Mango
The mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a drupe fruit borne on an evergreen tree native to tropical South Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent, where it has been cultivated for over 4,000 years.[1] The tree, which can reach heights of 30 meters or more, produces oblong to round fruits characterized by thin, leathery skin enclosing sweet, aromatic, fibrous flesh around a single large, flattened seed.[2] Ranging in size from 150 grams to over 1 kilogram depending on the cultivar, mangoes exhibit diverse colors including green, yellow, orange, and red hues upon ripening.[2] Mango cultivation has spread globally to subtropical and tropical regions, with India remaining the dominant producer, accounting for approximately 40 percent of worldwide output.[3] Over 1,000 cultivars exist, varying in flavor profiles from tangy to intensely sweet, with selections like Alphonso prized for their richness and others like Tommy Atkins favored for commercial shipping durability.[4] The fruit's composition includes high levels of carbohydrates, vitamins A and C, and bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, supporting its consumption fresh, in juices, dried products, and culinary applications across cultures.[5] Nutritionally, a 100-gram serving provides about 60 calories, 1 gram of protein, and significant antioxidant capacity from carotenoids and flavonoids.[5]Etymology and History
Etymology
The English word mango first appeared in the late 16th century, specifically recorded in the 1580s, and derives from the Portuguese term manga.[6] This Portuguese borrowing traces to the Malay mangga, an Austronesian term adopted through regional trade.[6] Ultimately, the root lies in the Dravidian Tamil word māṅkāy (or variants like man-kay or maangai), a compound of mā (referring to the mango tree or its species) and kāy (denoting unripe fruit), reflecting the fruit's common consumption in immature stages in South India.[6] [7] Portuguese traders, active in Indian ports from the early 16th century onward, encountered the fruit in markets along the Malabar Coast and adopted the local Tamil-Malay nomenclature, facilitating its transmission to European languages via maritime routes to Africa, the Americas, and beyond.[8] [7] In parallel linguistic paths, the name influenced variants in other tongues, such as the Keralan mangga, underscoring the fruit's deep ties to the Indian subcontinent where it was long cultivated before global dissemination.[8] The binomial Mangifera indica, coined later by Linnaeus in 1753, incorporates mangi- from the Indian vernacular for mango and Latin fero (to bear), aligning with the etymological emphasis on the tree's fruit-bearing nature.[9]Domestication and Spread
The mango (Mangifera indica) originated in the tropical regions of South Asia, with wild progenitors concentrated in northeastern India, southern Bangladesh, and northwestern Myanmar, where genetic diversity indicates early evolutionary development dating back 25 to 30 million years based on fossil pollen records.[10] Domestication occurred primarily in India over 4,000 years ago through selective propagation of seedlings from wild variants, yielding the fibrous "Indian type" cultivars favored for their flavor and resilience, as evidenced by ancient textual references in Sanskrit literature like the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE) describing mango groves and genetic analyses revealing reduced wild-type traits in modern Indian accessions.[11] [12] Population genomics further suggest a complex domestication history, potentially involving multiple independent events or admixtures, including a distinct non-fibrous "Southeast Asian type" arising from local selection in regions like Myanmar and Thailand, challenging earlier models of singular Indian origin followed by unidirectional spread.[13] [14] Early cultivation expanded across the Indian subcontinent and into Southeast Asia by the 5th to 4th centuries BCE via overland trade routes, with archaeological and textual evidence from Buddhist sites in Myanmar confirming grafted orchards by the 1st century CE.[10] Persian and Arab traders disseminated mangoes westward to the Middle East and East Africa between the 10th and 15th centuries CE, introducing grafting techniques that stabilized varieties for arid climates.[15] European colonial expansion accelerated global spread: Portuguese explorers planted mangoes in Brazil and Portuguese India outposts by the early 16th century, while Spanish settlers introduced them to the Philippines and Mexico around 1520–1550, leading to naturalized populations.[16] By the 18th century, British and French colonists had established commercial groves in the Caribbean (e.g., Barbados in 1742) and Hawaii (introduced 1825), with subsequent dissemination to Florida (1833) and Australia (1870s) via seeds from India and Southeast Asia.[17] Today, mango cultivation spans over 100 countries, producing approximately 50 million metric tons annually, predominantly in Asia (India alone accounts for 40%), reflecting adaptations to subtropical and tropical zones through vegetative propagation and breeding.[18]Botanical Description and Taxonomy
