Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Lychrel number

A Lychrel number is a natural number that cannot be converted into a palindromic number through the iterative process of reversing its digits and adding the reversed number to the original, repeated indefinitely.^[1] This process, known as the 196-algorithm, typically leads most numbers to a palindrome within a few iterations, but Lychrel candidates resist this outcome even after extensive computation.^[2] The term "Lychrel" was coined in 2002 by American mathematician Wade Van Landingham, derived as a rough anagram of his girlfriend's name, Cheryl, during his investigations into numbers that evade palindromic formation.^[3] The concept gained prominence through the "196 problem," centered on the number 196, which was one of the first identified candidates; despite approximately 2.4 billion iterations computed as of 2015, it has produced non-palindromic results exceeding 1 billion digits.^[2]^[4] No Lychrel numbers have been rigorously proven to exist in base 10, rendering their existence an open question in recreational mathematics, though several candidates below 1,000—such as 196, 295, 394, 493, 592, 689, 691, 788, 790, 879, 887, 978, and 986—have withstood testing to hundreds of millions of digits without forming palindromes.^[1]^[3] The problem originated in the 1980s among microcomputer hobbyists experimenting with reverse-and-add sequences, evolving into a computational challenge that has engaged programmers and mathematicians for decades.^[5] Approximately 90% of positive integers under 10,000 reach a palindrome quickly, highlighting the rarity of these persistent candidates.^[2]

Fundamentals

Reverse-and-Add Process

The reverse-and-add process is an iterative algorithm applied to natural numbers to generate palindromic numbers, central to the study of Lychrel numbers. It begins with a natural number n, reverses its digits to form \rev(n), and computes the sum n + \rev(n). This sum becomes the new number, and the process repeats until a palindrome—a number that reads the same forwards and backwards—is obtained or a predetermined iteration limit is reached.^[1]^[6] Formally, the process defines a sequence where n_0 = n and n_{k+1} = n_k + \rev(n_k) for k \geq 0, with termination when n_k is palindromic. The reversal function \rev(n) rearranges the digits of n in base 10, treating n as a string of digits for this purpose. The process typically converges to a palindrome for most starting numbers within a small number of iterations, though the exact behavior depends on the initial n.^[7] For example, starting with 19: $19 + 91 = [110](/page/110), then [110](/page/110) + 011 = 121, which is a palindrome, reached in 2 steps. Another case is 89, which requires 24 iterations to yield the 13-digit palindrome 8813200023188. These examples illustrate how the process can terminate quickly for some numbers but may involve more steps for others.^[7]^[6]^[8] In the reversal step, leading zeros in \rev(n) are ignored, as the reversed value is interpreted as an integer without padded zeros. For instance, the reversal of 110 is 11 (not 011), ensuring the addition proceeds with numerical values rather than fixed-length strings. This convention aligns with standard implementations of the algorithm in base 10.^[7]^[6]

Definition of Lychrel Numbers

A Lychrel number is defined as a natural number in base 10 that cannot be transformed into a palindrome through the iterative reverse-and-add process, no matter how many times the operation is applied.^[1] This process involves reversing the digits of the number and adding the result to the original, repeating indefinitely with the sum. While no Lychrel numbers have been rigorously proven to exist, candidates are identified as those numbers that fail to produce a palindrome after an extremely large number of iterations, often exceeding millions, with the resulting numbers growing to hundreds of millions of digits without palindromic form.^[3]^[1] The term "Lychrel" was coined in 2002 by computer enthusiast Wade Van Landingham, derived as a rough anagram of his girlfriend's name, Cheryl.^[1] This naming reflects the playful yet persistent pursuit of understanding these elusive numbers, which stand in contrast to the vast majority of natural numbers that readily form palindromes under the same process. For instance, computational checks show that approximately 90% of all natural numbers below 10,000 converge to a palindrome in fewer than a dozen iterations, highlighting how Lychrel candidates exceptionally resist this convergence.^[2] The existence of Lychrel numbers remains conjectural, with no mathematical proof confirming that any specific candidate will never yield a palindrome, despite extensive computational evidence suggesting otherwise. Heuristic and statistical analyses indicate that while most numbers quickly reach palindromic states, a small subset, including well-studied candidates, exhibit persistent non-palindromic behavior, supporting the belief that true Lychrel numbers do exist in base 10. This focus on base 10 natural numbers forms the core scope of Lychrel number research, though generalizations to other bases have been explored separately.^[2]^[3]

