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Peritoneal cavity

The peritoneal cavity is a potential space within the abdominal and pelvic regions, formed between the parietal peritoneum lining the abdominal walls and the visceral peritoneum enveloping intraperitoneal organs, and containing a small amount of serous fluid to reduce friction during organ movement.^[1] This cavity, derived from mesodermal tissue, is incompletely divided into compartments such as the greater sac and the lesser sac (omental bursa), connected via the epiploic foramen, and includes various recesses and fossae that influence fluid dynamics and disease spread.^[2] Key structures within it encompass the greater and lesser omenta, mesenteries, and ligaments like the falciform and gastrocolic, which support and suspend organs including the stomach, spleen, liver, jejunum, ileum, and parts of the colon.^[1] Functionally, the peritoneal cavity facilitates organ mobility, provides pathways for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and maintains approximately 50–100 mL of lubricating fluid under normal conditions.^[3] Clinically, it is significant in conditions such as peritonitis, ascites, and peritoneal carcinomatosis, where its subdivisions affect the localization and treatment of infections or malignancies, and it serves as a site for procedures like peritoneal dialysis or hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC).^[1]

Anatomy

Structure and Layers

The peritoneal cavity is defined as the potential space within the abdominal and pelvic regions, bounded by the parietal and visceral layers of the peritoneum, which normally contains a small amount of serous fluid to minimize friction between organs.^[1] The peritoneum itself is a serous membrane consisting of a simple squamous epithelium known as the mesothelium, formed by flattened or cuboidal mesothelial cells that rest on a basement membrane and are supported by an underlying layer of loose connective tissue containing fibroblasts, collagen, elastin fibers, and occasional adipocytes.^[4] This submesothelial connective tissue also incorporates a network of blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves, enabling nutrient delivery, fluid absorption, and sensory feedback while contributing to the membrane's resilience and regenerative capacity.^[4] Histologically, the parietal peritoneum, which lines the inner surfaces of the abdominal and pelvic walls, differs from the visceral peritoneum, which directly invests the intraperitoneal organs, primarily in terms of innervation and sensitivity. The parietal layer receives somatic innervation from lower thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves (T10 to L1), allowing for precise localization of pain from direct irritation, such as inflammation or incision.^[1] In contrast, the visceral peritoneum is innervated by autonomic nerves, including vagal parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers, resulting in poorly localized, visceral-type sensations like cramping or referred pain during organ distension or ischemia.^[5] These differences reflect their distinct embryological origins and functional roles in protecting and supporting abdominal structures. In adults, the total surface area of the peritoneum approximates 1.5 to 2 m², comparable to the body's skin surface, underscoring its extensive role as the primary serosa of the abdominal cavity and its capacity for fluid dynamics and immune surveillance.^[6]

Boundaries and Relations

The peritoneal cavity is a potential space bounded superiorly by the diaphragm, which forms the roof and separates it from the thoracic cavity.^[1] Attachments of the peritoneal reflections to the diaphragm occur via ligaments associated with the liver, such as the coronary ligament, and the spleen, which lies in direct relation to the left hemidiaphragm.^[7]^[8] Inferiorly, the cavity extends into the pelvic cavity, bounded by the pelvic floor and the pelvic brim, marking the transition from the abdominal to the pelvic portions.^[1]^[9] Anteriorly, it is limited by the abdominal wall and the anterior aspects of the pelvis, where the parietal peritoneum lines these structures.^[1]^[10] Posteriorly, the peritoneal cavity relates to retroperitoneal structures, including the vertebrae, kidneys, aorta, and other organs embedded in the retroperitoneum, which lies behind the posterior peritoneal sheath.^[1]^[9] The retroperitoneum serves as an extraperitoneal space adjacent to the peritoneal cavity, containing structures like the kidneys and aorta that are not enclosed by the peritoneum.^[10] The greater sac of the peritoneal cavity communicates with the lesser sac (omental bursa), another compartment of the peritoneal cavity, through the epiploic foramen (also known as Winslow's foramen), a key opening bounded anteriorly by the hepatoduodenal ligament, posteriorly by the inferior vena cava, inferiorly by the duodenum, and superiorly by the caudate lobe of the liver.^[1]^[9]

