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Lesser sac

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, is a potential space within the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen, forming the smaller of the two principal subdivisions of the peritoneum and located primarily posterior to the stomach.^[1] It communicates with the larger greater peritoneal sac solely through the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow), a narrow opening bounded anteriorly by the hepatoduodenal ligament, posteriorly by the inferior vena cava, superiorly by the caudate lobe of the liver, and inferiorly by the first part of the duodenum.^[1] This structure arises embryologically from the rotation and development of the midgut, where the space posterior to the stomach persists as a recess invaginated by the caudate lobe of the liver, while the lesser omentum derives from the ventral mesentery between the stomach and liver.^[1] Anatomically, the lesser sac is an irregular recess with distinct boundaries that define its relations to surrounding viscera and structures. Its anterior wall consists of the posterior surface of the stomach, the lesser omentum, and the anterior layers of the greater omentum, while the posterior wall includes the peritoneum covering the pancreas, left kidney, adrenal gland, duodenum, and the posterior layers of the greater omentum.^[2] Superiorly, it extends into a recess behind the liver via the gastropancreatic fold, dividing into a superior (or right) recess near the caudate lobe and a splenic (or left) recess adjacent to the spleen; inferiorly, it is limited by the transverse mesocolon and the right gastroomental fold containing the right gastroepiploic vessels.^[3] Laterally, the gastrosplenic ligament with its short gastric vessels marks the left boundary, and the retroperitoneum including the inferior vena cava forms part of the right and posterior limits.^[3] Clinically, the lesser sac serves as a conduit for the spread of pathology, such as infections, abscesses, or malignancies from adjacent organs like the stomach, pancreas, or liver, and it is a site for rare internal hernias through the epiploic foramen, which can lead to bowel strangulation.^[1] Surgical access to the lesser sac is commonly achieved via the hepatogastric ligament (pars flaccida), gastrocolic ligament, or transverse mesocolon during procedures like gastrectomy or lymphadenectomy for gastric cancer, though extensive bursectomy (removal of the bursa) lacks proven survival benefits and is not routinely performed.^[3] The foramen of Winslow also provides entry for the Pringle maneuver, a technique to temporarily occlude hepatic blood flow during liver surgery by compressing the hepatoduodenal ligament.^[1]

Anatomy

Location and structure

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa or bursa omentalis, is a derivative of the peritoneal cavity that forms the smaller compartment of this space. It is situated posterior to the stomach and lesser omentum, creating a potential space within the abdomen. This structure arises embryonically as an extension behind the developing stomach, separating it from the greater peritoneal cavity.^[2]^[4] The lesser sac exhibits an irregular overall shape, characterized by a central vestibule and several recesses that extend into adjacent areas. Key features include the narrow superior recess, which projects upward behind the liver and is indented by the caudate lobe; the splenic recess, which extends laterally toward the hilum of the spleen; and the inferior recess, which reaches downward between the layers of the greater omentum. These recesses give the space a somewhat crescent-like configuration in certain views, though it varies with individual anatomy and peritoneal folding. No organs reside directly within the lesser sac, which remains a virtual cavity in health.^[5]^[6]^[7] The walls of the lesser sac are lined by the peritoneum, consisting of a simple squamous mesothelium that covers the surrounding structures without interruption. This mesothelial layer, a single flat layer of cells resting on a basal lamina and underlying connective tissue, facilitates the smooth gliding of adjacent viscera while containing a small amount of serous fluid in its potential space. The historical nomenclature "bursa omentalis" reflects its pouch-like form, derived from Latin terms denoting a bag associated with the omentum.^[8]^[3]