Candidate Lychrel Numbers

Known Candidates and Classification

The smallest known candidate Lychrel number is 196, followed by 879, 1997, 7059, and 9999, all of which are below 10,000.^[9]^[10]^[11] These base candidates, often referred to as seeds, generate the majority of suspected Lychrel numbers through the reverse-and-add process. Lychrel candidates are classified as positive integers that do not produce a palindrome after a substantial number of iterations, typically at least 50 to 100 steps.^[12] There are 249 such candidates below 10,000, encompassing both the seeds and numbers derived from them.^[9] No candidates exist below 196, as all smaller positive integers have been verified to reach a palindrome relatively quickly.^[12] A key property of these candidates is their tendency to generate sequences with progressively increasing digit lengths, often growing exponentially due to carries in the addition process.^[10] Verification of candidacy generally involves testing up to 500 iterations or until the resulting number exceeds computational limits, such as 1,000,000 digits, without forming a palindrome.^[13]^[12] Many candidates below 10,000 are kin to the five base seeds, as their iteration paths merge into the sequences originating from 196, 879, 1997, 7059, or 9999.^[9]^[10]^[14]

Threads, Seeds, and Kin Numbers

In the study of Lychrel numbers, a seed is defined as the smallest number in a given thread that fails to produce a palindrome through the reverse-and-add process, serving as the origin point for that sequence.^[14] Threads represent the sequences of numbers generated by iteratively applying the reverse-and-add operation to a seed, excluding the seed itself, and these sequences are characterized by their failure to reach a palindrome.^[14] Kin numbers, a term coined by Koji Yamashita in 1997, refer to other Lychrel candidates that converge onto the same thread as a particular seed after one or more iterations, effectively merging their paths into the shared sequence.^[15] For example, 196 serves as a prominent seed, with its thread beginning at 887 (from 196 + 691) and continuing through non-palindromic numbers like 1675 and 7436.^[14] Kin numbers to 196 include 295, 394, and 493, each of which joins this thread after initial steps, such as 295 + 592 = 887.^[15] Similarly, 879 and 1997 are distinct seeds, each generating their own persistent threads without known palindromic convergence, though kin numbers like 1598 for 879 merge into its path.^[16] A key property of these structures is that numerous starting numbers, particularly below 1,000, converge to a limited set of threads, forming a tree-like hierarchy where branches from various kin and potential seeds funnel into common paths.^[15] This convergence implies that below 1,000, most non-Lychrel numbers palindromize within 5 or 6 iterations, while Lychrel seeds produce indefinitely extending threads.^[16] The overall mathematical structure can be modeled as a directed graph, with nodes representing numbers and edges denoting single reverse-and-add steps, where threads emerge as infinite paths without cycles to palindromic sinks.^[14] These relational concepts facilitate efficient computational exploration of Lychrel candidates by allowing researchers to precompute dominant threads and identify merging kin, reducing redundant iterations across related numbers.^[15]

The 196 Problem

History of the 196 Quest

The reverse-and-add process for generating palindromic numbers was first popularized in recreational mathematics through Martin Gardner's "Computer Recreations" column in the April 1984 issue of Scientific American, where he described the method and noted 196 as a particularly resistant starting number that failed to produce a palindrome after several iterations. This sparked interest among microcomputer hobbyists in the 1980s, leading to early computational experiments; for instance, in 1985, programmer Jim Butterfield developed a search program specifically for the 196 problem, running it to explore the sequence's behavior. The number 196 quickly emerged as the smallest candidate suspected of never forming a palindrome, drawing attention for its persistent growth without symmetry.^[7] Pioneering computational efforts began in earnest with software developer John Walker, who launched a dedicated program in August 1987 to apply the reverse-and-add process to 196. His computation ran continuously for nearly three years on a Sun workstation, completing 2,415,836 iterations by May 1990 and producing a non-palindromic number exceeding 1 million digits, far surpassing prior attempts like James Killman's 1985 run of 12,954 iterations to 5,366 digits.^[17] Walker documented his findings in a detailed online report, emphasizing the exponential digit growth and the challenge's computational demands, which inspired subsequent hobbyists. In 1995, Tim Irvin and Larry Simkins extended this work using a supercomputer, reaching 2 million digits after approximately 4.8 million iterations in just two months, confirming no palindrome and highlighting rapid advances in hardware. In 2000, enthusiast Wade Van Landingham began contributing to the quest, though the term "Lychrel number" for such resistant candidates was not coined until 2002, when he created it as a rough anagram of his girlfriend Cheryl's name to describe numbers like 196.^[18]^[1] Key milestones in the 2000s reflected growing community involvement and improved algorithms. In 2001, Jason Doucette achieved a record of 13.5 million digits after over 27 million iterations using optimized software, publishing results that verified prior computations and set new benchmarks for digit length. Doucette shared his program openly, enabling further extensions; by May 2006, Van Landingham had pushed the sequence to over 300 million digits through 724,756,966 iterations, utilizing distributed processing on multiple machines at a rate of about 1 million digits every 5–7 days. This effort underscored the quest's evolution from individual hobbyist projects to collaborative endeavors, with Van Landingham maintaining the central repository at p196.org to track progress, host data files, and coordinate verifications among participants.^[19]^[7] The 196 quest gained cultural traction in recreational mathematics circles, often featured in discussions of unsolved problems alongside topics like the Collatz conjecture, due to its accessibility for amateur programmers and intriguing blend of simple rules with immense computational scale. By the early 2010s, international contributors joined, exemplified by Romain Dolbeau's distributed computing runs; in 2011, he completed 1 billion iterations to yield a 413,930,770-digit non-palindrome, and by February 2015, he advanced to 2.4 billion iterations, producing a number with over 1 billion digits, further solidifying 196's status as the most scrutinized Lychrel candidate. These pre-2015 developments emphasized the quest's reliance on volunteer-driven computation, with no palindrome emerging despite escalating resources.^[4]