The peritoneal cavity primarily contains intraperitoneal organs, which are fully enveloped by the visceral peritoneum, allowing for greater mobility within the abdominal space. These include the stomach, liver, spleen, jejunum, ileum, transverse colon, and the first and fourth parts of the duodenum.^[1] The liver, while largely intraperitoneal, features a bare area where it directly contacts the diaphragm without peritoneal covering.^[3] Abdominal organs are classified by their peritoneal relationships into intraperitoneal (fully surrounded by visceral peritoneum) and retroperitoneal (lying behind the peritoneum without visceral covering, either primarily or secondarily). Examples of intraperitoneal organs are the stomach, spleen, liver, small bowel (jejunum and ileum), and transverse colon. Retroperitoneal organs, such as the kidneys, pancreas, ascending and descending colons, and the second and third parts of the duodenum, are fixed against the posterior abdominal wall and lack complete peritoneal enclosure. The liver and gallbladder are largely intraperitoneal but have portions with partial or no peritoneal investment, such as the liver's bare area.^[1]^[3] Mesenteries, which are double-layered folds of peritoneum, play a crucial role in suspending and supporting intraperitoneal organs, such as the small intestine (jejunum and ileum) via the mesentery proper, thereby anchoring them to the posterior abdominal wall while permitting limited movement. These structures also enclose blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and adipose tissue, facilitating vascular and neural supply to the suspended organs.^[1]^[3] In addition to organs, the peritoneal cavity includes non-organ contents such as peritoneal fluid and loose connective tissue. The normal volume of peritoneal fluid, a serous lubricant that minimizes friction between surfaces, is typically 50–100 mL in adults. Loose connective tissue is distributed within the mesenteries, omenta, and ligaments, providing structural support and containing fat deposits that contribute to organ cushioning and metabolic functions.^[1]^[3]

Embryology and Development

Embryonic Origins

The peritoneal cavity originates from the intraembryonic coelom, which forms within the lateral plate mesoderm during weeks 3 to 4 of embryonic development (gestational age weeks 5 to 6).^[11] The lateral plate mesoderm, located lateral to the intermediate mesoderm, undergoes splitting into dorsal somatic (parietal) and ventral splanchnic (visceral) layers, with the intervening space developing into the coelomic cavity through cavitation processes.^[12] This initial coelom represents a horseshoe-shaped space that communicates with the extraembryonic coelom and serves as the precursor to all major serous body cavities, including the peritoneal cavity in the abdominal region.^[11] A critical early event in delineating the peritoneal cavity is the role of the septum transversum, a thick mesodermal mass that arises cranially during week 4 and migrates caudally to separate the thoracic and abdominal compartments.^[13] The septum transversum initially lies between the developing heart and midgut, contributing to the formation of the diaphragm's central tendon and ventral mesentery while partitioning the coelom into pericardial (cranial) and peritoneal (caudal) portions.^[13] This separation ensures the peritoneal cavity remains isolated from the thoracic cavities as embryonic folding progresses. As the primitive gut tube differentiates into foregut, midgut, and hindgut regions by week 4, the midgut and hindgut loops migrate into the expanding intraembryonic coelom, with the surrounding splanchnic mesoderm differentiating into the visceral peritoneum that invests these structures.^[14] The midgut loop, connected to the yolk sac, herniates temporarily into the extraembryonic coelom before returning, while the hindgut remains within the coelom; both establish the visceral layer by direct apposition of splanchnic mesoderm to the endodermal gut tube, forming the serosal covering of intraperitoneal organs.^[14] The pericardioperitoneal canals, paired openings flanking the foregut within the coelom, initially connect the pericardial and peritoneal cavities during early development.^[15] By week 6 to 8, these canals close through the fusion of pleuroperitoneal membranes with the septum transversum and dorsal mesentery, completing diaphragm formation and definitively isolating the peritoneal cavity inferiorly.^[15] This closure prevents communication between thoracic and abdominal spaces, establishing the peritoneal cavity's bounded configuration.^[15]