Physical Characteristics
Mangifera indica is a large evergreen tree that typically attains heights of 10 to 30 meters, though mature specimens can exceed 40 meters, with a stout trunk reaching diameters of up to 90 cm to 1.2 meters and rough, greyish-brown bark. The canopy forms a dense, rounded or umbrella-shaped structure, often spanning 10 to 15 meters in width, supported by deep-rooted systems that enable growth in tropical environments.[19][20][21] The leaves are simple, alternate, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, leathery, and glossy dark green, measuring 15-30 cm in length and 3-7 cm in width on mature branches, with longer leaves up to 50 cm possible on sterile shoots; young flushes emerge in brilliant coppery-red or reddish-purple hues before maturing to green.[22][23][21] Flowers are small, 3-5 mm in diameter, fragrant, and range from white to pinkish, arranged in large, many-branched terminal panicles 6-40 cm long that bear 500 to over 3,000 individual blooms per inflorescence, with a high proportion typically staminate.[2] The fruit is an indehiscent drupe, varying from ovoid-oblong to kidney-shaped, 8-20 cm long and 5-10 cm wide, weighing 150 g to over 1 kg depending on cultivar, with a thick, leathery exocarp ripening from dark green to yellow, orange, or red, often with a glaucous bloom. The mesocarp consists of pale yellow to deep orange, juicy, fibrous or fiberless flesh surrounding a single, large, flattened, ovoid-reniform endocarp enclosing the seed, which measures 5-8 cm long.[24][25][21]Taxonomy and Related Species
Mangifera indica L. is classified in the genus Mangifera, family Anacardiaceae (the sumac or cashew family), order Sapindales. The genus comprises approximately 30 species of tropical, mostly evergreen trees bearing drupaceous fruits, with the majority native to Southeast Asia and the Indo-Malayan region.[1] Anacardiaceae encompasses other economically important genera such as Anacardium (cashew) and Rhus (sumac), characterized by resinous sap and often urticating hairs or irritant compounds in leaves or fruits.[26] Within Mangifera, M. indica is the sole species widely cultivated for commercial fruit production, though at least 26 species yield edible fruits harvested locally or in small-scale cultivation.[26] Notable related species include Mangifera foetida (horse mango or bacang), native to Malaysia and Indonesia, which produces large, fibrous fruits with a strong odor used in local cuisines and medicines; Mangifera caesia (binjai or wani), found in Borneo and Sumatra, valued for its sour, juicy aril eaten fresh or processed; and Mangifera odorata (kuweni or kuini), indigenous to Peninsular Malaysia, featuring aromatic, reddish fruits consumed ripe or unripe.[27] These species share M. indica's basic floral and fruit morphology—panicles of small, fragrant flowers yielding single-seeded drupes—but differ in flavor profiles, fiber content, and pest susceptibility, limiting their global adoption.[1] Hybrids between M. indica and congeners like M. foetida have been explored for traits such as disease resistance or dwarfing, though commercial propagation remains centered on M. indica pure lines.[26] Taxonomic revisions within Mangifera continue, with some species like M. altissima (paho) occasionally considered for breeding due to adaptable growth habits in similar tropical habitats.[28]Varieties and Breeding
Major Cultivars
Numerous mango cultivars exist worldwide, exceeding 1,000 varieties, with over 500 documented in India alone.[29] Commercial production favors selections suited for yield, disease resistance, shelf life, and transport, often prioritizing these traits over superior flavor.[30] Prominent global cultivars include Alphonso from India, Tommy Atkins, Kent, and Keitt originating from Florida selections, and Ataulfo from Mexico. The Alphonso cultivar, primarily grown in India's Gujarat, Konkan, and Goa regions, features orange-yellow skin, firm yet melting fiberless pulp, and a sweet taste.[31] Its cultivation traces to the mid-16th century under Portuguese influence, yielding fruits prized for quality despite lower volumes compared to bulk varieties.[32] Tommy Atkins, a seedling of the Haden variety developed in Florida during the 1920s, dominates U.S. imports due to its vibrant red blush over green-orange skin, firm flesh, tart-sweet flavor, and extended shelf life.[33][34] This cultivar's disease resistance and consistent production facilitated its widespread adoption for export markets.