Computational Efforts and Status

The extensive computational investigations into whether 196 forms a palindrome under the reverse-and-add process have pushed the boundaries of high-performance computing, yet no such palindrome has emerged. The record effort was achieved by Romain Dolbeau, who in February 2015 completed over 2.4 billion iterations, yielding a non-palindromic number exceeding 1 billion digits.^[4]^[20] This milestone built on earlier work, including Dolbeau's 2011 computation of 1 billion iterations reaching 413 million digits using distributed processing.^[21] As of 2025, no significant updates or surpassing records have been reported for 196.^[22] These computations demand sophisticated methods to manage the explosive growth in number size. Implementations typically employ arbitrary-precision arithmetic libraries, such as the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library (GMP), to perform efficient addition and digit reversal on massive integers.^[20] Dolbeau's p196_mpi program, for instance, leverages Message Passing Interface (MPI) for parallel execution across computing clusters, optimizing for vector instructions like AVX2 on x86_64 architectures and scaling to over 60 nodes connected via InfiniBand networks.^[23] A key challenge is the digit count, which approximately doubles every 4–5 iterations due to carry propagation during addition, rendering each step increasingly resource-intensive.^[20] Explorations of GPU acceleration and further parallelization have been pursued to mitigate these demands, though they have not yet produced new records for 196.^[23] As the smallest candidate Lychrel number, 196 has been subjected to far more than 1 million iterations without yielding a palindrome, solidifying its status in ongoing research.^[21] However, the exponential scaling of computational cost—where operations grow linearly with digit length but iterations compound the total workload—limits further progress; surpassing 10^9 digits remains impractical without dedicated supercomputers.^[20] In 2025, 196 is still suspected to be a Lychrel number, but its classification remains unproven due to the absence of a palindrome and the impossibility of exhaustive verification.^[4]