Developmental Processes

The development of the peritoneal cavity involves several dynamic processes during fetal stages, building upon the initial embryonic coelom to establish mature anatomical relations. One key process is the rotation of the midgut, which occurs between weeks 6 and 10 of gestation. During this period, the midgut herniates into the extraembryonic coelom within the umbilical cord and undergoes a 270-degree counterclockwise rotation around the axis of the superior mesenteric artery.^[16] This rotation repositions the intestinal segments: the cranial limb of the midgut loop forms the distal duodenum, jejunum, and proximal ileum, while the caudal limb develops into the distal ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon.^[16] As the midgut returns to the abdominal cavity by week 10, this rotation establishes the foundational looping and fixation of the intestines within the peritoneal space.^[17] Concomitant with midgut rotation, the formation of the greater and lesser omenta arises from the mesogastria. The greater omentum develops from the dorsal mesogastrium, a fold of peritoneum associated with the stomach's dorsal surface, which elongates and folds upon itself during the stomach's 90-degree rotation around its longitudinal axis in weeks 7 to 8.^[18] This results in a four-layered apron-like structure that hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach, extending inferiorly to cover abdominal viscera and fuse with the transverse mesocolon.^[17] In contrast, the lesser omentum forms from the ventral mesogastrium, connecting the lesser curvature of the stomach and proximal duodenum to the liver, and differentiates into the hepatogastric and hepatoduodenal ligaments, which bound the lesser sac (omental bursa).^[18] These omental developments create potential spaces and contribute to compartmentalization within the peritoneal cavity.^[17] Differential growth of visceral structures further refines the peritoneal divisions into supracolic and infracolic compartments. Rapid expansion of the liver and stomach in the upper abdomen, coupled with the caudal descent of the cecum following midgut rotation, elevates the transverse mesocolon to a horizontal plane by week 10.^[18] This mesocolon, derived from the dorsal mesentery of the midgut, acts as a partition: the supracolic compartment lies superiorly, accommodating foregut derivatives like the liver and spleen, while the infracolic compartment forms inferiorly, housing midgut and hindgut elements such as the small intestine and ascending/descending colons.^[17] The unequal growth rates ensure separation of these regions, preventing overlap and facilitating organ positioning.^[18] Fetal peritoneal fluid production and circulation emerge with the maturation of the mesothelial lining and lymphatic system. Mesothelial cells of the peritoneum secrete a serous fluid, analogous to the embryonic coelomic fluid, to lubricate and cushion developing viscera.^[19] Concurrently, lymphatic vessels develop from venous progenitors starting in week 6, sprouting into the mesentery and omenta to form a network that drains excess fluid from the peritoneal cavity by the second trimester.^[20] This lymphatic circulation maintains fluid homeostasis, absorbing interstitial fluid and preventing accumulation within the expanding peritoneal spaces.^[19]

Physiology

Functions

The peritoneal cavity provides essential mechanical support to the abdominal and pelvic organs through the mesenteries and ligaments formed by peritoneal folds, which anchor organs in place, transmit vascular and neural structures, and allow controlled mobility while maintaining stability against gravitational and locomotor stresses. For instance, the mesentery proper suspends the small intestine, enabling flexibility without excessive displacement.^[1]^[21] In addition to structural anchoring, the cavity facilitates lubrication through a thin layer of serous fluid secreted by mesothelial cells, which minimizes friction between adjacent organs during physiological movements such as peristalsis and diaphragmatic excursion. This fluid, typically ranging from 50 to 100 mL in volume, enables smooth gliding of viscera like the intestines and stomach, thereby preventing irritation, adhesion formation, and potential damage to serosal surfaces under normal conditions.^[1]^[21]^[9] The peritoneal cavity contributes to immune surveillance primarily through the mesothelial cells lining its surfaces, which exhibit phagocytic activity to engulf bacteria, debris, and other pathogens entering the intraperitoneal space. These cells, such as human peritoneal mesothelial cells (HPMCs), internalize particles like Escherichia coli and latex beads, as demonstrated by flow cytometry and microscopy, thereby initiating local defense mechanisms. Furthermore, mesothelial cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) in response to stimuli, recruiting leukocytes and modulating the inflammatory response to maintain peritoneal integrity. This antigen-presenting capability, inducible by interferon-gamma, supports T-cell activation and broader intraperitoneal immunity.^[22]^[23]^[24] The peritoneum also aids in metabolic exchange, with its adipose-containing layers providing insulation to warm and protect organs while the serous fluid and vascular network facilitate thermal conduction across the cavity to help maintain intra-abdominal temperature. As a semipermeable barrier, the peritoneal membrane enables the diffusion of water, electrolytes, and small molecules between the bloodstream and cavity, supporting homeostasis by allowing metabolic waste removal and nutrient distribution to organs without direct vascular contact.^[21]^[25]