[35] Kent mangoes, selected in south Florida in the 1940s from a Brooks parent, exhibit green skin with red blush, oval-oblong shape, and juicy, low-fiber flesh with moderate sweetness.[36][37] Now largely produced in Mexico, Ecuador, and Peru, they average 15-23 cm in length and support significant pulp processing.[38] Keitt, another Florida-derived late-season cultivar, produces large ovoid fruits up to 15-17 cm, with firm, juicy, nearly fiberless flesh offering sweet, fruity notes and citrus aroma.[39][40] Its protracted bloom enables harvests from July through October, enhancing market availability.[41] Ataulfo mangoes from Mexico are small to medium, golden-yellow when ripe, with smooth thin skin, creamy fiberless pulp, and intense honey-like sweetness.[42] Weighing 170-280 g, they maintain uniform shape and appeal for fresh consumption.[43]Hybrids, GMOs, and Genetic Improvements
Mango breeding has primarily relied on conventional hybridization to develop improved varieties with enhanced traits such as disease resistance, regular bearing, dwarf stature, and superior fruit quality including flavor, size, and shelf life.[44] Major programs include the Australian National Mango Breeding Program, established in 1994 as a collaboration among scientific organizations, which focuses on controlled crosses using 'Kensington Pride' as the dominant parent with varieties from India, Florida, and elsewhere to produce genotypes suited to export markets.[45] [46] In Israel, breeding efforts since the mid-20th century have yielded 15 hybrid selections emphasizing peel color, fruit quality, and adaptability.[47] Similar initiatives in India, Brazil, and the Philippines target export-quality traits like uniform ripening and anthracnose resistance, with Philippine research identifying promising selections from hybrid evaluations as of 2022.[48] [49] A key challenge in mango hybridization stems from the distinction between polyembryonic and monoembryonic seed types. Polyembryonic cultivars, common in Southeast Asian varieties, produce multiple seedlings per seed, most of which are nucellar clones genetically identical to the parent, complicating hybrid identification; monoembryonic types, prevalent in Indian and Florida cultivars, yield primarily zygotic embryos suitable for true hybrids but require emasculation and controlled pollination to avoid selfing.[50] [51] Breeding programs address this by using monoembryonic parents as females and employing markers or flow cytometry to distinguish zygotic hybrids from nucellar ones, enabling selection for traits like profuse flowering and reduced alternate bearing.[52] Genetic mapping, including high-density SNP-based consensus maps developed since 2017, facilitates marker-assisted selection for quantitative traits such as fruit weight and anthracnose resistance, accelerating breeding cycles despite the crop's lengthy juvenile phase of 5–10 years.[48] [53] Genetic improvements have advanced through genomic tools, with whole-genome sequencing of cultivars like 'Alphonso' and resequencing of diverse accessions revealing two major varietal groups—tropical and subtropical—with admixture in commercial lines and candidate genes for flowering, fruit size, and polyphenol content.[18] [54] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) as of 2024 have identified loci for population differentiation and traits like yield stability, informing conservation and breeding strategies across global germplasm collections.[53] These tools complement conventional methods by enabling precise introgression of resistance genes, such as those for anthracnose from wild relatives, though adoption remains limited by mango's recalcitrant propagation and heterozygosity.[55] Population genetics analyses of 284 accessions underscore low diversity in elite cultivars, urging broader use of underutilized germplasm to mitigate vulnerabilities like biennial bearing.[56] Genetically modified (GM) mangoes remain in research phases without commercial release, due to technical hurdles like inefficient transformation and regulatory barriers. Efforts focus on Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer via somatic embryogenesis or apical meristem inoculation, achieving transient expression of reporter genes like GFP at rates up to 65% in 2022 studies, targeting traits such as delayed ripening, fungal resistance (e.g., to Colletotrichum spp.), and enhanced flavor via ethylene regulation.[57] [58] In Australia and Israel, genetic engineering explores rootstock modifications for drought tolerance and dwarfing, alongside insect resistance through Bt genes, but polyembryony and long generation times hinder stable transgenic line development.[59] [60] Biotechnological reviews emphasize that while mutation induction and CRISPR-like editing hold potential for precise improvements, field trials are scarce, and no GM varieties have entered cultivation as of 2025, prioritizing instead non-transgenic molecular breeding to address biases in favor of established clonal propagation.[61][62]Natural Distribution and Habitat