Generalizations

Lychrel Numbers in Other Bases

The concept of Lychrel numbers extends naturally to numeral systems with base b \geq 2. In base b, an integer n is represented using digits from 0 to b-1, the digits are reversed to form a new base-b representation, and this reversed number is added to n to produce the next iterate. The process repeats indefinitely, and n is a Lychrel number in base b if no iterate ever yields a base-b palindrome—a digit sequence that reads the same forwards and backwards. This generalization preserves the core reverse-and-add mechanism while adapting to the base's place values and digit constraints.^[24] In base 2, although many small integers rapidly converge to palindromes under the process due to limited digit options (0 and 1), proven Lychrel numbers exist, such as the integer 22 (represented as 10110 in binary). Starting with 10110_2, reversal yields 01101_2, and their sum is 100011_2; subsequent iterations grow the number without forming a palindrome, entering a pattern that expands indefinitely. Similar constructions appear in other power-of-2 bases: in base 4, the integer corresponding to 10 323 00_4 is Lychrel, cycling through expansions after six iterations; in base 8, 10(n 7s)7767(n 0s)00_8 grows after eight steps; and in base 16, 10(n Fs)FFEF(n 0s)00_16 follows suit after ten iterations, where F denotes the digit 15. These patterns demonstrate that Lychrel numbers are provably present in all powers of 2 greater than or equal to 2.^[24]^[16] Lychrel numbers have also been proven in several non-power-of-2 bases, including 11, 17, 20, and 26. For instance, in base 11, patterns like 1246277(n As)A170352495681825A5026571A506181864A5143171(n 0s)0872542_11 (with A=10) expand after six iterations without palindromizing; base 17 yields analogous indefinite growth in forms involving digits up to G=16; base 20 produces multi-hundred-digit Lychrel candidates that resist palindromization; and base 26 features constructions such as 1N5ELA6C(n Ps)P6E7(n 0s)0D59ME5N_26 (with N=23, P=25) that increase in size after four steps. No base b contains a Lychrel number smaller than b itself, as smaller values have fewer digits and often palindromize quickly.^[24]^[4] Comparisons across bases reveal that higher bases tend to have fewer persistent candidates relative to their size, as larger digit ranges facilitate carry-overs that either accelerate palindromization or reveal non-terminating patterns more readily, enabling proofs of Lychrel existence. Base 10 stands out for its lack of any proven Lychrel numbers despite extensive computation, contrasting with the constructive proofs available in bases like 2, 4, 8, 11, 16, 17, 20, and 26. Digit reversal in non-decimal bases demands precise handling of place values (powers of b) and higher digits, which can introduce unique carry propagations not seen in base 10, influencing the process's behavior.^[24]^[4]

Extensions to Negative Integers

The reverse-and-add process can be extended to negative integers using signed-digit representations in base 10, allowing digits that include negative values to handle the sign within the digit framework. This approach explores Lychrel-like behaviors for signed numbers while adapting the core mechanism. Research on Lychrel numbers for negative integers is limited, with no comprehensive studies or proven examples available as of 2025. Challenges include defining reversal and addition consistently for signed representations and potential oscillating or cyclic behaviors not observed in positives.^[25]

Theoretical Developments

Open Questions and Proof Challenges

The existence of Lychrel numbers in base 10 remains one of the central open questions in recreational number theory, with no definitive proof despite extensive computational evidence suggesting candidates such as 196.^[1] Proving that any specific number, like 196, never reaches a palindrome would require demonstrating that the reverse-and-add process avoids palindromic outcomes indefinitely, a task complicated by the infinite nature of the iteration.^[1] Key proof challenges stem from the impossibility of exhaustive computation, as the sequence lengths grow without bound, often exceeding millions of digits after numerous steps, rendering direct verification infeasible.^[3] Overcoming this demands advanced theoretical tools, such as analytic number theory to analyze digit distributions or dynamical systems to model the process as an iteration on the space of integer representations.^[26] Related conjectures include whether all positive integers in base 10 eventually produce a palindrome under the process—effectively implying no Lychrel numbers exist—or, conversely, whether the density of Lychrel numbers approaches zero or even positive values among large integers.^[1] Heuristic arguments suggest that while the probability of forming a palindrome decreases with increasing digit length, the vast majority of tested numbers do eventually reach one, indicating that true Lychrel numbers, if they exist, are rare.^[3] Historical attempts at resolution have largely relied on heuristics and massive simulations rather than rigorous proofs, with efforts dating back to the 1980s focusing on empirical patterns without establishing existence or non-existence.^[26]^[3] Broader implications link Lychrel numbers to unsolved problems in additive bases, where the reverse-and-add operation resembles questions about sumsets in digit expansions, and to digit dynamics, viewing the process as a map on formal power series or symbolic dynamics over finite alphabets.^[26]

Probabilistic and Heuristic Approaches

Heuristic arguments for the existence of Lychrel numbers rely on statistical analyses of the reverse-and-add process, which demonstrate that the probability of palindromization diminishes as the number of digits increases, owing to the growing mismatch between a number and its reverse.^[26] These models suggest a small but possibly nonzero density of Lychrel numbers, with iteration lengths exhibiting growth patterns that resist palindromic formation.^[1] Such findings have implications for generalizations to other bases, though applications to fields like cryptography remain speculative.^[2] As of 2025, no definitive proofs have surfaced, and the existence of Lychrel numbers in base 10 continues to be an open question supported primarily by computational and heuristic evidence.

