Manilla
A manilla is a form of commodity money consisting of a metal bracelet or ring, typically made from brass, bronze, or copper, that was widely used as currency in West Africa from the 15th to the early 20th century.[1] These horseshoe-shaped or circular items, often weighing between 50 and 500 grams, functioned as a standardized medium of exchange, particularly in regions along the coast of present-day Nigeria and neighboring areas, where they were valued for their portability, durability, and intrinsic material worth.[2] Introduced initially by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, manillas derived their name from the Latin monilia, meaning "bracelets," and became integral to local economies, including barter systems for goods like cloth, salt, and palm oil.[3] Manillas played a significant role in the transatlantic slave trade, serving as a primary form of payment by European merchants to African intermediaries for enslaved people, with millions imported from Europe—primarily Birmingham, England, and Liège, Belgium—between the 17th and 19th centuries to meet demand.[4] Their value fluctuated based on size, weight, and regional standards, with larger manillas holding higher worth, and they were often melted down for other uses once circulation waned.[2] Production peaked during the colonial era, but as British colonial authorities sought to impose standardized coinage, manillas were gradually demonetized; they ceased to be legal tender in British Nigeria by 1911, and the Manilla Currency Ordinance of 1919 banned their use in foreign trade with locals to facilitate the transition to modern currency.[5] Despite their obsolescence, manillas remain culturally and historically notable as artifacts of pre-colonial and colonial African economic systems, with surviving examples preserved in museums worldwide, highlighting the interplay between global trade networks and indigenous commerce.[6] Their legacy underscores the economic disruptions caused by European intervention in West African societies.Etymology and Origins
Etymology
The term "manilla" originates from the Spanish word manilla, meaning "bracelet," a diminutive form of mano ("hand"), derived from the Latin manus.[7] This etymology reflects the object's form as a wearable ring or cuff, and it is closely related to the Portuguese manilha, also signifying a "hand-ring" or bracelet, which appears in early 16th-century European trade records documenting exchanges along the West African coast.[8] The adoption of these Iberian terms into English and trade vernacular likely occurred through Portuguese and Spanish merchants who introduced standardized metal versions of local jewelry forms during initial contacts in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.[9] The earliest documented use of "manilla" in trade contexts dates to 1505 in logs from Calabar, Nigeria (in the former Kingdom of Calabar), where it was recorded as a unit of exchange for goods such as ivory and captives, with one slave valued at 8–10 manillas and an elephant tusk at one copper manilla.[10] These records, preserved in historical accounts of Portuguese voyages, highlight the term's integration into Atlantic commerce, distinguishing European-produced items from pre-existing indigenous brass rods and rings used in regional barter systems.[10] In West African languages, the term evolved with phonetic adaptations reflecting local phonology and cultural associations. Among the Efik, Ibibio, and related groups in the Calabar region, it is known as okpoko or okpoho, literally meaning "brass" or "money," underscoring its dual role as adornment and currency.[10] In Igbo-speaking communities, similar objects were referred to as ego igwe ("iron money" or "metal wealth"), emphasizing their metallic composition and economic value, though the European-derived "manilla" persisted in trade pidgins.[11] The standard English pronunciation is /məˈnɪlə/, approximating the Spanish maˈniʎa while adapting to anglicized stress.[7]Historical Origins
Theories regarding the pre-European origins of manillas suggest possible influences from ancient Mediterranean trade networks, with some scholars proposing derivations from penannular ring money used by Phoenician or Carthaginian explorers along the West African coast.[12] Additionally, the design of manillas bears similarities to bronze Celtic torcs, rigid neck rings dating back to the European Iron Age around the 8th century BCE, potentially transmitted through ancient maritime contacts or shipwrecks off the Nigerian coast.[12] Archaeological evidence supports the existence of indigenous bracelet-like exchange media in West Africa prior to European contact, indicating that manillas may have evolved from local traditions rather than being entirely novel imports.[12] Portuguese explorers introduced manillas as a trade currency during their voyages along the West African coast in the late 15th century, with the first documented shipments occurring from 1456 onward to facilitate exchanges in regions from Mauretania to the Kingdom of Congo.