Peritoneal Fluid Dynamics

The peritoneal fluid serves as a lubricant within the cavity and is primarily an ultrafiltrate of plasma derived from capillary filtration, containing electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium at concentrations closely mirroring those in serum. Protein content is notably low, with albumin levels typically around 43-57% of serum concentrations, reflecting selective permeability of the peritoneal membrane that limits larger molecule passage. Cellular components include desquamated mesothelial cells and resident macrophages, which contribute to immune surveillance, with normal fluid exhibiting low cellularity (fewer than 300 nucleated cells per microliter in humans).^[26]^[27]^[28] Fluid production occurs predominantly through hydrostatic pressure-driven ultrafiltration from capillaries embedded in the submesothelial connective tissue, with major sites including the mesenteric (visceral peritoneum) and diaphragmatic (parietal peritoneum) regions where vascular density supports continuous secretion. This process generates approximately 700-1000 mL of fluid per day under normal conditions, balancing the cavity's minimal steady-state volume of 50-100 mL. The mesenteric capillaries contribute significantly to local fluid turnover around abdominal organs, while diaphragmatic vessels facilitate both production and efficient drainage.^[6]^[29]^[2] Absorption of peritoneal fluid primarily occurs through specialized lymphatic structures, including mesothelial stomata—small openings (typically 8-12 μm in diameter) concentrated in the diaphragmatic peritoneum—that directly connect to underlying lymphatic lacunae, allowing bulk flow into the lymphatic system. This mechanism accounts for the majority of reabsorption, supplemented by minor transmesothelial and transcapillary routes, with an overall absorption rate of about 700-1000 mL per day to match production and prevent accumulation. Factors such as diaphragmatic movement during respiration enhance stomatal patency and flow efficiency.^[30]^[31]^[32] Regulation of fluid dynamics adheres to Starling's principle of microvascular exchange, where net fluid flux across the peritoneal capillaries is governed by the balance of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures. The equation describing this is:

J_v = K_f \left[ (P_c - P_i) - \sigma (\pi_c - \pi_i) \right]

Here, J_v represents the net fluid movement per unit area, K_f is the hydraulic conductivity (permeability coefficient) of the membrane, P_c and P_i are capillary and interstitial hydrostatic pressures, \sigma is the reflection coefficient for proteins, and \pi_c and \pi_i are capillary and interstitial oncotic pressures, respectively. In the peritoneal context, elevated hydrostatic pressure in splanchnic capillaries favors filtration into the cavity, while oncotic gradients and lymphatic drainage promote reabsorption; disruptions in these forces, such as altered \sigma due to membrane porosity, can shift equilibrium but are tightly maintained in health.^[33]

Divisions and Compartments

Major Compartments

The peritoneal cavity is primarily divided into two major compartments: the greater sac and the lesser sac (also known as the omental bursa). These compartments are interconnected and facilitate the distribution of peritoneal fluid while accommodating visceral organs. The greater sac constitutes the largest portion of the peritoneal space, encompassing most intraperitoneal structures, whereas the lesser sac forms a smaller, more restricted extension.^[34]^[1] The greater sac, or main peritoneal cavity, extends from the diaphragm superiorly to the pelvic inlet inferiorly and is subdivided by the transverse mesocolon into the supracolic and infracolic regions. The supracolic compartment lies above the transverse mesocolon and includes spaces around the liver, stomach, and spleen, such as the subphrenic spaces beneath the diaphragm, which are divided into right and left areas by the falciform ligament. The infracolic compartment, below the transverse mesocolon, is further partitioned into right and left spaces by the root of the small bowel mesentery, housing the ascending and descending colons, respectively. Subhepatic spaces, located inferior to the liver within the greater sac, include the right subhepatic recess (Morison's pouch), a dependent area between the liver and right kidney. These subdivisions allow for potential localized fluid accumulation while maintaining overall continuity within the greater sac.^[35]^[36]^[34] The lesser sac represents a posterior diverticulum of the greater sac, positioned behind the lesser omentum and stomach, and is bounded anteriorly by the stomach and posteriorly by the pancreas, left kidney, and adrenal gland. It is divided into superior and inferior recesses by a peritoneal fold containing the left gastric artery and communicates with the greater sac solely through the narrow epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow), located posterior to the hepatoduodenal ligament. This communication pathway, approximately 3 cm in diameter, permits passage of peritoneal fluid and structures between the sacs but can serve as a site for potential herniation. The lesser sac's vestibule opens into the subhepatic space of the greater sac via this foramen.^[1]^[36]^[35] Key communication pathways between and within these compartments include the gastrohepatic ligament, which forms part of the anterior boundary of the lesser sac and connects the stomach to the liver, and the gastrosplenic ligament, linking the stomach's greater curvature to the spleen and contributing to the left boundary of the lesser sac. These ligaments, derived from embryonic peritoneal folds, help delineate the spaces without fully isolating them, ensuring fluid circulation throughout the peritoneal cavity.^[34]^[36]