Boundaries

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, is defined by distinct anatomical boundaries that enclose this peritoneal recess. Superiorly, it is bounded by the peritoneum covering the caudate lobe of the liver and the posterior layers of the coronary ligament.^[9]^[3] Anteriorly, the lesser sac is limited by the lesser omentum, which includes the hepatogastric and hepatoduodenal ligaments, the posterior surface of the stomach with its overlying peritoneum, and the gastrocolic ligament.^[9]^[3] Posteriorly, the boundaries consist of the peritoneum overlying the diaphragm, the pancreas (encompassing its body and tail), the left adrenal gland, the upper pole of the left kidney, and the first part of the duodenum.^[9]^[3] The transverse mesocolon also contributes to the posterior and inferior limits, forming attachments that separate the lesser sac from the greater peritoneal cavity below.^[9] Inferiorly, the lesser sac is demarcated by the transverse mesocolon and its mesenteric attachments, which extend across the abdomen and provide a floor for the recess.^[9]^[3] On the left, the boundaries include the gastrosplenic and splenorenal ligaments, which relate to the splenic flexure of the colon and allow the recess to extend toward the spleen.^[9]^[3] To the right, the lesser sac opens into the greater sac via the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow), bounded by the hepatoduodenal ligament anteriorly and the inferior vena cava posteriorly.^[9]^[3] The lesser sac features several recesses that extend its boundaries. The superior recess, located under the caudate process of the liver, lies between the medial aspect of the caudate lobe and the diaphragm, often containing left gastric vessels and lymph nodes.^[9]^[3] The inferior recess extends behind the transverse mesocolon, between the posterior wall of the stomach, the pancreas, and the mesocolon, accommodating structures such as major vessels and the extrahepatic bile duct.^[9]^[3] The splenic recess projects leftward between the gastrosplenic and splenorenal ligaments, crossing the midline toward the splenic hilum and relating to the stomach's posterior wall.^[9]^[3]

Communications and relations

The lesser sac primarily communicates with the greater peritoneal cavity through the epiploic foramen, also known as the foramen of Winslow, which serves as the sole natural opening between these spaces.^[1] This foramen is bounded anteriorly by the hepatoduodenal ligament, posteriorly by the inferior vena cava, superiorly by the caudate process of the liver, and inferiorly by the first part of the duodenum, with the portal vein positioned medially within the structure.^[10] The epiploic foramen measures approximately 3 cm in width, sufficient to accommodate the passage of key structures such as the common bile duct, hepatic artery, and portal vein embedded in the hepatoduodenal ligament.^[2] In terms of spatial relations, the lesser sac lies anterior to the aorta and celiac trunk, positioning it in close proximity to these major retroperitoneal vessels.^[10] It is adjacent to the first part of the duodenum inferiorly and extends leftward toward the hilum of the spleen via the gastrosplenic and splenorenal ligaments, facilitating its integration within the upper abdominal peritoneal framework.^[11] Vascular relations include the splenic artery and vein, which course along the posterior aspect through the splenorenal ligament, while neural structures such as branches of the celiac plexus lie nearby, providing autonomic innervation to adjacent viscera.^[10] Accessory communications between the lesser sac and other peritoneal spaces are rare and typically arise from congenital or acquired defects, such as those involving the gastropancreatic folds or mesenteric openings, which may permit abnormal passage of viscera or fluid under pathological conditions.^[11] These pathways, though infrequent, underscore the potential for internal herniation in the region.^[9]

Function

Physiological role

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, facilitates the mobility of the stomach and adjacent abdominal organs by providing a potential space that allows posterior displacement during digestion and peristalsis.^[12]^[13] This space, located posterior to the stomach and lesser omentum, enables the stomach to move freely against posterior structures such as the pancreas and duodenum, reducing friction and supporting efficient mechanical processes in the upper gastrointestinal tract.^[10] As part of the peritoneal cavity, the lesser sac contributes to peritoneal defense by serving as a reservoir for serous fluid, which can accommodate ascitic or inflammatory exudates under physiological conditions, thereby aiding immune surveillance through lubrication and the transport of immune cells.^[12]^[14] The peritoneal fluid within this space, similar to that in the greater sac, supports the overall antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory functions of the peritoneum.^[10] The lesser sac also plays a role in lymphatic drainage by its proximity to subperitoneal lymphatics that drain the stomach and pancreas, facilitating the flow of lymph from these foregut-derived organs into regional nodes.^[15]^[10] Embryologically, the lesser sac represents a remnant of the rotation and infolding of the dorsal mesogastrium during foregut development, maintaining the spatial separation of foregut derivatives such as the stomach and pancreas for optimal postnatal organ function and homeostasis.^[16]^[17] Under normal conditions, the lesser sac contains a minimal volume of serous fluid, typically part of the overall peritoneal fluid amounting to 50–100 mL, which exhibits a pH and electrolyte composition consistent with that of general peritoneal fluid to ensure isotonic lubrication.^[10]^[9]