Native Origins
The mango (Mangifera indica) is indigenous to the Indo-Burma region, encompassing northeastern India, northwestern Myanmar, and adjacent areas such as the Assam-Chittagong hills and the foothills of the eastern Himalayas bordering the Bay of Bengal.[12][20] Wild populations persist in these forested lowlands and hills, where the species grows naturally in tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen habitats up to elevations of about 600 meters.[20][63] Fossil evidence, including mango leaves from the Miocene epoch, supports an ancient presence in northeastern India, aligning with the region's role as a center of origin for the species.[9] Genetic analyses reveal two primary lineages—"Indian" and "Southeast Asian" types—originating from this core area, with subsequent divergence as the species spread eastward into Malesia, though the highest diversity of wild Mangifera relatives occurs in western Malesia (encompassing parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines).[14] Unlike related Mangifera species extending to the Solomon Islands, M. indica wild forms remain concentrated in its Indo-Burmese homeland, where they exhibit traits like smaller, fibrous fruits compared to modern cultivars.[64][65] Archaeological and textual records indicate human interaction with wild mangos in India dating back over 4,000 years, though true domestication likely occurred later in the Indian subcontinent, transforming the astringent wild fruit into the larger, sweeter varieties known today.[1] The natural distribution's confinement to this biogeographic hotspot underscores M. indica's evolutionary adaptation to monsoon-influenced tropical climates, with limited feral escapes elsewhere due to ecological mismatches.[21][20]Adapted Habitats and Climate Requirements
Mangifera indica thrives in tropical and subtropical climates characterized by warm temperatures and minimal frost risk, allowing adaptation to regions beyond its native South and Southeast Asian range. Optimal growth occurs at temperatures between 24°C and 30°C, with trees tolerating highs up to 48°C but suffering damage below 0°C, particularly during flowering and fruit set.[66][67][2] Mature trees exhibit limited frost tolerance, enduring brief exposures to -3.9°C with minor injury, though young plants and reproductive stages demand protection from temperatures under 4°C.[2] Annual rainfall requirements range from 750 to 2,500 mm, ideally distributed with a pronounced dry season to promote flowering, as excessive humidity during this phase heightens disease susceptibility.[68][69] Trees prefer well-drained loamy soils with good aeration, adapting to pH levels from slightly acidic to neutral, but poor drainage leads to root rot in waterlogged conditions.[70] High humidity above 50% supports vegetative growth, yet cultivation succeeds in semi-arid tropics with supplemental irrigation once established.[71] Adaptation extends to altitudes from sea level to 1,200 m, though commercial viability peaks below 600 m where temperature stability minimizes chilling stress.[68] Successful non-native habitats include subtropical Florida, where frost-free lowlands enable home and orchard production, and Mediterranean-adjacent zones with microclimate management.[2] In higher-latitude projections under warming trends, expansion into areas like southern China or elevated subtropical plateaus shows potential, contingent on irrigation and soil amendments.[72]Cultivation Practices
Propagation and Agronomic Techniques
Mango trees are primarily propagated vegetatively to maintain desirable cultivar traits, as monoembryonic seeds produce genetically variable offspring, while polyembryonic seeds yield mostly true-to-type nucellar seedlings alongside one zygotic embryo.[2][73] Seed propagation involves extracting the kernel from the fibrous husk, planting it concave side down 1 inch deep in well-drained potting soil, with germination occurring in 2-3 weeks and seedlings reaching graftable size (0.25-inch stem diameter) in about 6 months.[73] Polyembryonic rootstocks, such as 'Turpentine', are preferred for their vigor, high-pH soil tolerance, and taproot development, which enhances anchorage in tropical conditions prone to wind damage.[2][74] Grafting is the dominant commercial method, with veneer (side veneer), cleft, and whip-and-tongue techniques achieving high success when performed on young, vigorous rootstock seedlings using scionwood from terminal shoots with swelling buds.[2][73] Chip budding serves as an alternative for smaller rootstocks, while inarching or approach grafting is traditional but labor-intensive.[2] Propagation timing favors winter for grafting onto prior summer-grown rootstocks or warm periods for optimal cambial alignment and healing.