References

[1]
Lychrel Number -- from Wolfram MathWorld
The first few numbers not known to produce palindromes when applying the 196-algorithm (ie, a reverse-then-add sequence) are sometimes known as Lychrel numbers.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[2]
Is 196 a Lychrel Number? | Scientific American
Oct 1, 2013 · Numbers that do not terminate to a palindromic number after an iterative process of reversing and adding digits are known as Lychrel numbers.
[3]
196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
### Summary of Lychrel Numbers from https://www.p196.org/
[4]
196-an unsolved problem - Explaining Science
Aug 12, 2017 · In 1990, a programmer named John Walker applied 2,415,836 reverse and add steps to 196, no palindrome was found and the final number was a ...
[5]
196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
### Summary of Reverse-and-Add Process from http://www.p196.org/
[6]
196-Algorithm -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Take any positive integer of two digits or more, reverse the digits, and add to the original number. This is the operation of the reverse-then-add sequence.
[7]
[PDF] numerical palindromes and the 196 problem
It is said that repeating this operation eventually leads to a palindrome. Numbers in the sequence derived from 196 however, do not yield a palindrome. This is ...
[8]
Welcome to p196.org! - 196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
It says that there are 249 numbers below 10,000, but we know that almost all of those are iterations of only four Lychrel Numbers. 196, 879, 1997 and 7059 ...
[9]
(PDF) On the Construction of Some Lychrel Numbers - ResearchGate
section. The deﬁned properties also enable us to describe Lychrel candidates above. 10000 as it is shown in the table below. Hence from 13783 which is the ...
[10]
A023108 - OEIS
Also called Lychrel numbers, though the definition of "Lychrel number ... coined "Kin numbers" by Koji Yamashita. There are only 2 "root" Lychrels below ...Missing: discovery | Show results with:discovery
[11]
196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
### Summary of Lychrel Candidates and Related Data
[12]
Terms and Definitions - 196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
Any given Seed and its associated Kin numbers will converge on the same thread. The thread does not include the original Seed or Kin number, but only the ...
[13]
https://p196.org/html/lychrel_records.html
[14]
[PDF] The 196 Palindrome - OU Math
An interesting side note, Wade VanLandingham is the man who coined the term ... Process, Lychrel Numbers, Palindromic Number Conjecture, RATS Sequence, and.
[15]
Lychrel number - Wikipedia
The name "Lychrel" was coined by Wade Van Landingham as a rough anagram of "Cheryl", his girlfriend's first name.
[16]
Three Years Of Computing - Fourmilab
May 25, 1990 · In 1995, Tim Irvin, finding himself in the vicinity of a ... The two million digits he computed are available for you to download.Missing: Lychrel 300 2006
[17]
Lychrel numbers - mathsbyagirl - WordPress.com
Sep 14, 2017 · A Lychrel number is a natural number that cannot form a palindrome by the 196-algorithm: an iterative process of repeatedly reversing a numbers' digits.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[18]
World Records - 196 Palindrome Quest, Most ... - Jason Doucette
A palindrome is something that reads the same forward as it does backward. It originated in the early 17th century from the Greek word palindromos (palíndromos) ...
[19]
Lychrel Numbers in Base 10: A Probabilistic Approach
If a natural number a is not a palindrome, one can eventually obtain a palindrome after the iterative process of reversion and addition with its reverse number.Missing: zeros | Show results with:zeros
[20]
The p196_mpi page
### Summary of Computational Efforts for 196
[21]
196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
### Summary of Milestones for 196 Iterations
[22]
Lychrel Numbers in Base 10: A Probabilistic Approach - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · This paper presents a probabilistic proof of the existence of Lychrel number in base 10 and provides some properties which enable a mathematical extraction of ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[23]
The p196_mpi Implementation of the Reverse-And-Add Algorithm ...
No such computational effort will positively answer the question "is 196 a Lychrel number?". It can only negatively answer, by finding a palindrome ...
[24]
Welcome to p196.org! - 196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
> to try to transcribe it here! > > Base 26: > 1N5ELA6C(n Ps)P6E7(n 0s)0D59ME5N > After 4 iterations, becomes same thing with ...
[25]
196 and Other Lychrel Numbers
### Summary of Known Lychrel Candidates Below 10,000
[26]
[PDF] Are all integers Lychrel or Cheryl's? - HAL
May 22, 2021 · These numbers converge on only two threads. ... It seems to us that the question of the existence of Lychrel numbers is a relatively minor point ...Missing: papers seeds
[27]
Status of the 196 conjecture? - MathOverflow
Dec 23, 2012 · So basically, the rule is that s(x) is a palindrome iff there are no carries in its computation, except in one very specific situation. This ...
[28]
https://doi.org/10.4236/apm.2024.148037