[13] By the early 16th century, large-scale imports had begun; between 1504 and 1507, Portuguese traders shipped 287,813 manillas from Europe to Guinea via the fort of Elmina (São Jorge da Mina), marking a significant escalation in their circulation as a standardized medium of exchange.[14] Early records illustrate the emerging value of manillas in trade, with historical accounts from the 1490s indicating that a West African slave could be exchanged for approximately 12 to 15 manillas.[15] By 1522, inflation had driven prices higher, as a 16-year-old female slave in Benin fetched around 50 manillas, prompting the Portuguese king to cap slave prices at 40 manillas to curb escalating costs.[10] Manillas rapidly integrated into local economies of the Niger Delta by the 16th century, serving as a versatile currency in areas like Calabar and among the Igbo and Ibibio peoples, often predating intensive European settlement and adapting to indigenous trading practices.[10] This adoption reinforced their role beyond mere barter, embedding them in regional social and economic systems.[16]Physical Characteristics and Types
Materials and Construction
Manillas were primarily made from copper-based alloys, including brass, bronze, and leaded copper, which provided a balance of malleability and durability suitable for use as wearable currency.[17] These alloys typically featured variable compositions, such as brass with 15-30% zinc and up to 35% lead in leaded varieties to facilitate casting and reduce costs.[17][11] Weights generally ranged from 50 to 350 grams per piece, with examples like the Okpoho type around 70-80 grams.[10][18] The design consisted of a cylindrical, open-ring form resembling a bracelet or horseshoe, with diameters typically measuring 6-10 cm for smaller types and thicknesses of 1-2 cm, enabling them to be worn on the wrist or ankle while allowing easy interlocking or division for transactions.[11] This penannular structure, often with flared or bulbous terminals, enhanced portability and aesthetic appeal as jewelry.[17] Manufacturing techniques involved casting, with sand molds used in European production for mass output, while some larger African examples were forged and hammered from imported bars.[19][20] Over time, surface patinas formed due to oxidation from age, handling, and the alloys' compositions, giving pieces a distinctive greenish or brownish hue.[11] For added durability, particularly in larger or African-forged examples, seams were sometimes hammered to strengthen joints and prevent breakage during wear or transport, resulting in finishes that varied from rough and matte to polished and smooth depending on the production stage and intended use.[20]Regional Variations
Manillas displayed notable regional variations across West Africa, shaped by local ethnic groups, trade routes, and manufacturing influences from European producers. These differences manifested in distinct types, each with specific names, forms, and valuations tied to geographic areas, reflecting adaptations to cultural and economic needs.[10][21] In the Bight of Biafra, particularly interior Nigerian markets, the Antony manilla emerged as a heavy brass type, prized for its broad acceptance and often valued equivalently to 10-20 smaller units in local exchanges.[10] Further along the Niger Delta and coastal zones, the Okpoho—translating to "brass" in the Efik language—circulated widely among Efik, Ibibio, and Calabar communities, typically lighter and made of copper or brass for everyday trade, with weights ranging from 71 to 80 grams.[21][22] In Igbo-influenced areas of southeastern Nigeria, the Mkporo type prevailed, featuring ornate, horseshoe-shaped designs with flattened or flared terminals, often in brass, and serving dual roles in commerce and as status symbols.[21][18] Identification of these types presented challenges due to overlapping nomenclature across ethnic boundaries; for instance, "Popo" referred to heavier, rougher variants in Yoruba regions of present-day Benin and Togo, while in Efik areas it denoted French-origin pieces, complicating trade as communities were particular about accepted forms.[10] Valuation frequently hinged on size and regional preference, with larger specimens commanding higher worth—often 2 to 5 times that of smaller ones—irrespective of material uniformity.[18][10] Cultural adaptations further distinguished regional manillas, incorporating tribal-specific engravings or shapes for ceremonial use; Calabar variants, for example, often had pronounced flared ends that facilitated wearing as bracelets to signify wealth or social standing during rituals and marriages.[21][18]| Type | Region/Ethnic Group | Material | Approximate Weight (g) | Relative Value Context |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antony | Interior Nigeria (Biafra) | Brass | 100-200 | High; accepted widely, ~10-20 small units |
| Okpoho | Niger Delta, Calabar (Efik/Ibibio) | Copper/Brass | 71-80 | Medium; daily trade, coastal preference |
| Mkporo | Igbo areas (southeastern Nigeria) | Brass | 200-350 | Variable; larger for status, burial use |
| Popo | Yoruba/Efik regions (Benin/Togo/Nigeria) | Brass/Copper | 80-120 | Regional; heavier for specific markets |