reflects the species' widespread distribution across breeding grounds in temperate forests of East Asia and the Himalayas, where it remains locally common despite ongoing environmental pressures.^[3] A primary threat to the lesser cuckoo is habitat loss in its breeding forests, particularly through deforestation in regions like the Himalayas, where tree cover within its mapped range has declined by an estimated 5.1% over the past three generations.^[3] The species exhibits a medium dependency on forest habitats for breeding, making it vulnerable to fragmentation and conversion of these areas for agriculture or development.^[3] Additional risks include the widespread use of pesticides, which reduces the availability of insect prey essential to the lesser cuckoo's diet, as documented in declines observed among related insectivorous cuckoo species.^[24] Climate change further exacerbates these challenges by potentially altering migration timing and disrupting the synchronization between the cuckoo and its host species' breeding cycles, with modeling indicating amplified negative effects due to host-parasite interactions.^[25] In response to these threats, the lesser cuckoo receives legal protection under Japan's Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law, which safeguards wild birds from hunting and habitat disturbance,^[26] China's Wildlife Protection Law, which prohibits the capture or trade of native avian species without permits,^[27] and in South Korea, where it has been designated as Natural Monument No. 447 since 2005.^[28]

Population trends

The global population size of the lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) has not been quantified, though it is described as fairly common across much of its breeding range in East Asia, including regions like Japan and the eastern Himalayas.^[3]^[1] Population trends are suspected to be decreasing overall, primarily driven by habitat loss, with tree cover within the species' mapped range estimated to have declined by 5.1% over the past three generations (approximately 10.2 years, based on a generation length of 3.4 years).^[3]^[29] This decline is not considered sufficiently rapid to meet thresholds for higher threat categories, and the species is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN.^[3] In core breeding areas such as Japan, the lesser cuckoo remains relatively common, with widespread breeding in suitable forested habitats up to about 1,200 m elevation.^[1] Locally in the Himalayas, it is reported as common to fairly common, particularly in Nepal, though fragmented habitats may contribute to localized declines.^[1] Monitoring of lesser cuckoo populations relies heavily on citizen science initiatives, such as eBird, which aggregates sighting data to assess distribution, relative abundance, and migratory patterns across its range.^[10] In Japan, dedicated surveys and ecological studies, including those tracking breeding distribution in areas like Hokkaido, provide insights into regional dynamics and host interactions.^[30] Vagrancy records, including not uncommon winter occurrences in East Africa and rare sightings in Sri Lanka, indicate overall stability in the species' migratory range despite broader habitat pressures.^[1]

Cultural significance

In East Asia

In Japan, the lesser cuckoo is known as hototogisu (ホトトギス), a name derived from its distinctive call, and it holds deep symbolic significance in traditional literature and folklore as an emblem of summer's arrival, transience, and unrequited love.^[31] According to a Chinese legend adapted in Japanese poetry, the bird's incessant cry stems from a tale of romantic longing, where an emperor's unfulfilled desire transforms him into the cuckoo, forever calling out in sorrow—a motif that underscores themes of impermanence and emotional yearning.^[31] This symbolism permeates classical waka poetry from the Kokin wakashū (c. 905 CE), the earliest imperial anthology, where the hototogisu evokes the bittersweet onset of summer and parting lovers, often contrasted with cherry blossoms of spring.^[32] In haiku, the bird features prominently as a seasonal kigo (symbol), notably in Matsuo Bashō's works, such as his famous verse capturing its cry amid nature's quietude, reinforcing its role as a harbinger of fleeting beauty and solitude.^[33] In Korea, the lesser cuckoo, called jeopdongsae (접동새), embodies profound sorrow and unresolved grievances in folklore and literature, its repetitive, plaintive song interpreted as a lament for loss and separation.^[34] Traditional narratives depict the bird as a transformed human victim of injustice, such as a maiden persecuted by her stepmother who dies and becomes the cuckoo, nightly crying out in mourning while her brothers avenge her by turning the stepmother into a crow; this tale highlights themes of filial suffering and retribution.^[34] Another legend recounts a farmer's grief over losing his snail-shell bride to a king, leading to his death and rebirth as the jeopdongsae, whose call echoes eternal longing.^[34] In literature and traditional music, including pansori epic storytelling, the bird's melancholy vocalization symbolizes parting and emotional exile, serving as a poignant auditory motif for human anguish across oral traditions.^[34] Shamanic beliefs further position it as a divine intermediary between realms, bridging the living and the spiritual through its evocative cries.^[34] In China, the lesser cuckoo, referred to as xiǎo dùjuān (小杜鹃), appears in Tang dynasty poetry as a symbol of fleeting beauty and poignant yearning, its blood-tinged cry in folklore representing sacrificial love and seasonal ephemerality.^[35] Poets like Du Fu invoked the bird in verses such as "Dùjuān Xíng" (The Cuckoo's Journey), portraying its relentless song as an outpouring of amorous sorrow that stains the earth with tears, evoking the transience of spring and romantic despair.^[36] This imagery draws from ancient myths where the cuckoo weeps blood for unrequited passion, a motif echoed in Tang collections to convey the impermanence of joy amid nature's cycles.^[37] The bird's association with rhododendrons, whose red blooms are said to arise from its tears, further embeds it in poetic symbolism of beauty born from pain.^[38]