Supporting Structures

The supporting structures of the peritoneal cavity consist of peritoneal folds known as mesenteries, omenta, and ligaments, which anchor abdominal organs to the posterior abdominal wall and facilitate their organization within the cavity.^[37] These structures, derived from double layers of peritoneum, contain blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and connective tissue, enabling mobility and support for the viscera.^[38] The greater omentum is an apron-like peritoneal fold that extends from the greater curvature of the stomach to the anterior surface of the transverse colon, forming a prominent, mobile sheet that drapes over the abdominal contents.^[39] It consists of two layers of peritoneum fused to create a four-layered structure in adults, rich in adipose tissue that provides insulation and energy storage, while also housing immune cells within specialized aggregates called milky spots—clusters of macrophages (comprising 68–12% of cells), T lymphocytes (46–12%), and B lymphocytes (29–10%).^[40] This fibro-fatty composition allows the greater omentum to exhibit remarkable mobility due to its smooth mesothelial surface, spanning up to 36 cm in height and 46 cm in width to cover approximately 500 cm² of the abdominal interior.^[40] Its vascular supply arises from branches of the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery, supporting its role in compartmentalizing the peritoneal space.^[40] The lesser omentum is a double-layered peritoneal fold connecting the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the proximal duodenum, serving as a key supportive ligament in the upper abdomen.^[41] It comprises two main components: the hepatogastric ligament, which attaches the liver directly to the lesser curvature of the stomach and contains branches of the right gastric artery and vagus nerve; and the hepatoduodenal ligament, a thickened free margin that extends from the porta hepatis of the liver to the superior part of the duodenum, enclosing the portal triad—including the hepatic artery proper, portal vein, and common bile duct—within its peritoneal layers.^[41] The hepatoduodenal ligament forms the anterior boundary of the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow), allowing communication between the greater and lesser peritoneal sacs.^[41] The mesentery proper, also known as the small bowel mesentery, is a broad, fan-shaped double fold of peritoneum that suspends the jejunum and ileum from the posterior abdominal wall, providing essential anchorage and vascular support for the small intestine.^[42] Its root runs obliquely from the left side of the L2 vertebra to the right sacroiliac joint, enclosing the superior mesenteric vessels, nerves, and lymphatics that supply the midgut structures.^[42] Within its layers, branches of the superior mesenteric artery form intricate vascular arcades—arterial loops that create collateral circulation—and give rise to straight vasa recta vessels that directly perfuse the intestinal wall, ensuring efficient nutrient distribution.^[38] The transverse mesocolon is a double-layered peritoneal fold that attaches the transverse colon to the anterior surface of the pancreas and the posterior abdominal wall, stabilizing the mid-portion of the large intestine across the abdomen.^[37] Similarly, the sigmoid mesocolon is an inverted V-shaped double fold of peritoneum connecting the sigmoid colon to the pelvic wall near the division of the left common iliac artery, allowing flexibility in the terminal large bowel segment.^[37] Both mesocolons contain vessels from the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries, respectively, and contribute to dividing the peritoneal cavity into supracolic and infracolic compartments.^[37]