[73] Air layering, involving girdling branches and applying auxin like 2% NAA wrapped in moist sphagnum moss, induces roots in 10-12 weeks but yields weak fibrous root systems unsuitable for typhoon-vulnerable areas.[2][74] Agronomic establishment begins with planting grafted saplings in pits prepared before the rainy season, washing roots free of soilless media, staking for the first year, and forming a water-retaining berm around the planting hole.[73] Spacing recommendations vary by vigor: 12-15 feet (3.7-4.6 m) for dwarf or pruned home trees, extending to 25-30 feet (7.6-9.1 m) for vigorous commercial cultivars to accommodate canopy spread and prevent shading.[2][73] Initial irrigation for new plantings entails watering every other day for the first week, then 1-2 times weekly for two months, transitioning to weekly during dry spells for trees under 3 years old.[2] Pruning shapes formative structure post-planting by heading back leaders to promote lateral branching, followed by annual post-harvest removal of dead, crossing, or overcrowded limbs to manage size, enhance light penetration, and stimulate fruiting wood.[2] Mature trees (>25-30 feet) require professional intervention for severe canopy reduction, which may suppress yields for 1-3 seasons due to disrupted flowering cycles.[2] Drip irrigation optimizes water delivery for established orchards, with mature trees needing only supplemental soaking during prolonged droughts to avoid root rot in heavy soils.[2] Top-working via veneer grafting on cut-back trunks enables variety conversion in existing orchards, typically succeeding when performed on vigorously flushing shoots.[2]Soil, Water, and Nutrient Management
Mango trees thrive in well-drained soils such as sandy loams, loams, or light clays, with poor performance in heavy, waterlogged conditions that promote root rot.[2][73] Deep, fertile soils yield higher production and fruit quality compared to shallow or nutrient-poor profiles.[75] Optimal soil pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5, accommodating slightly acidic to neutral conditions while tolerating minor flooding but exhibiting low salinity tolerance.[63][76] In calcareous soils, micronutrient deficiencies necessitate foliar applications of copper, zinc, and manganese during the first four to five years of establishment.[77] Irrigation is essential for young mango trees, with newly planted specimens requiring watering at planting followed by every other day for the first week, then one to two times weekly until established.[2] Mature trees demand supplemental water during dry periods, typically every 10 to 14 days adjusted for rainfall, to support flowering and fruit development without excessive leaching.[78] Irrigation should commence around 50% flowering and continue through late fruit maturity, prioritizing deep, infrequent applications via drip systems to foster root depth and minimize evaporation losses.[79][80] Nutrient management emphasizes balanced NPK formulations, with fertilizers containing 2% to 6% nitrogen, 6% to 10% phosphoric acid, 6% to 12% potash, and 4% to 6% magnesium applied annually for mature trees.[2] Potassium is critical during flowering and early fruit set, while nitrogen splits into two applications, such as in March and October, alongside phosphorus and potash in autumn; farmyard manure or organic amendments enhance soil fertility.[81] For efficiency, fertilizers are placed in 25 cm wide by 25-30 cm deep trenches 2 meters from the trunk base, with micronutrients like zinc and boron addressed via soil or foliar means to counter deficiencies in high-pH soils.[82] Mature trees may receive up to 100 kg farmyard manure, 250 g nitrogen, 160 g phosphorus, and 600 g potassium per tree annually, scaled by age and yield goals.[83]Pests, Diseases, and Integrated Management
Mango trees are susceptible to various insect pests that can reduce yield through direct feeding, sap extraction, and transmission of diseases. Major pests include the mango hopper (Idioscopus clypealis), which infests inflorescences and causes flower drop, leading to up to 40-50% yield losses in severe infestations; tephritid fruit flies (Bactrocera spp.), whose larvae bore into fruits causing premature ripening and rot; mealybugs (Drosicha mangiferae), which excrete honeydew fostering sooty mold; and stem borers (Batocera rufomaculata), which tunnel into trunks weakening trees.[84][85][86] Other notable pests encompass leafhoppers, weevils, thrips, scales, and mites, often proliferating in humid tropical conditions.[87][86] Fungal diseases predominate among mango pathologies, with anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) being the most destructive, manifesting as dark lesions on leaves, blossoms, and fruits, potentially causing 100% losses in unmanaged plantations during wet seasons through flower blight and post-harvest rot.