In literature and media

The lesser cuckoo, known scientifically as Cuculus poliocephalus, features prominently in classical East Asian literature as a seasonal symbol. In Sei Shōnagon's The Pillow Book (c. 1002), the bird—referred to as hototogisu in Japanese—is portrayed as a harbinger of summer, its repetitive call evoking the warmth and transience of the season during a courtly excursion. This depiction underscores the bird's auditory presence in Heian-era poetry and prose, where its song marks the shift from spring to summer.^[39] The lesser cuckoo also inspired the title of Hototogisu, a influential haiku magazine founded in 1897 by poet Masaoka Shiki, which advanced the reform of traditional haiku forms and became a cornerstone of modern Japanese poetry. Named after the bird's Japanese onomatopoeic call, the publication highlighted nature-inspired themes, including seasonal avian motifs, and continues to promote haiku worldwide.^[40] In visual and auditory media, the lesser cuckoo has been represented on a 1971 Japanese postage stamp from the "NIPPON" definitives series, illustrating the bird perched amid foliage to commemorate its cultural and natural significance. Audio recordings of its distinctive "koko-kyu" call are staples in bird identification guides, such as those from the Macaulay Library and xeno-canto, enabling field identification across its Asian range. The species receives brief mentions in wildlife documentaries on Asian bird migration.^[41]^[42] Globally, the lesser cuckoo exemplifies brood parasitism in scientific literature, serving as a model for studies on host-parasite coevolution and egg mimicry adaptations. For instance, research on its habitat selection and parasitism strategies highlights how it targets specific host species like warblers, influencing ecological dynamics. Occasional vagrant sightings of the bird in regions beyond its typical East African winter range, such as South Africa and Somalia, are documented in African birdwatching media, including field reports and ornithological bulletins that note these rare extralimital occurrences.^[43]^[3]

References

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小杜鹃(小杜鵑) xiǎodùjuān. xiǎodùjuān noun lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) Domain: Modern Chinese 现代汉语, Subdomain: Zoology , Concept: Bird 鸟
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Little Cuckoo / Lesser Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) HOTOTOGISU. Habitat ... Voice: In addition to the call kik kik kik like other woodpeckers, gives ...
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Some females are bright rufous above with dark bars across the wings and back. Juvenile is brownish above and often has faint white edging to the wing feathers.
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[PDF] Bai Juyi's Poetry as a Common Culture in Pre-modern East Asia
... Tang. Dynasty of China. As the most productive poet in China, Bai wrote over 3,000 poems for his sentimental interests and around 800 memorials for his ...
[39]
http://www.abrademi.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/pillowbook.pdf
[40]
Sei Shonagon's Pillow Book - Japan Powered
May 23, 2021 · The name passed down to us combines the first character (Sei) of her clan name, Kiyowara, and her role at court as a Lesser Counselor (Shonagon) ...
[41]
Hototogisu, the longest haiku magazine and its school
The purpose of the publication was to support the innovation for haiku advocated by Shiki. Hototogisu means little cuckoo in Japanese. The kanji characters of ...Missing: lesser | Show results with:lesser
[42]
Lesser Cuckoo stamps images
Stamps showing Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus. ... Japan 15.07.1971 Definitives "NIPPON". Japan 20.05.1988 National afforestation campaign. Japan 2011 ...Missing: postage | Show results with:postage
[43]
https://jecoenv.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41610-020-00159-6
[44]
Habitat selection in the lesser cuckoo, an avian brood parasite ...
Jun 26, 2020 · In this study, we categorized the habitat preference of a population of brood parasitic lesser cuckoos (Cuculus poliocephalus) breeding on Jeju Island, Korea.Missing: pairs | Show results with:pairs