Clinical Aspects

Pathologies

Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneum, the thin membrane lining the peritoneal cavity, most commonly resulting from bacterial infection or chemical irritation.^[43] It is classified into primary peritonitis, which occurs without a breach in the gastrointestinal tract and is often seen in patients with cirrhosis or ascites due to spontaneous bacterial translocation, and secondary peritonitis, which arises from perforation or leakage of gastrointestinal contents, such as from appendicitis, diverticulitis, or trauma.^[44] Common symptoms include severe abdominal pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, and rebound tenderness upon palpation, reflecting the peritoneal irritation and systemic inflammatory response.^[43] Ascites refers to the pathological accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity, exceeding normal physiological levels and leading to abdominal distension.^[45] It is primarily caused by portal hypertension, as in liver cirrhosis, or by malignancies such as ovarian or gastrointestinal cancers, with other contributors including heart failure and nephrotic syndrome.^[45] The serum-ascites albumin gradient (SAAG), calculated as serum albumin minus ascitic fluid albumin, aids in classification; a SAAG greater than 1.1 g/dL indicates portal hypertension-related ascites, while a lower value suggests alternative etiologies like malignancy or infection.^[46] Peritoneal carcinomatosis involves the metastatic dissemination of cancer cells to the peritoneum, forming widespread tumor deposits that impair organ function and fluid dynamics.^[47] It most frequently originates from gastrointestinal cancers, such as colorectal or gastric adenocarcinoma, or gynecological malignancies like ovarian cancer, where tumor cells exfoliate into the peritoneal space and implant on serosal surfaces.^[48] Hemoperitoneum is the accumulation of blood within the peritoneal cavity, often leading to acute hemodynamic instability.^[49] It commonly results from trauma causing rupture of solid organs like the liver or spleen, or from non-traumatic events such as ruptured ectopic pregnancy, aortic aneurysm, or hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients.^[50]

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Procedures

Diagnostic imaging plays a crucial role in evaluating peritoneal cavity disorders, with ultrasound serving as the initial modality for detecting ascites due to its high sensitivity exceeding 90% for free intraperitoneal fluid.^[51] Ultrasound excels at identifying small volumes of ascitic fluid, as low as 5-10 mL, and guiding subsequent interventions like paracentesis, while also distinguishing simple anechoic transudates from complex exudates with septations suggestive of infection or malignancy.^[52] For more detailed assessment of compartment-specific abscesses or peritonitis, computed tomography (CT) is the preferred imaging tool, offering sensitivity rates around 95% for intra-abdominal infections through visualization of fluid collections, wall enhancement, and gas patterns.^[53] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly with diffusion-weighted sequences, provides superior detection of small peritoneal implants or abscesses in challenging cases, achieving sensitivities up to 92% for carcinomatosis, making it valuable when CT findings are equivocal.^[54] Paracentesis involves inserting a needle or catheter into the peritoneal cavity under ultrasound guidance to sample or remove ascitic fluid for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, typically performed in the left lower quadrant to avoid vascular structures.^[55] The aspirated fluid undergoes comprehensive analysis, including cell count and differential (e.g., neutrophil predominance indicating spontaneous bacterial peritonitis), Gram stain and culture for microbial identification, and cytology for malignant cells, which aids in differentiating causes like cirrhosis from portal hypertension or peritoneal carcinomatosis.^[56] Complications are infrequent with ultrasound guidance, with major bleeding risks below 1% and infection rates similarly low, though minor issues like fluid leakage can occur if excessive skin nicking is avoided.^[57] Laparoscopy enables minimally invasive direct visualization and biopsy of the peritoneal cavity, particularly useful for staging malignancies such as gastric or ovarian cancers by detecting occult peritoneal metastases that may alter treatment plans in up to 30% of cases.^[58] It also facilitates therapeutic adhesiolysis to lyse fibrous bands causing bowel obstruction, reducing recurrence risks compared to open surgery while minimizing postoperative adhesions through gentle tissue handling.^[59] Peritoneal dialysis functions as a renal replacement therapy by infusing dialysate into the peritoneal cavity via an indwelling catheter, allowing solute clearance through diffusion and ultrafiltration across the peritoneal membrane based on concentration gradients.^[60] Catheter placement is commonly achieved laparoscopically or percutaneously under imaging guidance to ensure intraperitoneal positioning and minimize complications like migration or peritonitis, with adequacy monitored by periodic measurement of small solute clearance (e.g., Kt/V urea) at least every six months.^[61] This approach provides continuous ambulatory or automated cycling options, achieving effective clearance for uremic toxins while preserving residual renal function.^[62]