[88][89] Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae) produces white powdery growth on new shoots and panicles, distorting tissues and reducing fruit set, particularly in humid environments.[2] Additional threats include sooty mold from pest honeydew, stem end rot, malformation, and pink disease (Erythricium salmonicolor), which girdles branches in wet tropics.[90][87] Bacterial and viral issues occur less frequently but contribute to overall stress.[91] Integrated pest management (IPM) for mango combines cultural, biological, and chemical tactics to minimize disruptions while targeting thresholds, developed in response to pesticide resistance and environmental concerns since the 1960s.[87] Cultural practices include deep summer ploughing to expose soil-dwelling stages of mealybugs and fruit fly pupae, sanitation via removal of fallen fruits and prunings, and canopy management for airflow to deter fungal spread; ecological engineering deploys border crops like marigold to attract beneficial insects.[92][93] Monitoring employs pheromone traps, such as methyl eugenol lures for fruit flies at 1-2 per hectare, to gauge populations and time interventions.[94] Biological controls leverage natural enemies, including predatory ants for mealybugs and parasitoids for hoppers, alongside biopesticides like azadirachtin sprays pre-harvest.[95][85] Targeted chemical applications, such as copper-based fungicides for anthracnose during flowering or protein hydrolysate baits with malathion for fruit flies, are used sparingly to preserve pollinators and predators, with post-harvest options like hot water dips (46-52°C for 5-15 minutes) or irradiation (400 Gy cobalt-60) for export compliance.[96][94][97] IPM adoption has shown yield stability and reduced input costs in trials, though efficacy depends on region-specific adaptations like resistant cultivars.[98][99]Production and Global Trade
Production Statistics and Trends
India leads global mango production, accounting for approximately 26.3 million tonnes in 2022, representing nearly half of the world's total output.[100] Other major producers include Indonesia with 4.1 million tonnes, China with 3.9 million tonnes, Mexico with 2.7 million tonnes, and Pakistan with about 2.8 million tonnes in recent years.[101][102] Global production of mangoes, often reported alongside guavas and mangosteens, totaled around 62 million tonnes in 2024, with mangoes comprising roughly 75% of that figure.[103][104]| Country | Production (million tonnes) | Year | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| India | 26.3 | 2022 | [100] |
| Indonesia | 4.1 | 2022 | [101] |
| China | 3.9 | 2023 | [102] |
| Mexico | 2.7 | 2023 | [102] |
| Pakistan | 2.8 | 2022 | [101] |
Economic Impacts and Trade Barriers
Mango production significantly contributes to the economies of major producing nations, particularly in Asia and Latin America, by generating employment and foreign exchange earnings. In India, the world's largest producer with approximately 25 million metric tons annually, the sector supports millions of rural livelihoods through cultivation, harvesting, and processing activities, while exports bolster agricultural GDP and contribute to national revenue.[110][111] Similarly, in Pakistan, mango farming drives economic growth by creating jobs in value chains from orchards to export markets, with production emphasizing high-value varieties for international trade.[112] Globally, mango exports reached about 2.3 million tonnes in 2023, valued at roughly $2.34 billion, facilitating income for smallholder farmers in developing countries but concentrated among a few exporters like Mexico, Brazil, and India.[113][114] Trade barriers, primarily non-tariff measures, impose substantial costs on mango exporters from tropical regions, limiting market access to high-value destinations like the United States and European Union. Phytosanitary regulations require treatments such as irradiation (minimum 400 Gy dose) for Indian mangoes entering the US to mitigate pests like fruit flies, increasing processing expenses and reducing competitiveness for small-scale producers.[115] In the EU, mandatory phytosanitary certificates under Regulation (EU) ensure compliance with maximum residue levels (MRLs) for pesticides, often necessitating costly pre-export testing and adaptation of farming practices that disadvantage exporters from countries with less stringent domestic standards.[116] Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards, alongside technical barriers to trade (TBTs), elevate export costs by 10-20% in some cases for Sri Lankan and Indian mangoes, as evidenced by empirical analyses of compliance burdens.[117][118] Tariffs remain relatively low—often under 5% in developed markets—but combined with these NTBs, they perpetuate barriers that favor established exporters with infrastructure for compliance, such as Mexico's proximity and treatment facilities for North American shipments.[119] These restrictions not only curb potential revenue gains for producing nations but also incentivize informal trade or diversion to lower-value regional markets, undermining overall economic benefits from global mango trade.[120]Nutritional Composition