Fluid circulation

The circulation of peritoneal fluid within the lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, occurs as a passive process primarily driven by diaphragmatic movements during respiration and subtle intra-abdominal pressure gradients, with the epiploic foramen serving as the main inlet and outlet for fluid exchange between the lesser and greater sacs.00485-0/fulltext) This dynamic facilitates the continuous renewal of the thin film of fluid—typically around 100 ml in the entire peritoneal cavity—that lubricates abdominal structures and supports immune surveillance.00485-0/fulltext) Fluid pathways in the lesser sac are organized around its key recesses, which direct flow based on anatomical positioning. The superior recess, located posterior to the lesser omentum and extending toward the diaphragm, enables upward drainage of fluid toward the subphrenic spaces via communication through the epiploic foramen.^[5] The inferior recess, situated near the gastrocolic ligament, connects fluid flow to the root of the mesentery, allowing distribution along the greater omentum. Meanwhile, the splenic recess, extending leftward around the splenic hilum, supports localized left-sided circulation within the posterior abdomen.^[5] Absorption of peritoneal fluid from the lesser sac and broader cavity primarily occurs through specialized lymphatic structures in the diaphragm, where peritoneal stomata—small openings in the mesothelial layer—permit fluid entry into subperitoneal lacunae that drain into diaphragmatic lymphatics.^[18] This mechanism reabsorbs approximately 1-2 ml of fluid per minute, equating to 1-2 L per day in healthy adults, preventing accumulation and maintaining fluid balance.^[19] Several factors modulate this fluid flow, including gravity, which promotes dependent pooling in the upright position, and respiratory excursions that generate negative intrathoracic pressure during inspiration to draw fluid cephalad.00485-0/fulltext) Intra-abdominal pressure changes, such as those from postural shifts or muscular activity, further influence directional movement, ensuring efficient circulation without active pumping.^[20] In diagnostic contexts, analysis of normal lesser sac fluid reveals a low nucleated cell count of less than 300 cells/mm³, predominantly composed of mesothelial cells with minimal inflammatory components, confirming physiologic homeostasis.^[21]

Clinical significance

Associated pathologies

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, serves as a potential site for various pathological processes due to its proximity to the pancreas, stomach, and other abdominal structures. Complications from acute pancreatitis frequently involve the lesser sac, where pancreatic enzyme leakage can lead to the formation of pseudocysts or abscesses along its posterior wall. Pseudocysts develop in approximately 5-15% of cases with peripancreatic fluid collections following acute pancreatitis, often resulting from liquefaction of necrotic tissue and encapsulation by the surrounding peritoneum.^[22] Abscesses, a more severe sequela, arise when infection complicates necrosis, occurring in 10-40% of patients with acute necrotizing pancreatitis, with lesser sac involvement reported in cases of posterior extension.^[23] These collections can cause epigastric pain, fever, and systemic inflammatory response, potentially leading to sepsis if untreated.^[24] Gastric perforations, particularly from posterior wall peptic ulcers, can extend directly into the lesser sac, resulting in contained leaks of gastric contents that limit widespread peritonitis. Such perforations allow acid and bacteria to accumulate within the bursa, forming a localized abscess or inflammatory mass that may present with less acute abdominal rigidity compared to anterior perforations.^[25] This containment is attributed to the sac's boundaries, including the gastrohepatic ligament, which helps isolate the leak posteriorly.^[26] Infections of the omental bursa, or lesser sac abscesses, can occur secondarily to inflammatory conditions elsewhere in the abdomen, such as perforated appendicitis or diverticulitis, through spread of peritoneal contamination. These abscesses typically manifest with fever, epigastric pain, and signs of localized peritonitis, often requiring drainage due to the risk of persistent sepsis.^[27] While less common than pancreatic sources, such secondary infections highlight the lesser sac's role as a dependent space for pus accumulation.^[28] Rare neoplastic processes may also involve the lesser sac, including mesenteric cysts that arise from lymphatic or mesothelial remnants within its recesses. These benign cysts have an incidence of about 1 in 250,000 hospital admissions and can present as painless abdominal masses or cause compression symptoms if large.^[29] Metastatic deposits, often from gastrointestinal or ovarian primaries, can implant in the bursa via peritoneal spread, forming nodular or cystic lesions that mimic infectious collections on imaging.^[30]^[31] Congenital anomalies of the lesser sac, such as incomplete peritoneal closure or variants in the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow), predispose to internal hernias where small bowel or omentum protrudes into the bursa. These rare defects increase herniation risk by enlarging the foramen or creating abnormal attachments, potentially leading to bowel obstruction or strangulation.^[9] The lesser sac is a critical site for monitoring in high-risk abdominal pathologies such as severe pancreatitis.^[23]