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Feb 18, 2025 · The mesentery is a double peritoneal fold anchoring the jejunum and ileum to the posterior abdominal wall. From the outermost to innermost ...
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Peritoneum, Mesentery, and Omentum
The peritoneum is thin membrane that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities, and covers most abdominal viscera.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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THE GREATER OMENTUM – A VIBRANT and ENIGMATIC ...
The embryology of the omentum is intimately connected to that of the stomach. The omentum is derived from the dorsal (greater omentum) and ventral (lesser ...
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Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis: Hepatoduodenal Ligament - NCBI
Oct 31, 2022 · The hepatoduodenal ligament is a thick anatomical structure wrapped in the peritoneum that constitutes part of the lesser omentum.Bookshelf · Anatomy, Abdomen And Pelvis... · Blood Supply And Lymphatics
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The Mesentery - Function - Structure - Vasculature - TeachMeAnatomy
### Summary of Mesentery Proper
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Aug 8, 2025 · Peritonitis happens when the thin layer of tissue inside the abdomen becomes inflamed. The tissue layer is called the peritoneum.
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The condition typically results from perforation or infection within the gastrointestinal tract and can rapidly escalate into severe sepsis or septic shock.
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Ascites - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Ascites is the pathologic accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. It is the most common complication of cirrhosis and occurs in about 50% of patient ...
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Cirrhotic ascites review: Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management
Notably, the serum-ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) is a useful tool for segregating ascites-associated disease processes due to portal hypertension, such as ...
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Peritoneal carcinomatosis - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Jul 3, 2025 · Peritoneal carcinomatosis is a serious condition that happens when cancer spreads to the lining of the abdomen, called the peritoneum.
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Definition of peritoneal carcinomatosis - NCI Dictionary of Cancer ...
A serious condition in which cancer, usually of the digestive tract or female reproductive organs, spreads and causes tumors to grow on the peritoneum.
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Spontaneous hemoperitoneum - PubMed
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Massive hemoperitoneum following spontaneous rupture of an ... - NIH
In a gynecological setting, hemoperitoneum is usually a result of an ectopic pregnancy, a ruptured corpus luteum, or adnexal torsion [1-3]. As a cause of ...
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Sensitivity of transabdominal ultrasonography in detection ... - PubMed
The sensitivity and specificity of ultrasonography in detection of free intraperitoneal fluid is over 90 %. The lowest detectable volume of free fluid in ...
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Ascites Workup: Approach Considerations, Laboratory Studies ...
May 30, 2023 · Real-time ultrasonography is the easiest and most sensitive technique for the detection of ascitic fluid. Volumes as small as 5-10 mL can ...<|separator|>
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Management of intra-abdominal infections - PubMed Central - NIH
Jun 8, 2024 · Overall sensitivity was 0.95, and specificity was 0.94. In subgroup analyses the sensitivity was higher in the intravenous contrast-enhanced CT ...
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Peritoneal disease: key imaging findings that help in the differential ...
In this review, we address the role of the radiologist in the setting of peritoneal pathology, focusing on peritoneal carcinomatosis as this is the predominant ...
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Paracentesis: Background, Indications, Contraindications
Jul 11, 2024 · Paracentesis is a procedure in which a needle or catheter is inserted into the peritoneal cavity to obtain ascitic fluid for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.
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Abdominal paracentesis | Radiology Reference Article
Oct 18, 2021 · Fluid can be sent for the following tests: Gram stain, culture and sensitivity; cell count (especially neutrophils); cytology; albumin levels ...Citation, Doi, Disclosures... · On This Page · Procedure
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[PDF] Paracentesis - Hospital Procedures Consultants
• The risk of major bleeding complications with ultrasound- guided ... Ascitic Fluid Analysis. EDTA-treated tube. Comments. Cell count and differential.
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Laparoscopic staging of peritoneal surface malignancies
Laparoscopy is a useful tool in peritoneal surface malignancies; it allows direct visualization even of small cancer nodules and provides a reliable assessment ...
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Laparoscopic Adhesiolysis Technique - Medscape Reference
Sep 23, 2024 · Can Modified Laparoscopic Radical Hysterectomy Improve Outcomes in Early-Stage Cervical Cancer? Myths in Peritoneal Dialysis · Laparoscopic ...
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Peritoneal dialysis - ScienceDirect.com
Physiological principles. The principle of peritoneal dialysis is that dialysate is infused via the catheter to dwell within the peritoneal cavity for ...
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Guidelines for Laparoscopic Peritoneal Dialysis Access Surgery
Peritoneal dialysis catheters may be placed at the bedside, in a fluoroscopic suite or an operating room. This guideline will discuss patient selection and ...
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Renal Association Clinical Practice Guideline on peritoneal dialysis ...
We recommend that both residual urine and peritoneal dialysis components of small solute clearance should be measured at least six monthly or more frequently ...Missing: placement | Show results with:placement