Macronutrients, Vitamins, and Minerals
Mango fruit, particularly when raw and edible, consists mainly of water (approximately 83 g per 100 g), with carbohydrates as the predominant macronutrient at 15 g per 100 g, of which 1.6 g is dietary fiber and 13.7 g comprises sugars primarily as fructose, glucose, and sucrose. Protein levels are modest at 0.82 g per 100 g, while total fat is low at 0.38 g per 100 g, including trace saturated (0.092 g), monounsaturated (0.066 g), and polyunsaturated (0.092 g) fatty acids. These values contribute to an energy content of about 60 kcal per 100 g, reflecting mango's role as a carbohydrate-rich, low-protein, and low-fat fruit.[121][5] Key vitamins in raw mango include vitamin C at 36.4 mg per 100 g (providing roughly 40-60% of the recommended daily value depending on age and sex), vitamin A equivalents from provitamin A carotenoids (such as β-carotene) at 54 µg retinol activity equivalents per 100 g, vitamin E at 0.9 mg, and folate (vitamin B9) at 43 µg. Other B vitamins present in smaller quantities are thiamin (B1) at 0.028 mg, riboflavin (B2) at 0.038 mg, niacin (B3) at 0.669 mg, pantothenic acid (B5) at 0.160 mg, pyridoxine (B6) at 0.119 mg, and biotin in trace amounts. Vitamin content varies by cultivar and maturity, with riper fruits often showing higher provitamin A levels due to carotenoid accumulation.[121][5][122]| Mineral | Amount per 100 g | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Potassium | 168 mg | Primary mineral, supporting electrolyte balance |
| Magnesium | 10 mg | Involved in enzymatic reactions |
| Phosphorus | 14 mg | Contributes to bone health |
| Calcium | 11 mg | Trace levels |
| Iron | 0.16 mg | Non-heme form |
| Copper | 0.111 mg | Aids in iron absorption |
| Zinc | 0.09 mg | Supports immune function |
| Manganese | 0.063 mg | Antioxidant cofactor |
| Selenium | 0.6 µg | Trace antioxidant mineral |
Phytochemicals and Bioactive Compounds
Mango (Mangifera indica) fruit is rich in phytochemicals, including polyphenols, carotenoids, and terpenoids, which exhibit bioactive properties such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.[5] [124] Polyphenols predominate, with concentrations higher in the peel than in the pulp, contributing to the fruit's overall bioactivity.[125] These compounds vary by cultivar, maturity stage, and environmental factors, influencing their extraction and potential applications.[126] Mangiferin, a key xanthone glycoside, is a prominent bioactive compound in mango, particularly in the peel and kernel, where it demonstrates antioxidant, antiviral, and anti-cancer activities in vitro.[127] In Chinese cultivars like Lvpimang, mangiferin reaches up to 7.49 mg/g dry weight (DW) in peel tissue, while pulp levels are lower, ranging from 29.66 to 49.58 µg/g fresh weight in Indian varieties such as Arunika and Dashehari.[128] [129] Gallotannins and gallic acid, hydrolyzable tannins, are also abundant, especially in unripe fruit, supporting antimicrobial and metabolic regulatory functions.[125] Flavonoids including quercetin, kaempferol, and catechins further enhance the polyphenolic profile, with total phenolic content in pulp varying from 79.47 to 183.29 mg/g in leaf cultivars but analogous in fruit extracts.[5] [130] Carotenoids, primarily β-carotene, serve as provitamin A precursors and antioxidants, with levels influenced by harvest date and location; for instance, five varieties across four countries showed β-carotene contents fluctuating significantly over a year, often peaking at maturity.[131] Terpenoids like lupeol, a triterpene, occur in the peel and exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative effects, though quantitative data in fruit is less extensive than for polyphenols.[129] Other bioactives, such as benzophenones and fatty acids in the peel, contribute to the fruit's immunomodulatory potential, underscoring mango's role as a source of diverse, empirically validated compounds.[124] [126]| Compound Class | Key Examples | Typical Concentration (varies by part/variety) | Bioactive Properties |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyphenols | Mangiferin, gallotannins, quercetin | Peel: up to 7.49 mg/g DW; Pulp: 30-50 µg/g FW | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory[128] [129] |
| Carotenoids | β-Carotene | Varies by harvest; peaks at maturity | Provitamin A, antioxidant[131] |
| Terpenoids | Lupeol | Higher in peel; specific pulp data limited | Anti-proliferative[129] |