Surgical and diagnostic considerations

Computed tomography (CT) serves as the primary imaging modality for visualizing the lesser sac's recesses and detecting fluid collections or abscesses, offering high sensitivity exceeding 90% for intra-abdominal abscess identification due to its ability to delineate complex peritoneal spaces and associated inflammation.^[32] Ultrasound provides an effective initial screening tool for detecting fluid in the lesser sac, particularly in acute settings like pancreatitis, where it can identify loculated collections adjacent to the pancreas with good real-time visualization, though it is limited by overlying gas or obesity.^[32] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers superior soft tissue contrast for detailed evaluation of lesser sac pathology, such as necrotic debris within collections or subtle peritoneal involvement, making it valuable when CT findings are equivocal or in patients with contraindications to iodinated contrast.^[33] Surgical access to the lesser sac typically occurs via open laparotomy by incising the gastrocolic ligament to enter the anterior aspect of the omental bursa, allowing exposure of the posterior stomach and pancreas while minimizing disruption to surrounding structures.^[3] Laparoscopic approaches enable minimally invasive entry, often through enlargement of the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow) or division of the hepatogastric ligament, facilitating procedures like staging laparoscopy for gastric cancer or splenic flexure mobilization with reduced recovery time compared to open methods.^[34] Intraoperative orientation relies on key landmarks such as the lesser omentum, which forms the anterior-superior boundary, and the transverse mesocolon, delineating the inferior limit near the pancreas, to guide safe dissection and avoid vascular injury.^[3] For managing pathological fluid collections in the lesser sac, such as those arising from pancreatitis or perforation, percutaneous drainage under CT guidance is a preferred minimally invasive option, involving catheter placement (typically 8-16 French) via a transhepatic or direct posterior route to evacuate abscesses greater than 3 cm, with success rates approaching 100% in accessible cases.^[35]^[36] This technique stabilizes patients prior to definitive surgery and reduces the need for laparotomy, though it requires careful trajectory planning to traverse intervening liver or stomach safely.^[35] Interventional complications in lesser sac procedures include a low but notable risk of portal vein injury during manipulation near the epiploic foramen, potentially leading to hemorrhage or thrombosis that necessitates immediate vascular control.^[37] Other risks encompass bleeding, infection, or fistula formation from drainage catheters, underscoring the importance of multidisciplinary imaging and surgical planning.^[36]

References

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The foramen of Winslow is the only natural communication between the greater peritoneal cavity and the lesser sac. Also known as the epiploic foramen or the ...
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The lesser sac is situated behind the stomach and in front of the pancreas. The caudate lobe invaginates the lesser sac. Below the liver, the stomach, ...
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### Summary of Lesser Sac (Omental Bursa)
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The stomach develops from a fusiform dilation in the foregut during week 4. A 90 degree clockwise rotation creates the lesser peritoneal sac. The liver ...
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A new technique to access the lesser sac in gastric cancer staging by laparoscopy is described. The posterior surface of the stomach is approached through ...Missing: laparotomy | Show results with:laparotomy
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